The document outlines research methodology, defining research as a systematic effort to gain new knowledge through scientific methods. It discusses the objectives, motivations, and utilities of research, along with characteristics and various theoretical concepts like deductive and inductive reasoning. The document emphasizes the importance of empirical evidence, the role of variables, and the criteria for good research while also addressing the challenges faced in the research process.

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. Meaning
 Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical
problems through the application of scientific method.
“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
-Redman and Mory.
 “Is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem.” - Fred Kerlinger.
 “ Is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or
relationships and to expand and to verify existing knowledge”.
- Francis Rummel.
 “Is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the
purpose of gaining knowledge. - Robert Rose
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested.

3. Common meaning of RM
Common meaning of RM
• Research is an art of scientific investigation
• It is a movement from the known to
unknown.
• It is a systematic method of finding solution
to a problem.
• Search for knowledge through objective.
• It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison & experiment.

4. Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of
scientific procedures.
The objectives are:
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it –
Exploratory or Formulative Research.
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group – Descriptive Research.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables – Hypothesis-
Testing Research.

5. • It extends, verifies or corrects knowledge. It
answer question such as what, when,
where, why and how?
• It enables us to have a better understanding
of our world.
• It establishes generalizations and laws and
thereby contributes to building of verifiable
and sound theories.
• Research initiates, formulates, deflect and
clarifies theory.

6. • It helps delineate causal relationships and
enables better control over events.
• It helps develop new tools, theories and
concepts to better comprehend unknown
aspects of life and the physical world.
• It aids in purposive planning at the national
level and thus promotes national
development.
• It throws up facts and relevant data to
support informed decision making. It enables
testing of alternative approach to an issue of
interest.

7. Motivation
Motivation
• Desire to understand the cause-effect
relationship of some social phenomenon.
• Desire to discover new theories concepts and
techniques in order to gain knowledge more
efficiently & with in a short time.
• Both curiosity & necessity may be the
important motivating factors of research.
• Understanding, analyzing and explanation of
social phenomenon are primary motivating
factors.

8. Utility of Research
Utility of Research
• Research is an aid to decision making.
• Research facilitates the process of thinking, analysis,
evaluation, and interpretation of the business environment,
and of the various business situation.
• Research provides a basis for innovation.
• Research and developments helps to develop new products
and to modify the existing product.
• Research identifies problem areas.
• Research establishes the relationship not only between
variables in each functional area, but also between the
various functional areas.

9. • Research is an aid to forecasting which is an
effective tool in the hands of manager.
• Research helps all the managerial functions.
• Research helps in the economic utilization of
resources.
• Research is an aid to management information
system.
• Research is helpful in the formulation of policy
and strategy.
• Market and marketing analysis may be based on
research.

10. Characteristics of Research
Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
Research demands accurate observation and description.
Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation,
search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.
Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the
data collected and conclusions reached.
Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
Research requires courage.
Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
Research is carefully recorded and reported.

11. Concept of Theory
Concept of Theory
• EMPIRICISM- Is said to denote observations and propositions
based on sense experience and/or derived from such
experience by methods of inductive logic, including
mathematics and statistics.”
Empirical research relies on experience or observation. It is
database research coming up with conclusions, which can be
verified by experimentation. The evidence collected through
experimentation or empirical studies is considered to be the
most powerful support for a given hypothesis.
Empirical research emphasizes facts and daily experiences or
observations, often at the cost of neglecting theory.

12. DEDUCTIVE THEORY
DEDUCTIVE THEORY
• Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive-
the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reason given.
These reasons are said to imply the conclusion and to
represent a proof. This is a much stronger and different bond
between reasons and conclusion than is found with induction.
• For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true & valid –that
is the reason given for the conclusion must agree with he real
world .
• Deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be
false if the reason are true.
Ex- reason- 1.John is a regular employee.
reason- 2. All regular employees can be trusted.
Conclusion – John can be trusted.

13. Deductive Research Approach
Deductive Research Approach
@ Deductive reasoning work
From the more general to the
More specific.
@ Sometime this is
Informally called a
“Top-down” approach.
@ Conclusion follows
Logically from available
Facts.
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

14. INDUCTIVE THEORY
INDUCTIVE THEORY
• Inductive argument is radically different. There is no
such strength of relationship between reasons and
conclusions in induction. To induce is to draw a
conclusion from one or more particular facts or
pieces of evidence. The conclusion explains the
facts, and the facts support the conclusion.
ex- Conclusion- Light bulb has burned out.
Reason 1.- The light should go on when you push the switch.
Reason 2.- If the bulb is burned out, the light will not function.

