The document outlines a module for an exit exam in psychology, defining psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, and detailing its four main goals: description, explanation, prediction, and control. It reviews early and modern schools of thought such as structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism, as well as branches of psychology including developmental, educational, and clinical psychology. Additionally, it discusses learning theories, particularly operant conditioning, emphasizing the importance of reinforcement in behavioral change.

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COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT
MODULE FOR EXIT EXAM (FIRST DRAFT)
PREPARED BY:
MOY TOPO (MA)
ABATE ASHENAFI (MA)
APRIL, 2024
JINKA, ETHIOPIA

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COURSE NAME:
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Meaning and Definition of Psychology
What is Psychology?
The term psychology was coined from two Greek words: Psyche meaning “soul” and logos
meaning “science”. The subject matter of psychology was shifted to the systematic study of
behaviour by J.B. Watson in 1878-1958. At present, psychology is defined as the scientific study
of human behaviour and mental processes. When we examine the above definition of
psychology, we can have three basic terms (i.e. science, behaviour and mental processes).
Science: - is a systematized body of knowledge which yields information by gathered
information through careful observation, experimentation, measuring and recording of events.
Behaviour: - whatever a person does that can be observed or overt activity.
Mental processes: - are mental activities like thinking, remembering, reasoning, perceiving
1.2. Goals of Psychology
As a science, psychology has four goals; description, explanation, prediction, and control.
Description: Description involves observing the behavior and noticing everything about it. It is a
search for answers for questions like ‗What is happening?‘ ‗Where does it happen? ‘‗To whom
does it happen?‘ And ‗under what circumstances does it seem to happen? For example, a teacher
might notice that a young freshman girl in his/her general psychology classroom is behaving
oddly. She is not turning to her homework, her results are slipping badly, and she seems to have
a very negative attitude toward the course. Explanation: Why is it happening? Explanation is
about trying to find reasons for the observed behavior. This helps in the process of forming
theories of behavior (A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts). For
instance in the above example, to find out why the girl is doing all those things, the teacher
would most likely ask her parents about her home background, her friends and the like and may
come to an understanding that this girl was behaving the way she did because she was given
attention (in a way reward) by other people when she used to behave oddly. Prediction:
prediction is about determining what will happen in the future. In the above example, the case of
the freshman girl, the psychologist or counselor would predict (based on previous research into
similar situations) that this girl may never be able to reach her full learning potential.

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Control: How can it be changed? Control or modify or change the behavior from undesirable
one (such as failing in school) to a desirable one (such as academic success). In the example
above, certain learning strategies can be used to help the girl so that she will be successful in her
academic endeavor. Control can also be used in the sense that a psychologist tries to check out
the effects of certain undesirable factors in examining the relationship between two or more
behaviors. For example, in studying the relationship between intelligence and academic
performance in freshman courses, a psychologist needs to control the effect of socio-economic
status of the family.
1.3 Early and Modern perspectives in psychology
1.3.1. Early Approach
The growth of Psychology was marked by the emergency of different schools of thought or early
perspectives in psychology. These perspectives are structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis,
behaviourism and Gestalt psychology.
A. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879, in Leipzig
University of Germany. He believed that psychology is the study of “mental content of human
mind.” The structure of conscious experience (consciousness), he believed, could be broken
down into basic elements and compounds in the same way that in chemistry one can describe the
structure of water or air. Structuralists analyzed complex mental experience (conscious
experience) putting into three basic elements: images (used to describe experiences not actually
present), feelings (love, fear, joy, dislike etc) and sensations (sight, sound, smell, test, and touch
which arise from stimulation of sense organs). Structuralists devised a technique known as
Introspection to study elements of consciousness. Introspection is a method of asking people to
report what goes in their mind as they perform some activity and experience a particular object
or event.
B. Functionalism
In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James (1842-1910) promoted a school of
thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the
function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James was highly influenced by
Darwin’s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive

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purpose. Functionalists used introspection and quantified (objective) observational method of
research.
C. Behaviourism
John B. Watson (1879-1956) shifted the attention of the study of psychology from non-
observable behaviour content of mind (unlike the former too) to then strictly measurable and
observable behaviour of human beings. Overt behaviour (the observable activity) is the one that
must be dealt with. Behaviourism rejects the influence of heredity in shaping human behaviour,
they believe on the influence of the environment.
Methods used by Behaviourists were:
• Conditioning –which involves making response to stimuli?
• Nurture-which is the environmental influence to behaviour.
D. Gestalt psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) and his colleagues developed the gestalt view in 1912. Having the
German word gestalt to mean “form” or “configuration” or “whole”, this view believes that
psychology depends on what we perceive by giving meaning to our environmental encounters.
By patterning, organizing (i.e.by giving shape to) the external elements in our mind, we best
understand the world around us. Gestalt psychologists also describe the subject of psychology
based on their principles, which says “the whole matters more than its parts”. The method used
by the followers of this school of thought was experimentation.
E. Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed the idea of psychoanalysis by basing himself on the
experiences he got from his neurologically sick patients. Psychoanalysis mainly deals with the
study of unconscious which is one of the three layers of consciousness. They are:
• Conscious-what we are aware of now.
• Subconscious-the immediate past and the easily accessible part of consciousness.
• Unconscious- the hidden part where the actual personality is formed.
Since sexual and aggressive urges are the ones that drive a person to live, for Freud, and since
both are taboos in the society, human beings suppress these impulses in their unconscious and
yet highly influenced by them. Childhood aversive experiences are also suppressed in here.
Methods used were hypnosis, dream analysis, catharsis and also extensive case study of patients.

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1.3.2. Modern Approach
A. The Behaviourist View
The direction of the modern behaviourism is a little bit different from what J. B. Watson first
intended. However, this one also rejects the contribution of heredity in making up personality. In
the modern behaviourist approach, every element of personality is learned or acquired from the
world we live. So, if behaviour is rewarded, the likelihood that it is exhibited repeatedly is high.
This is how human beings learn to live and to cope up with their environment. Therefore, a key
factor in learning is reinforcing behaviour. Which is one among the majorly used behaviourist
principle. E.L. Thorndike also calls this “the low of effect” that states that behaviours followed
by a positive outcome are repeated while those followed by a negative outcome or none at all
extinguished.
B. The Biological Approach
According to this view, behaviour is the result of genetic endowment, the material we inherited
from our biological parents and ancestors. For this reason, all the inner biological processing
within us, like the juices secreted from the different glands in the body chemistry and the works
of the nervous system shape the behavioural characteristics of human beings.
C. The cognitive approach
Cognition is defined as mental processing in making relationships, comparisons & contrasts,
reasoning & logic, inferences and judgments, conclusion, etc. The cognitive approach or
perspective combines the Gestalt and Behaviourist approach of psychology. Like Gestalt
psychologists, they emphasize on the active role of mind in organizing perceptions in processing
information, and interpreting experiences. Thus, cognitive psychologists infer mental processes
from observable behaviours. They believe mental processes (thought, feelings) affect behaviour
(Jean Piaget).Perception of the external world by incoming information via our sensory receptors
into our brain and their processing is the underlined concept behind the approach.
D. The Humanistic View
Faced with a choice between psychoanalysis and behaviourism, many psychologists in the 1950s
and 1960s sensed a void in psychology conception of human nature. Freud had drawn attention
to the darker forces of the unconscious, and Skinner was interested only in the effects of
reinforcement on observable behaviour. Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire to
understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and

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growth. An alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviourism, humanistic psychology became
known as .the third force.
The humanistic movement was led by American psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. According to Rogers, all humans are born with a drive to achieve their full capacity and
to behave in ways that are consistent with their true selves. At about the same time, Maslow
theorized that all people are motivated to fulfil a hierarchy of needs. At the bottom of the
hierarchy are basic physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep. Further up the
hierarchy are needs for safety and security, needs for belonging and love, and esteem-related
needs for status and achievement. Once these needs are met, Maslow believed, people strive for
self-actualization, the ultimate state of personal fulfilment. As Maslow put it, .A musician must
make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is ultimately to be at peace with
himself.
1.4 Branches of psychology
At present time, psychology is being used in almost all aspects of human life as it is very helpful
to understand and improve the existing conditions. It has a number of specialty/branches. Some
important branches of psychology are listed below:
1. Developmental Psychology: It is the branch of psychology that studies the development of
human beings from conception through various stages till death?
2. Educational Psychology: It is the branch of psychology that applies psychological findings to
help to improve curriculum, teaching methods and administrative procedures, learning teaching
environment. It is the study of the psychological aspects of educational settings. Educational
psychologists are usually involved with more general and less immediate problems.
3. School Psychology: It applies psychological knowledge to help individuals to improve their
academic performance and social behaviour of students in elementary, junior, and high schools.
School psychologists deal primarily with individual children, teachers, and parents in an effort to
asses and resolve academic/learning and emotional problems.
4. Clinical psychology: It applies psychological knowledge to the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of mental illness, and other emotional/behavioural (psychological) disorders. E.g
Clinical psychologists can treat highly assaultive children. They are more likely to work in
mental hospitals, juvenile and adult courts, medical schools and prisons.

