TEACHING AND LEARNING MATERIALS FOR FACULTY.pptx

KISII UNIVERSITY
P. O. BOX 408, KISII, KENYA
www.kisiiuniversity.ac.ke
COMING UP WITH TEACHING
AND LEARNING MATERIALS
Dr. Omosa Elijah Mochama
Lecturer in the Department of Curriculum, Instruction and
Educational Media.
Tel.: +254722346953
Email.: omosae@gmail.com

KISII UNIVERSITY
Pyschological Basis of Utilization of Teaching/Learning Materials
Learning is what remains after what was taught is forgotten
Behaviourists: Learning is the observable behaviour of the learner
Early instructional methods, such as the teaching machine, were
influenced by behaviourist theory - drill and practice encouraged
Cognitive learning theory influenced the development of learning
materials with the introduction of computer-based instruction.
Cognitists see learning as an internal process involving the use of
memory, motivation, and thinking, and that reflection plays an
important part in learning.

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Pyschological Basis of Utilization of T/L Materials contd.
Cognitivists: Learning as an internal process, amount learned
depends on learner’s processing capacity, the amount of effort
expended during the learning process, the quality of the
processing, and the learner’s existing knowledge structure
Constructivists: Learners interpret information and the world
according to their personal reality, and that they learn by
observation, processing, and interpretation, and then
personalize the information into their own worldview

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Gagné et al. (1991) Model has nine types of instructional events:
gain the learner’s attention;
inform the learner of the lesson objectives;
stimulate recall of prior knowledge;
present stimuli with distinctive features to aid in perception;
guide learning to promote semantic encoding;
elicit performance;
provide informative feedback;
assess performance; and
enhance retention and learning transfer.

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New instructional design models are needed to develop
learning materials for delivery on emerging technologies.
According to Jacobs and Dempsey (2002), some emerging
influences that will affect future instructional design include
object-oriented distributed learning environments, the use of
artificial intelligence techniques, cognitive science, and
neuroscience.

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The use of emerging technologies will make it easier to cater to
learners’ individual differences base on determining preferences
Provide learners the opportunity to use their meta-cognitive skills
during the learning process - critical in e-learning (self-paced learning)
Learners should be allowed to construct knowledge vs exposition
Learners should be given the opportunity to reflect and internalize
content
• Interactive learning promotes higher-level learning and social
presence, and personal meaning (Heinich et al., 2002).

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Pyschological Basis of Utilization of TT/L Materials contd.
Use the constructivist approach to learning to allow learners to
explore and personalize the materials during the learning process.
Learning should be project-based to allow learners to experience the
world by doing things
 Mobile technologies facilitate project-based learning
 Simple interfaces prevent cognitive overload. For example, graphic
outlines can be used as interfaces and as navigational tools for
learners.

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Kolb (1984) identifies four learning style types:
1. Divergers are learners who have good people skills - cultivate
harmony.
2. Assimilators like to work with details, and are reflective and
relatively passive during the learning process.
3. Convergers prefer to experiment with, and apply new knowledge
and skills, often by trial and error.
4. Accommodators are risk-takers, who want to apply immediately
what they learn to real-life problems or situations.

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The intelligent learning system should reason about a learner’s
knowledge, monitor progress, and adapt the teaching strategy to
individual’s learning pattern (Woolf, 1987).
 Use visuals at the start of a lesson to present the big picture, before
going into the details of the information.
For the active learners, strategies should provide the opportunity to
immediately apply the knowledge.
To encourage creativity, there must be opportunities to apply what was
learned in real-life situations so that learners can go beyond what was
presented.

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P. O. Box 408, KISII, KENYA
The ASSURE Model in the use of Media
• All effective instructions require careful planning.
• The model therefore proposes six steps or procedures in Systematic Planning for the
Use of Media.
• These were given in the form of
• Acronym ASSURE which means:
• A- Analyse the Learners (Knowledge and skills - pre-requisites, Mastery, Attitude).
• S- State the Objectives (SMART objectives)
• S- Select Media and Materials (Selecting available materials, Modifying)
• U- Utilize Media and Materials
• R- Require the Learners Participation
• E- Evaluate and Revise (how well the learners used material and what to improve).

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FACILITATOR-MADE T/L MATERIALS
• Designing new materials. However, if no alternatives match your needs, then
design your own materials.
• It is much easier and less costly to use available materials and media without
modification than to start from the scratch.
• Certain basic considerations must be taken into account when designing new
materials. These are:
• (i) Objectives. What do you want your students to learn?
• (ii) Audience. What are the characteristics of your audience/learners? Do they
have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from the materials?
• (iii) Cost.Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of supplies
(films, audio tapes, videocassettes and TV sets etc? If not, then you will need to
prepare the materials yourself.
• (iv) Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design and
produce the kind of materials you wish to use?