15. Inductive Research Approach
Inductive Research Approach
@ Moving from specific observations
to broader generalizations and
theories.
@ Conclusion is likely based on
facts.
@ Involves a degree of uncertainty.
@ This is like “Bottom up” approach.
THEORY
TENTATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
PATTERN
OBSERVATION

16. Deductive VS Inductive
Deductive VS Inductive
• Induction is usually described as moving
from the specific to the general, while
deduction begins with the general and
ends with the specific.
• Arguments based on laws, rules and
accepted principles are generally used for
Deductive reasoning, observation tend to
be used for inductive Arguments.

17. SCIENTIFIC
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
METHOD
 ‘
‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organized
Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organized
knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire
knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire
knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.
knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.
 Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts)
Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts)
and their theoretical treatment through proper observation,
and their theoretical treatment through proper observation,
experimentation and interpretation.
experimentation and interpretation.
 Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic
Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and
interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination
of these three in varying proportions.
of these three in varying proportions.

18. CHARACTERISTIC OF SCIENTIFIC
CHARACTERISTIC OF SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
METHOD
 It relies on empirical evidence.
It relies on empirical evidence.
 It utilizes relevant concepts.
It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective
It is committed to only objective
considerations.
considerations.
 It results into probabilistic predictions.
It results into probabilistic predictions.
 The methodology is made known.
The methodology is made known.
 Aims at formulating scientific theories.
Aims at formulating scientific theories.

19. Concepts :-
Concepts :-
• Concepts are logical constructions or abstractions
created from sense impressions, and experiences.
• Concept are the symbols that sciences works with,
they constitute the linguistic apparatus of science.
• A concept is a word which is so constructed and
defined that observation become possible.
• It is an idea that is expressed in words.
• It consist of both a word and a definition.
• Concept name possible or imagined properties of
things, people or event.
• The role of concept is to establish some kind of link
with the social world.

20. • Concept ‘group’ refers to plurality of persons having
direct or indirect communication, standardized
patterns of interactions, common goals, shared
norms and some degree of interdependence.
• Concept is a word or a set of words that express a
general idea concerning the nature of something or
the relations between things, often providing a
category for the classification of phenomena.
• Concept are regarded very important in the
theoretical framework that sets a context for the
research, as being involved in the statement of
research problem, as determining the data that will
be collected and how they will be categorized, and
as being essential in describing the findings.

21. • A concept is bundle of meaning or
characteristics associated with certain events,
objects, conditions, situations, and like
classifying & categorizing object or events that
have common characteristics beyond the single
observation create concept.
Ex- a sociologist makes a statement : “Disorganized
families produce more crime”
Ex- Social integration- the attachment of a person to
groups.
Ex- Social Change- is the modification in established
patterns of social relationships, social institution,
social roles, social systems.

22. Ex- social growth- is quantitative change ( change in no.
of agriculture production)
Ex- Development- is qualitative change ( Increase in
literacy, reduction in poverty, increase in employment.)
Ex- Personality, Family, Marriage, Crowd, Social action,
Adjustment, movement, Caste, Class. All are concepts
of behavioral sciences.
Sometimes in defining one concept, other words are
used.
Ex- Intelligence may be defined as ‘Mental activity’.
- Weight may be defined as ‘Heaviness of object’.
Ex- religiously – its dimensions could be religiosity
beliefs, practice, emotions, understanding, effects.

23. Sources of concept
Sources of concept
According to Norman B. concept come from four
sources.
1. A theoretical perspective that is dominant
within a discipline or social scientific
community. ( e.g. Conflict Theory )
2. A specific research problem. (e.g. Political
corruption)
3. Commonly used theoretical concepts that are
given a new definition (e.g. social class.)
4. Everyday concept that are given precise
meanings ( e.g. Crowd)

24. The Construct :-
The Construct :-
• A construct is a concept devised to aid an scientific analysis
and generalizations.
• A construct is generally inferred from an observable
phenomenon.
• It is an abstraction from reality, selecting & focusing on certain
aspects of reality and ignoring others.
• A construct is also a concept with the added meaning of having
been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a
special scientific purpose.
Ex- Intelligence is a concept &
Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a scientific construct which
enables a behavioral scientist to measure the intelligence of a
person.

25. • As a scientific construct, the concept enters
into theoretical schemes and is related in
various ways to other constructs.
• In sociology a few ex of constructs are-
Status, Role, Modernization, System,
Structure.
Ex- social class- if defined in terms of social status is
defined by using indices like occupation, income &
education or by combination of all three. This is
measured variable.