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5. Counselling psychology: It applies psychological knowledge to help individuals in dealing
with many personal problems of daily life.eg counselling psychologists assist individuals in
career planning, and in developing more effective interpersonal skills.
6. Health psychology: It applies psychological knowledge to the prevention and treatment of
physical illness. Psychologists have known for many years that emotional conditions such as
stress or depression often play a major role in development of physical illness such as ulcer, skin
diseases, stomach disorder, infectious diseases, and probably even cancer.
Health psychologists are also interested in such areas as assessing the psychological and physical
effects of stress, developing programs to help people reduce stress in their lives, studying coping
strategies for dealing with serious or characteristics illness, evaluating the impact psychological
factors on diseases such as cancer, and seeking to identify the factors that motivates people to
engage in health threatening activities such as smoking, overeating and under eating.
7. Personality psychology: It focuses on factors accounting for difference in behaviour and
enduring personal characteristics among individuals.
8. Social psychology: Studies how people affect one another’s thoughts, feelings and
behaviours. How we think about and interact with others.
9. Industrial-Organizational psychology: It applies psychological knowledge to increase
productivity in businesses, industries and governmental agencies.
Industrial/Organizational psychologists work to increase productivity by improving working
conditions, methods for hiring and training employees, and management techniques of
administrators.
10. Forensic psychology: It uses psychological knowledge and skill to improve the legal
activities in the legal system, including the work of juries.
11. Cross-cultural psychology: It examines the similarities and differences among various
cultures in psychological functioning. The influences of one cultural group practice over the
individual’s adaptive behaviour in a new situation.
12. Community psychology: Is one among the branches of psychology that applies
psychological knowledge to address and resolve social problem /issues that affects the
community well-being. They also treat people with psychological problems within the
community, initiate community action and develop community programs to enhance mental
health.

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Unit 3
Learning and Theories of Learning
What is learning?
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioural change or
potential behavioural change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or
behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of learning affects
our behaviour, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviourism. The central idea
behind behaviourism is that only observable behaviours are worthy of research since other
abstraction such as a person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective.
Behavioural Psychology is basically interested in how our behaviour results from the stimuli
both in the environment and within ourselves. They study, often in minute detail, the
behaviours we exhibit while controlling for as many other variables as possible.
According to different psychologists learning can be defined in different ways. As a result, it is
very difficult to give a universally acceptable definition of learning due to difference in
theoretical perspectives. However, the most widely accepted definitions of learning is the one
that takes into account the opposing views of different theoretical groups is given in the
following ways.
"Learning is a relatively enduring change in an individual's behaviour or knowledge which is a
function of experience and practice,” (Melvin H. Marx cited in Chauhan1978).
The analyses of the above definition have the following attributes. They are:
1. Learning is a change in behaviour or knowledge. This change may be for better or worth.
2. Learning cannot be directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual
because, it is an internal mental process.
3. Learning results in some change of enduring nature or relatively permanent modifications in
behaviour. The term typically does not include temporary (short term) changes in behaviour
that are due to factors other than learning, such as decline in performance resulting from
illness, fatigue, lack of effort or use of intoxicants.
4. Learning is a result of practice or experience. It tried to distinguish between long-lasting
performance change due to practice or experience through interaction with the environments.
5. Learning depends on interest or individual motivation to understand

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1. Operant theory of learning
Operant Conditioning was pioneered by American psychologist, B. F. Skinner. An emphasis on
environmental consequences is at the heart of Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental
Conditioning), the second type of conditioning studied by Behaviourists. The term "Operant"
refers to how an organism operates on the environment, and hence, operant conditioning comes
from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can be thought of as
learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
Reinforcement
The term reinforcement refers to any process that strengthens a particular behaviour or which
increases the probability of a specific response - that is, increases the chances that the behaviour
will occur again. For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a
care for every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand sitting when
instructed to do so. There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative.
A. Positive reinforcement: is a method of strengthening behaviour by following it with a
pleasant stimulus or favourable events.
B. Negative Reinforcement: is a method of strengthening behaviour by following it with
the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus or the removal of unfavourable
events.
Reinforcement Schedules
In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning
process. A reinforcement schedule is a rule that specifies the timing and frequency of reinforcers.
When and how often we reinforce behaviour can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate
of the desired response. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific
situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous Reinforcement: - In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is
reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial
stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behaviour and the