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•(v) Equipment. Do you have available the necessary equipment
to produce or use the materials you intend to design?
•(vi) Facilities. If your design calls for use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials, are such materials
available?
•(vii) Time. Can you afford to spend whatever time may be
necessary to design and produce the kind of materials you have
in mind?
• (viii) Question What are the basic procedures for selecting,
modifying and designing instructional materials?
•Indicate when each procedure is appropriate.

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•To get the total picture of the entire instructional process
very clearly.
• Ask himself, did the learners meet the objectives?
• Did the media use help in assisting the learners
reaching the objectives? and
• Did all the learners use the materials properly? etc.
•After going through this type of checklist, you are likely
to identify some discrepancies and correct them.

KISII UNIVERSITY
Reasons for designing one’s own media
(i) To ensure that media to be used are objective driven.
(ii) To suite the locale environment of the school
(iii) To make the instructor creative and avoid depending
on other teachers
(iv) To involve learners in assembling and making media
(v) Learner involvement bring about learner creativity.

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Factors to consider when Designing and producing
instuctional media /technologies
• 1) Class size / enrolment
• Size of students to use media
• 2) learner engagement
• Aimed at eliminating learner passivity and ensuring active participation
• 3) Attention grabbing
• Media should grab learners attention thought the lesson
• 4) Knowledge ability: The teacher must be knowledgeable about the use
and operations of the type of non-print media he/she is going to use during
the lesson.
• 5)Accessibility/Availability: The non-print media must be easily accessible
to the learners as well as the teacher.

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6) Age Factor: The teacher must consider the age of the learners who
are going to benefit from the material.
7) Storage and Portability: These must be taken into consideration
because some materials are too heavy, rather expensive, and
cumbersome to be used in the classroom for a single lesson only.
8) Cost Effectiveness: This is quite relevant particularly when
considering the economy of scale and its application in the classroom
particularly in the rural and urban areas.
9)Durability and Size: Some non-print media are foreign manufactured
with instructions written in foreign languages.
10) quality of performance
11) facilitation of learning

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12. learner performance and achievement
• Media should geared towards boosting learner performance and
achievement in measurable learning outcomes
• 13. Enhancement of understanding
• Should aim at boosting learner understanding to get rid of
parroting/cramming/ rote leaning
• 14. quality of performance
• Media should possess qualities of desirable performance
• 15. facilitation of learning
• Media should make the instructor a facilitator of learning process but
not the sole provider of knowledge skills/ values

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Guidelines/ principles for designing media
1. focusing on centre of interest
• Avoid making many centres of interest for they may confuse the
learner..
2. confine yourself to the unique point of view.
• Make sure that your medium is unique to grab and sustain learners
attention in the teaching n lerning process.
• Make it simple and appealing
3. maintain stability and uniformity
• Ensure that all parts of your medium are stable an d uniform.
4. consider size and specification of your medium

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Stages of designing an instructional media
1 Analyse learner characteristics- look at the learner’s entry
behaviour, age
2 State objectives
3. Assemble materials
4. Formulate the text or story board- a series of pictures or even
5. Production
6. Involvement and action
7. Using media in instruction

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Locating Sources of Audio Visual Materials:
• Having discussed most of the audio visual resources, we have seen that some of them could be
designed and produced by the teacher and the learners as well.
• It is therefore advisable to note that the following materials are also available at the following
locations:
• The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE)
• The British Council Libraries
• Teachers Advisory Centers
• The Kenya National library Services
• Learning Resource Centers of any Local Teachers Training Colleges.
• Community Media Centers.
• Media Centers in Other Schools.
• Community Resources available within the locality such as factories.

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TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA: Teaching practice
• Two- Dimensional Media or Graphic Instructional Materials
• Are teaching and learning materials that are distinguished by length and height only.
Width/thickness is negligible
• Examples include, Graphic instructional materials or simply graphics, maps, charts,
photographs and diagrams.
• Graphic materials have always been among the most useful and versatile aids at the disposal of
a teacher.
• Their general benefits are that:
• 1. They are relatively inexpensive and may be obtained at little or no cost,
• 2. They are easy to use as they require no equipment or hardware,
• 3. They are applicable to all subject areas in the curriculum and at different levels of
education.

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Kinds of Graphic Instructional Materials
• Graphic materials include: charts, diagram, graphs, posters, maps, and cartoons
and comics, pictures and photographs.
1. Charts- A chart is a combination of pictorial, numerical or verbal materials designed
to present a clear visual summary of an important process or set of relationships.
• Depending on the information presented on a chart, charts can be classified into the
following groups:
• 1. Classification charts, are used to classify or categorize object, events and so on; for
example, taxonomy of animals, parts of speech, foods and the like.
2. Flow or process charts, show a sequence, procedure or as the name implies the
flow of a process. These charts are usually presented on a horizontal format.
3. Relationship or organizational charts, they show a chain of command in an
organization; for example, a company or a government department.