26. The Variable
The Variable
• A variable is characteristic that takes on two
or more values
• It is a characteristic that is common to a
number of individuals, groups, events, object,
etc.
Ex- Gender is a variable consisting of two categories of
Male & Female.
The variables selected for analysis are called
The variables selected for analysis are called
explanatory variables and all other variables that are
explanatory variables and all other variables that are
not related to the purpose of the study but may affect
not related to the purpose of the study but may affect
the dependant variable are extraneous.
the dependant variable are extraneous.

27. Types of Variables
Types of Variables
• Dependent & Independent
• Experimental & Measured
• Discrete & Continuous
• Qualitative & Quantitative
• Categorical & Numerical

28. Dependent & Independent
Dependent & Independent
• Independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent
variable the presumed effect.
• The independent variable thus is one which explain or accounts
for variations in the dependent variable.
• A dependent variable is one which changes in relationship to
changes in another variable.
• An independent variable is one whose change results in the
change in another variable.
Ex- A teacher want to know which method of teaching is more
effective in the students understanding.
- Lecture method, Question- Answer method, Visual method or
combination of two or more of these methods.
Variable which is dependent in one study can be independent in
another.

29. Experimental & Measured
Experimental & Measured
The experimental variables spell out the details
of the investigator’s manipulations.
Ex – Study on factors affecting student’s achievement
( high or low marks)
The measured variables refer to measurement
Ex- Rural development (M V ) may be assessed in terms
of increase in income, literacy level, infrastructure
etc.

30. Qualitative & Quantitative
Qualitative & Quantitative
• The Quantitative variable is one whose values or
categories consist of numbers and if differences
between its categories can be expressed
numerically.
Ex- Age, Income, Size
The Qualitative variable is one which consists of
discreet categories rather than numerical units. This
variable has two or more categories that are
distinguished from each other.
Ex- Class ( lower, middle, upper)
Gender ( Male, Female )

31. Categorical & Numerical
Categorical & Numerical
Categorical and Numerical variables used for
Qualitative & Quantitative variables.
Ex- ( Occupation, Religion, Caste, Gender, Education,
Income ) are made up of sets of categories or
attributes which must follow two rules.
The categories must be distinct from one another.
Numerical variables are broken down into units in
which the numbers used carry mathematical
meaning.
The numbers may be either Discrete or
Continuous that is in some order / sequence.

32.  Purpose clearly defined.
 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

33. QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
• Systematic
Systematic
• Logical
Logical
• Empirical
Empirical
• Replicable
Replicable
• Creative
Creative
• Use of multiple methods
Use of multiple methods

34. ♪ EXPLORATION
EXPLORATION
♪ DESCRIBE
DESCRIBE
♪ DIAGNOSE
DIAGNOSE
♪ HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
♪ INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
NEED FOR RESEARCH
NEED FOR RESEARCH

35. SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
 RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING
RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING
 Throws light on risks and uncertainty
Throws light on risks and uncertainty
 Identify alternative courses of action
Identify alternative courses of action
 Helps in economic use of resources
Helps in economic use of resources
 Helps in project identification
Helps in project identification

36.  Solves investment problems
Solves investment problems
 Solves pricing problems
Solves pricing problems
 Solves allocation problems
Solves allocation problems
 Solves decision making issues in HR
Solves decision making issues in HR
 Solves various operational and planning
Solves various operational and planning
problems of business and industry
problems of business and industry

37.  Provides the basis for all government policies in
Provides the basis for all government policies in
our economic system.
our economic system.
 Helps social scientists in studying social
Helps social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various
relationships and in seeking answers to various
social problems.
social problems.
 For students, research means a careerism or a
For students, research means a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social
way to attain a high position in the social
structure.
structure.
 For professionals in research, it may mean a
For professionals in research, it may mean a
source of livelihood.
source of livelihood.

38.  For philosophers and thinkers, research means
For philosophers and thinkers, research means
the outlet for new ideas and insights.
the outlet for new ideas and insights.
 For literary men and women, research means
For literary men and women, research means
development of new styles and creative work.
development of new styles and creative work.
 For analysts and intellectuals, research means
For analysts and intellectuals, research means
generalizations of new theories.
generalizations of new theories.

39. PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
 Not similar to science
 Uncontrollable variables
 Human tendencies
 Time and money
 Lack of computerization
 Lack of scientific training in the methodology of
research

40.  Insufficient interaction between university
research departments and business
establishments
 Lack of confidence on the part of business units
to give information
 Lack of code of conduct
 Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance
assistance

41.  Poor library management and functioning
Poor library management and functioning
 Difficulty of timely availability of published data.
Difficulty of timely availability of published data.
 Ignorance
Ignorance
 Research for the sake of research-limited practical
Research for the sake of research-limited practical
utility though they may use high sounding
utility though they may use high sounding
business jargon.
business jargon.

42. ROLE OF RESEARCH
ROLE OF RESEARCH
IN
IN
DECISION-MAKING
DECISION-MAKING
♪ Decision-making is the process of selecting the best
Decision-making is the process of selecting the best
alternative from the available set of alternatives.
alternative from the available set of alternatives.
♪ Management is chiefly concerned with decision-
Management is chiefly concerned with decision-
making and its implementation.
making and its implementation.
♪ These decisions should be based on appropriate
These decisions should be based on appropriate
studies, evaluations and observations.
studies, evaluations and observations.
♪ Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed
Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed
to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a
to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a
fast paced decision-making environment.
fast paced decision-making environment.

43. According to Herbert A Simon,
decision-making involves three activities:
 Intelligence Activity - scanning the
environment for identifying conditions necessary
for the decision.
 Designing Activity - identifying, developing
and analyzing the alternative courses of action.
 Choice Activity - choosing the best course of
action from among the alternatives.

44. FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL
FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL
DECISIONS
DECISIONS
 INTERNAL FACTORS
INTERNAL FACTORS – factors present inside an
– factors present inside an
organisation such as resources, technology, trade
organisation such as resources, technology, trade
unions, cash flow, manpower etc.
unions, cash flow, manpower etc.
 EXTERNAL FACTORS
EXTERNAL FACTORS – factors present outside the
– factors present outside the
organisation such as government policies, political
organisation such as government policies, political
factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework,
factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework,
geographic and cultural factors etc.
geographic and cultural factors etc.
 QUANTITATIVE FACTORS
QUANTITATIVE FACTORS – factors that can be
– factors that can be
measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost
measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost
factors etc.
factors etc.

45.  QUALITATIVE FACTORS
QUALITATIVE FACTORS – factors that cannot be
– factors that cannot be
measured in quantities such as organizational
measured in quantities such as organizational
cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of
cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of
technological change etc.
technological change etc.
 UNCERTAINITY FACTORS
UNCERTAINITY FACTORS – factors which cannot
– factors which cannot
be predicted.
be predicted.

46. TYPES OF RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research
Descriptive vs. Analytical Research
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research is a fact finding
is a fact finding
investigation which is aimed at describing the
investigation which is aimed at describing the
characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or)
characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or)
describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.
describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.
Analytical Research
Analytical Research is primarily
is primarily
concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and
concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and
interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or
interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or
information already available.
information already available.

47.  Applied vs Fundamental Research
Applied vs Fundamental Research
Applied Research
Applied Research or Action Research is
or Action Research is
carried out to find solution to a real life problem
carried out to find solution to a real life problem
requiring an action or policy decision.
requiring an action or policy decision.
Fundamental Research
Fundamental Research which is also
which is also
known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the
known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the
sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice.
practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual
It is undertaken out of intellectual
curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.
curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.

48.  Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is employed for
is employed for
measuring the quantity or amount of a particular
measuring the quantity or amount of a particular
phenomena by the use of statistical analysis.
phenomena by the use of statistical analysis.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is a non-
is a non-
quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding
quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding
out the quality of a particular phenomenon.
out the quality of a particular phenomenon.

49.  Conceptual vs Empirical Research
Conceptual vs Empirical Research
Conceptual Research
Conceptual Research is generally used
is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical Research
Empirical Research is a data based
is a data based
research which depends on experience or observation
research which depends on experience or observation
alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions
alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions
without due regard for system and theory.
without due regard for system and theory.

50. Some other types of research..
Some other types of research..
 One-time Research
One-time Research – Research confined to a single
– Research confined to a single
time period.
time period.
 Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over
– Research carried on over
several time periods.
several time periods.
 Diagnostic Research
Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research
– It is also called clinical research
which aims at identifying the causes of a problem,
which aims at identifying the causes of a problem,
frequency with which it occurs and the possible
frequency with which it occurs and the possible
solutions for it.
solutions for it.
 Exploratory Research
Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of
– It is the preliminary study of
an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has
an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge. It is aimed
little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity
to gain familiarity
with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a
with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a
precise formulation of the problem.
precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also
Hence it is also
known as formulative research.
known as formulative research.

51.  Experimental Research
Experimental Research – It is designed to assess the
– It is designed to assess the
effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by
effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or controlled.
keeping the other variables constant or controlled.
 Historical Research
Historical Research – It is the study of past records
– It is the study of past records
and other information sources, with a view to find the
and other information sources, with a view to find the
origin and development of a phenomenon and to
origin and development of a phenomenon and to
discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand
discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand
the present and to anticipate the future.
the present and to anticipate the future.

52. RESEARCH PROCESS
RESEARCH PROCESS
Define
Research
Problem
Review
Concepts
And
theories
Review
Previous
Research
findings
Formulate
hypothesis
Design
Research
(Including
Sample
Design)
Collect
Data
(Execution)
Analyse
Data
(Test
Hypothesis
if any)
Interpret
and
report
FF
F
F F
FF
I
II
III IV V VI VII
F
FF
Feed Back
Feed Forward
Review the literature

53. DEFINITION
DEFINITION
OF THE
OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCH PROBLEM
STEP-1

54. RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCH PROBLEM
What is a research problem?
What is a research problem?
 The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be
The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be
examined.
examined.
 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need
Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need
which a researcher experiences in the context of either
which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
solution for the same.

55. HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Customer complaints
Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behaviour or
Observation of inappropriate behaviour or
conditions
conditions in the firm
in the firm
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,
Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
regulations)
 Company records and reports
Company records and reports.
.

56. The first step in the research process –
The first step in the research process – definition
definition
of the problem
of the problem involves two activities:
involves two activities:
Identification / Selection of the Problem
Identification / Selection of the Problem
Formulation of the Problem
Formulation of the Problem

57. IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE
IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCH PROBLEM
 This step involves identification of a few
This step involves identification of a few
problems and selection of one out of them, after
problems and selection of one out of them, after
evaluating the alternatives against certain selection
evaluating the alternatives against certain selection
criteria.
criteria.

58. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
 Reading
Reading
 Academic Experience
Academic Experience
 Daily Experience
Daily Experience
 Exposure to Field Situations
Exposure to Field Situations
 Consultations
Consultations
 Research
Research
 Intuition
Intuition

59. CRITERIA OF SELECTION
CRITERIA OF SELECTION
The selection of one appropriate researchable
The selection of one appropriate researchable
problem out of the identified problems requires
problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain
evaluation of those alternatives against certain
criteria. They are:
criteria. They are:
 Internal / Personal criteria
Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,
– Researcher’s Interest,
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors
External Criteria or Factors – Research ability of the
– Research ability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.
Relevance, Research Personnel.

60. DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE
DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCH PROBLEM
 Formulation is the process of refining the research
Formulation is the process of refining the research
ideas into research questions and objectives.
ideas into research questions and objectives.
 Formulation means translating and transforming the
Formulation means translating and transforming the
selected research problem/topic/idea into a
selected research problem/topic/idea into a
scientifically researchable question. It is concerned
scientifically researchable question. It is concerned
with specifying exactly what the research problem is.
with specifying exactly what the research problem is.

61.  Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear,
Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear,
precise and statement of the question or issue that is to
precise and statement of the question or issue that is to
be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
solution.
solution.
 There are two ways of stating a problem:
There are two ways of stating a problem:
1)
1) Posting question / questions
Posting question / questions
2)
2) Making declarative statement / statements
Making declarative statement / statements

62. PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE
PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A
GENERAL WAY.
GENERAL WAY.

63. UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of
UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE
SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE
LITERATURE
LITERATURE

64. DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH
DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH
DISCUSSIONS
DISCUSSIONS
REPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
REPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

65. CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
 Clear and Unambiguous
Clear and Unambiguous
 Empirical
Empirical
 Verifiable
Verifiable
 Interesting
Interesting
 Novel and Original
Novel and Original
 Availability of Guidance
Availability of Guidance

66. Statement of
Research Objectives
Defining Problem, Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives..
Analysis of
the Situation
Symptom Detection
Problem Definition

67. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
 Research Objectives are the specific components of
Research Objectives are the specific components of
the research problem, that you’ll be working to
the research problem, that you’ll be working to
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall
research problem. - Churchill, 2001
research problem. - Churchill, 2001
 The objectives refers to the questions to be
The objectives refers to the questions to be
answered through the study. They indicate what we
answered through the study. They indicate what we
are trying to get from the study or the expected
are trying to get from the study or the expected
results / outcome of the study.
results / outcome of the study.

68. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable,
Research Objectives should be clear and achievable,
as they directly assist in answering the research
as they directly assist in answering the research
problem.
problem.
 The objectives may be specified in the form of
The objectives may be specified in the form of
either statements or questions.
either statements or questions.
 Generally, they are written as statements, using the
Generally, they are written as statements, using the
word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

69. REVIEW
REVIEW
OF
OF
LITERATURE
LITERATURE
STEP-2

70. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 Literature Review is the documentation of a
Literature Review is the documentation of a
comprehensive review of the published and
comprehensive review of the published and
unpublished work from secondary sources of data in
unpublished work from secondary sources of data in
the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
 The aim is to find out problems that are already
The aim is to find out problems that are already
investigated and those that need further investigation.
investigated and those that need further investigation.

71. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 It is an extensive survey of all available past studies
It is an extensive survey of all available past studies
relevant to the field of investigation.
relevant to the field of investigation.
 It gives us knowledge about what others have found
It gives us knowledge about what others have found
out in the related field of study and how they have
out in the related field of study and how they have
done so.
done so.

72. PURPOSE OF REVIEW
PURPOSE OF REVIEW
 To gain a background knowledge of the research
To gain a background knowledge of the research
topic.
topic.
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
relationships between them and to formulate
relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.
researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design,
To identify appropriate methodology, research design,
methods of measuring concepts and techniques of
methods of measuring concepts and techniques of
analysis.
analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.
To learn how others structured their reports.

73. How to conduct the Literature
How to conduct the Literature
Survey?
Survey?
Identify the relevant sources.
Identify the relevant sources.
Extract and Record relevant information.
Extract and Record relevant information.
Write-up the Literature Review.
Write-up the Literature Review.

74. SOURCES OF LITERATURE
SOURCES OF LITERATURE
 Books and Journals
Books and Journals
 Electronic Databases
Electronic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Abstract Databases
Abstract Databases
Full-Text Databases
Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis
Research Dissertations / Thesis

75. RECORDING THE LITERATURE
RECORDING THE LITERATURE
The most suitable method of recording
The most suitable method of recording
notes is the
notes is the card system.
card system.
The recording system involves use of two
The recording system involves use of two
sets of cards:
sets of cards:
Source cards
Source cards (3”x 5”) – used for noting
(3”x 5”) – used for noting
bibliographic information.
bibliographic information.
Note cards
Note cards (5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking.
(5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking.

76. SOURCE CARDS
SOURCE CARDS
Source Cards serve two purposes:
Source Cards serve two purposes:
a)
a) Provide documentary information for foot
Provide documentary information for foot
notes.
notes.
b)
b) It is used for compiling bibliography to be
It is used for compiling bibliography to be
given at the end of the report.
given at the end of the report.

77. SOURCE CARDS
SOURCE CARDS
Source Cards can be coded by a simple system
Source Cards can be coded by a simple system
inorder to relate them to the corresponding note cards.
inorder to relate them to the corresponding note cards.
1)
1) Marking a combination of letters and a number on
Marking a combination of letters and a number on
the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For
the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For
example; C1, C2 etc.
example; C1, C2 etc.
OR
OR
2)
2) Marking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books,
Marking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books,
J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.
J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.

78. SOURCE CARDS
SOURCE CARDS
The recording of bibliographic information should
The recording of bibliographic information should
be made in proper bibliographic format.
be made in proper bibliographic format.
The format for citing a book is:
The format for citing a book is:
Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of
Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of
publication, Publisher’s name.
publication, Publisher’s name.
For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management,
For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management,
New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International.
New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International.
The format for citing a journal article is:
The format for citing a journal article is:
Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal
Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal
name, Volume (number), pages.
name, Volume (number), pages.
For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial
For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial
Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

79. NOTE CARDS
NOTE CARDS
Detailed Information extracted from a
Detailed Information extracted from a
printed source is recorded on the note cards.
printed source is recorded on the note cards.
It is desirable to note a single fact or idea on
It is desirable to note a single fact or idea on
each card, on one side only.
each card, on one side only.

80. How to write the review?
How to write the review?
There are several ways of presenting the ideas of
There are several ways of presenting the ideas of
others within the body of the paper.
others within the body of the paper.
For Example; If you are referring the major
For Example; If you are referring the major
influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial
influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial
Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,
Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,
1)
1)Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a
Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a
number of influencing factors ……..
number of influencing factors ……..
2)
2)According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial
According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial
buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing
buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing
factors……..
factors……..