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4. Tabulation charts, usually display information in form of a table; for
example a time table, a scheme of work and so on.
5. Chronology charts, show time relationships or historical sequence of
events.
6. flip-chart. A flip-chart comprises a pad of large sized paper fastened
together at the top. The individual sheets each holds/presents a limited
verbal/visual message that is arranged for a sequential presentation to a
group of people.

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2. Diagrams, Drawings and Sketches
• Diagrams, drawings and sketches mean more or less the same things; in general however, a
diagram is a more finished representation than a sketch.
• A diagram can be defined as a drawing illustrating the main features of an object, process or
area.
3. Graphs- A graph is a visual representation of numerical data. It usually allows people to grasp
quickly and accurately the masses of statistical data.
• Forms of graphs include: line graphs, bar graphs, circle graphs, or pie-charts.
• The form of graph you choose will depend on the complexity of the information you wish to
present and the level of your audience.
4. Maps- A map is a flat representation of some or the entire earth’s surface on a scale.
• Maps may be used to show many kinds of information; for example, surface features, places
and their directions and distances, scientific data such as ocean currents, socio-cultural factors
such as population and language patterns, boundaries, and economic data.

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5. Posters- A poster is a visual combination of bold design and colour and/or a brief written
message.
• It is meant to instantly catch attention and convey the message.
• Usually, a poster deals with one idea at a time.
• It must also be clear and large enough to be read from a good distance.
6. Cartoons and Comics- A cartoon uses satire, caricature or exaggeration to represent
pictorially ideas, persons, groups or situations.
• It is serious in intent and has the power to capture attention and influence behaviour. Most
cartoons have the following features: minimal details, familiar symbols and characters and
stereotypes that are quickly recognized and understood.
• Cartoons can prove to be very useful tools in a number of subject areas in the
• school curriculum; particularly, languages and social studies. In social studies, for
• instance, cartoons have proved to be an effective means of motivating current events
discussions and examining different political views.
• A comic is a form of cartoon in which characters enact a story in a sequence.

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• Production Considerations of graphics
• The effectiveness of any graphic material is largely dependent on its production
• Quality
• The guidelines composition/layout, lettering and illustrations.
• (i) Composition/Layout
• 1. Select appropriate size of working area. The area should be large enough to be seen by
• the entire class/audience.
• 2. Consider whether the information is better suited with the working surface positioned
horizontally or vertically(portrait or landscape).
• 3. Choose for presentation only the major points since only few points can realistically be
shown in a graphic material.
• 4. Use as much of the working area as possible, leaving only a reasonable margin around the
area.
• 5. Work out the general layout on the area faintly in pencil first before adding colour.

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(ii) Lettering
1. Make use of horizontal guidelines drawn faintly in pencil. These should
help mark the heights of letters.
2. Lower case (small) letters when used together with upper case (capital)
letters are usually half the height of capitals.
3. Some lower case letters (with descenders) extend downwards and some
(with ascenders) extend upwards to heights equal to that of their bodies.
4. Lines between sentences should be far apart so that ascenders and
descenders do not touch.
5. Space between words should be about one letter space and between
sentences about two letter spaces.
6 Use simple and bold lettering style.
7. Use colour and if this is not available then underline for emphasis.

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• (iii) Illustrations
• Illustrations could comprise photographs, drawings, paintings,
diagrams, maps or actual specimens.
1. Their quality will depend largely on their clarity and suitability for the
intended purpose.
2. Drawings and diagrams should be simple and bold.
3. Make use of colour, it adds realism as well as attraction to a given
work.
4. Select harmonious and effective colour.
5. For accuracy, reduction or enlargement of pictures, make use of such
methods as grid, projection and templates if necessary.

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Criteria for Good Graphics
A good graphic material should be:
1. Clear in that, its production technique brings out the message
clearly.
2. Precise in that, the message is straight forward.
3. Accurate in that, the information presented is authentic in all
respects.
4. Simple in that, it is not loaded with unnecessary details.
5. Bold in that, it is big enough to be seen at a good distance.
6. Readable in that, it can be interpreted by the intended audience.
7. Interesting in that, it is well made, attractive to look at, tidy and
well-preserved.

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Three-Dimensional Media
• Types of three dimensional materials include: have length, width and height.
1. objects, real things or specimens (Realia),
2. models in general, and
3. special types of models (Dioramas and Mock-ups).
1. Objects or Real Things
• An object is a real thing.
• The technical term for objects in Educational Technology is- realia.
• Specimens, on the other hand, are objects that are representative of a group or class of
similar objects. a specimen in Biology, for instance, would be say an animal or plant
used to exemplify say a species or a variety.
• Real things are effective for teaching and learning because they make the learning
situation more concrete and authentic, interesting and provide for a more detailed
close-up study.