81. How to write the review?
How to write the review?
3)
3)In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).
there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).
4)
4)In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors
there are a number of influencing factors1
1
.
.
1.
1. Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying
Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying
Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

82. Points to be kept in mind while
Points to be kept in mind while
reviewing literature..
reviewing literature..
Read relevant literature.
Read relevant literature.
Refer original works.
Refer original works.
Read with comprehension.
Read with comprehension.
Read in time.
Read in time.
Index the literature.
Index the literature.

83. FORMULATION
FORMULATION
OF
OF
HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
STEP-3

84. VARIABLES
VARIABLES
 Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.
Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.
 A variable is anything that can take on differing or
A variable is anything that can take on differing or
varying values.
varying values.
For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism,
For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism,
Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.
Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.
Note:
Note: The values can differ at various times for the
The values can differ at various times for the
same object or person (or) at the same time for different
same object or person (or) at the same time for different
objects or persons.
objects or persons.

85. Variable / Attribute
Variable / Attribute
A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more
A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more
values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a
values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a
variable (qualitative).
variable (qualitative).
For example;
For example;
 The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male
The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male
and Female.
and Female.
 The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –
The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –
Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree.
Disagree.

86. Types of Variables
Types of Variables
 Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.
 Dependant vs Independent Variable
Dependant vs Independent Variable
The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called
another variable(s) is called dependant variable
dependant variable.
.
The variable whose change results in the change in another
The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an
variable is called an independent variable
independent variable.
.
OR
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the
An independent variable is the one that influences the
dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.
dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.

87. HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that
Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an
relates an independent variable
independent variable to a
to a dependant
dependant
variable.
variable.
Hypothesis must contain at least one
Hypothesis must contain at least one
independent variable and one dependant variable.
independent variable and one dependant variable.

88. HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
 Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the
Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the
solution of the problem.
solution of the problem.
 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It
Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It
describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen
describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen
in the study.
in the study.
 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of
Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of
the study.
the study.
 It delimits the area of research and keeps the
It delimits the area of research and keeps the
researcher on the right track.
researcher on the right track.

89. HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
 A hypothesis is an assumption about
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations
relations
between
between variables.
variables.
 Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured
Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured
relationship
relationship between two or more
between two or more variables
variables expressed
expressed
in the form of a testable statement.
in the form of a testable statement.
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of
the network of associations established in the
the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework
theoretical framework formulated for the research
formulated for the research
study.
study.

90. HYPO – under or below
Thesis- a reasoned theory or rational
It is defined as a proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to
guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the
light of established facts.
Hypothesis is a summary temporary and imaginary related to subject
of study.
by- George Caswell
Hypothesis is an attempt at explanation a provisional supposition
made in order to explain scientifically some fact or phenomenon.

91. PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS
PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS
 Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and
Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and
can be proved to be right or wrong.
can be proved to be right or wrong.
 A problem is a broad question which cannot be
A problem is a broad question which cannot be
directly tested. A problem can be scientifically
directly tested. A problem can be scientifically
investigated after converting it into a form of
investigated after converting it into a form of
hypothesis.
hypothesis.

92. CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
 Conceptual Clarity
Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.
- It should be clear and precise.
 Specificity
Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
- It should be specific and limited in scope.
 Consistency
Consistency - It should be consistent with the
- It should be consistent with the
objectives of research & with most known facts.
objectives of research & with most known facts.
 Testability
Testability - It should be capable of being tested.
- It should be capable of being tested.
 Expectancy
Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships
- It should state the expected relationships
between variables.
between variables.

93. CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
 Simplicity
Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in
- It should be stated as far as possible in
simple terms.
simple terms.
 Objectivity
Objectivity - It should not include value judgments,
- It should not include value judgments,
relative terms or any moral preaching.
relative terms or any moral preaching.
 Theoretical Relevance
Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a
- It should be consistent with a
substantial body of established or known facts or existing
substantial body of established or known facts or existing
theory.
theory.
 Availability of Techniques
Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should
– Statistical methods should
be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.
be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

94.  Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.
problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.
 Examination of data and records for possible trends,
Examination of data and records for possible trends,
peculiarities.
peculiarities.
 Review of similar studies.
Review of similar studies.
 Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
 Logical deduction from the existing theory.
Logical deduction from the existing theory.
 Continuity of research.
Continuity of research.
 Intuition and personal experience.
Intuition and personal experience.
 Researcher’s own thought, views, imagination, sentiments
Researcher’s own thought, views, imagination, sentiments
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

95.  Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the
characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a
variable. The variable may be an object, person,
organisation, situation or event.
Examples:
 “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized
planning”.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

96.  Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one
variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The
first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is
the dependant variable.
 Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]
These are assumptions that describe the relationship
between two variables. The relationship suggested may be
positive, negative or causal relationship.
Examples:
 “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.
 “Foreign goods are perceived by Indian consumers to be of
better quality than domestic goods.”