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Factors to consider when making models
1. Ensure that your model is a three-dimensional media thus
length, width and height
2. similarity/exactness if a model is to be either an enlargement or
reduction of the object it represents, enlargement or reduction to
be done using same scale factor
3. ensure the interior of the objects are reflected or seen in the
model
4.Only the important or needed features are reflected or seen in
the model

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• Examples of things or objects that can be used for instructional
purposes include: rock collections, soil types, animals and plants
whether whole or parts, man-made items like traditional artifacts
and machines, types of foods, etc
• Other collectables that can be used for learning include: pressed
flowers, mounted insects and butterflies, recepies, rocks and stones,
pictures, postcards and photographs, and newspaper articles.
• In the case of pictures and newspaper articles, a keen teacher will find
it useful to open thematic files on a variety of topics ordinarily covered
in his/her subject

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Models
• Models are related to objects in that they are 3-D impressions or representations of things
or objects.
• Models are 3-D equivalents of things and objects as drawings and pictures are 2-D
equivalents.
• Characteristics of models are that:
1. They are three-dimensional in that they posses height, length and width as opposed to 2-D
which possess only height and length.
2. They can reduce or enlarge objects to an observable size.
3. They can provide an interior view of some objects.
4. They simplify complex objects and help in explaining them.
5. They accent or emphasize important features by say adding colour or texture to the
significant parts.
7. They can be made, if so desired, in a way that they can be assembled and reassembled as
the case of a model of the heart.

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Mock-ups
• A mock-up is an operating model usually at full scale designed to be worked with directly by
the learner for specific training.
• Mock-ups have many applications in training such as in the training of pilots, first aid work,
and so on.
• Dioramas
• A diorama is usually set up on a miniature stage with a group of modelled objects and figures
in the foreground which is blended into a realistically painted background.
• A diorama can be used by a teacher to for example teach how layout such scenes as an ideal
farm or a traditional African village.
• Dioramas are often used in agricultural shows, in museums and by architects.
• They can be used in language teaching to help learners construct sentences, or to teach
traffic rules to driver-trainees, among other uses.

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Examples of materials for modelling include:
• (i) carton boxes,
• (ii) package paper,
• (iii) wood scraps,
• (iv) pieces of cloth,
• (v) coat hangers,
• (vi) clay for pottery,
• (vii) plastic bottles,
• (viii) styrofoam,
• (ix) These include: paints, glues, thinners, varnish and so on.
• One would also need tools to work some of the materials;
these include woodwork, leather work and metal work tools

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Multimedia systems
• Is the mixing, synchronizing and sequencing of several media elements
together.
• MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTIONS
Mayor (2009) pg 3 defines multimedia as the presentation of material
using both words and pictures with the intetion of promoting learning
oClerk and mayor(2009) conclude that there are three key assumptions
underlined the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
I. Human beings process separate channels for processing visual and
auditory information it requires the teacher that ensures the learner
sees in addition to learning this justifies using image or video to make
the learner to understand better

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• ELEMENTS OF MULTIMEDIA
• They have all existed before
• Multimedia combines this elements into a powerful new especialy in hands of teachers and
learners
• Interactive multimedia brings together five types of media into the learning environment
• This elements are :texts(written words)
• ;sound(audio)
• :video(images)
• :graphics
• :animations
• (1) TEXT out all the elements texts has the most impact on the quality of multimedia
interaction
• Provides important information
• Acts as a keystone typing all the other media elements together
• Must be well written to make a multimedia communication in any teaching and learning
events.

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• (4) Graphics
• Include tables, diagrams, charts, photographs etc
• (5) Animation
• Make of models, toys among others
• Process of making films, movies, videos and computer games in which
drawings or models of people and animals
• Used to indicate changes of state over time or to present information
slowly to the learners so as to enable them assimilate subject matter
in smaller chunks
• Enable learners to view different versions of change over time
depending on different variables.

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Advantages of using multimedia
• 1. learners acquire understanding of complex information such as
when presented in stages
• 2. Allow learners to achieve concept development in other words,
multimedia foster or enhance constructive concept dvpt.
• 3. Make teachers facilitators and provide opportunities for them to
work with individual learners
• 4. It emphasis learner-centred approach in teaching and learning
environments
• 5. Its interactive hence it enriches the teaching and learning process

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Hands- on Activity
Pair-think and share
Identify a topic in one of your areas of specialization.
• (i) State two objectives
• (ii) Design and narrate an instructional media.. It may be
(a) 3 Dimensional media
(b) 2 Dimensional media
(c) Digital instructional media.

KISII UNIVERSITY | P. O. BOX 408, KISII, KENYA | www.kisiiuniversity.ac.ke
END OF PRESENTATION
THANK YOU AND GOOD LUCK
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