97. Testing of Hypothesis
Testing of Hypothesis
The Testing of hypothesis is a branch of statistics which
helps in arriving at the criterion for a decision making.
The theory of testing of hypothesis was initiated by J.
Neyman & E.S. Pearson and employs statistical
techniques to arrive at decisions in certain situation
where there is an element of uncertainty on the basis of
a sample whose size is fixed in advance.

98. Statistical
Statistical Hypothesis
Hypothesis
A statistical Hypothesis is some assumption or statement,
which may or may not be true, about a population or
about the probability distribution, which we want to test
on the basis of the evidence from a random sample.
1. If the hypothesis completely specifies the population,
then it is simple Hypothesis
2. Otherwise it is known as composite Hypothesis.
A test of statistical hypothesis is a two-action decision after
observing a random sample from the given population
acceptance or rejection.

99.  Null Hypothesis
When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null
hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’
hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the
parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship
exists between the variables being compared.
It is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection
under the assumption this it is true.
It is usually represented as HO or H0 .
Example:
 H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation.

100. Types of Errors in testing of Hypothesis
Types of Errors in testing of Hypothesis
In any test procedure, the four possible outcome –
1. Reject Ho when actually it is not true.
2. Accept Ho when it is true.
3. Reject Ho when it is true.
4. Accept Ho when it is false.
Thus in testing of hypothesis we are likely to commit two
types of errors.
1.Type I Error- the error of rejecting Ho when Ho is true . It
means by rejecting a true null hypothesis.
2.Type II Error- the error of accepting Ho when Ho is false
(i.e. H1 is true). It means by accepting a wrong null
hypothesis.

101.  Alternate Hypothesis
It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s
prediction that, there exist a relationship between two
variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is
represented as HA or H1.
Example:
HA: There is a definite relationship between
family’s income and expenditure on recreation.

102. FORMS OF
FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS
RELATIONSHIPS
NON-
NON-
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
• There IS a
There IS a
relationship
relationship
between X & Y
between X & Y
• X….linked….Y
X….linked….Y
Vs DIRECTIONAL
Vs DIRECTIONAL
• If X goes up, Y …
If X goes up, Y …
or
or
• As X increases, Y…
As X increases, Y…
• X = Independent variable
X = Independent variable
• Y = Dependent variable
Y = Dependent variable

103. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-
“X” causes “Y” to change
“X” causes “Y” to change
• If X changes
If X changes
(increases
(increases
decreases)
decreases)
then
then
• Y will ______
Y will ______
(increase or
(increase or
decrease)
decrease)
• a causal link
a causal link

104. DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP
DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP
• If X increases, Y increases
If X increases, Y increases
A
A POSITIVE
POSITIVE relationship
relationship
• If X increase, Y decreases
If X increase, Y decreases
A
A NEGATIVE
NEGATIVE or
or INVERSE
INVERSE relationship
relationship
• As X changes, Y does NOT change..
As X changes, Y does NOT change..
No Change...>
No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIP
NO RELATIONSHIP

105. NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES
- the weakest form
- the weakest form
• There Is
There Is
a relationship
a relationship
between X & Y
between X & Y
– non-causal
non-causal
– correlational statement
correlational statement
– X…..Y
X…..Y

106. Positive correlation
Positive correlation
When the values of
When the values of
TWO variables
TWO variables
“
“go together”
go together”
or
or
values on X & Y
values on X & Y
change in SAME
change in SAME
DIRECTION
DIRECTION 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Hr
work
Earnin
gs
CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP
CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

107. Negative Correlation
Negative Correlation
• When the values of two
When the values of two
variables CO-VARY
variables CO-VARY
in Opposite direction
in Opposite direction
(as one goes up,
(as one goes up,
the other goes down)
the other goes down)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Hrs
work
Earnin
gs

108. Qualities of good HYPOTHESIS
Qualities of good HYPOTHESIS
 It gives a definite point to the investigation and
provides direction to the study.
 It determines the data needs.
 It specifies the sources of data.
 It suggests which type of research is likely to be more
appropriate.
 It determines the most appropriate technique of
analysis.
 It contributes to the development of theory.