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response. Once the response is firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial
reinforcement schedule.
2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: - In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced
only part of the time, if the desired behaviour occurs. Skinner soon tried rewarding only
some instances of the desired response and not others—a schedule known as partial
reinforcement.
Partial reinforcements are based either on the ratio of the behaviour of the organism or on
elapsed time; they can be set either at a fixed rate or can vary according to a randomized
program. Partial reinforcement schedules are often more important to strengthen already
established habits and behaviour.
There are two main types of partial reinforcement schedules:
I. Ratio Schedules:- refers to the reinforcement given by considering the number of responses
made. It is categorized as fixed-ratio and variable ratio.
A) Fixed-Ratio Schedules: - are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified
number of responses are made. Individuals receive a reinforcer each time they make a fixed
number of responses. For example, A rat might receive a food at every third time it picked a
key: here, for a fixed ratio of 1:3, every third behavior will be rewarded. This type of schedule
usually produces a stop-and-go pattern of responding: This schedule produces a high, steady rate
of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
B) Variable-ratio Schedule: - occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable
number of responses are made. Individuals must also make a number of responses before
receiving a reinforcer, but the number is variable and unpredictable. Slot machines, Instant
lottery, Bingo and other forms of gambling are examples of variable-ratio schedules. Behaviours
reinforced on these schedules tend to occur at a rapid, steady rate, with few pauses. Thus, many
people will drop coins into a slot machine over and over again on the chance of winning the
jackpot, which serves as the reinforcer.
II interval schedule: in interval schedule reinforcement is given by considering the amount of
time that elapsed or passes between reinforcers. It categorized in to fixed-interval and variable
interval schedule.
A) Fixed-interval schedule:- Individuals receive reinforcement for their response only after a
fixed amount of time elapsed or passed since the last reinforcement. For example, in Skinner’s

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experiment the rat going to rewarded after every 5 minute passed, at least five minute must
elapse between the deliveries of the reinforcer. Any responses that occur before five minute has
passed have no effect. The overall response rates are relatively low. Because the response rate
increase as the time for reinforcement approaches, then drops after reinforcement. Students
watch the clock only occasionally at the start of a class period, but they watch more and more as
the end of the period gets nearer.
B) Variable-interval schedules: - means that reinforcers will be distributed after a varying
amount of time, if a desired behaviour occurs. It requires the passage of time before providing
reinforcement, but the amount of time is variable and unpredictable. Behaviour on these
schedules tends to be steady, but slower than on ratio schedules. Because the organism do not
knows (in terms of time, or “interval”) when the reinforcement will arrive. For example, a person
trying to call someone whose phone line is busy may redial every few minutes until the call gets
through.
Unit 2
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
3.1. Meaning and nature of memory
Memory is the retention of information over time. Psychologists study how information is
initially placed, or encoded into memory, how it is retained, or stored after being encoded, and
how it is found, or retrieved for a certain purpose later. The processes of encoding, storing,
retrieving information are necessary for the memory to operate successfully; they do not describe
the specific manner in which material is entered into memory. The memory systems vary in
terms of their function, the length of the time information is retained and their capacity to retain
information.
Memory and information processing: Similar steps are required in the information processing
of computers. Information is encoded (entered in some form the computer is able to use), then;
stored on disk, and later retrieved on the screen. You would not be able to retrieve the material if
you had failed to enter it, if a power failure occurred before you could save what you had
entered, or if you forgot which disk or file contained the needed information. Of course, human
memory is far more complex than even the most advanced computer systems, but computer
processing provides a useful analogy to memory, if not taken too literally.
3.2. Processes of memory

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What must occur to enable us to remember a friend's name, a fact from history, or an incident
from our past? The act of remembering requires the successful completion of three processes:
encoding, storage, and retrieval.
 The first process, encoding, involves transforming information into a form that can be stored
in memory. Sometimes we encode information automatically, without any effort, but often
we must do something with the information in order to remember it.
 The second memory process, storage, involves keeping or maintaining information in
memory. For encoded information to be stored, some physiological change in the brain must
take place-a process called consolidation. Normally consolidation occurs automatically, but if
a person loses consciousness for any reason, the process can be disrupted and a permanent
memory may not form. That is why a person who has been in a serious car accident could
awaken in a hospital and not remember what has happened.
 The final process, retrieval, occurs when information stored in memory is; brought to mind.
To remember, we must perform all three processes-encode the information, store it, and then
retrieve it. Memory failure can result from the failure of anyone of the three memory
systems.
3.3 Memory systems
1. Sensory memory
The first stage in the memory and information processing is the presentation of a stimulus. When
people see a stimulus like a sign on the road its image is held momentarily in their visual
sensory register, sensory registers hold information about a perceived stimulus for a split second
after the stimulus disappears, allowing a mental model or representation of it to remain in
memory briefly for further processing.
Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an
instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory and other senses.
Sensory memory is very rich and detailed, but the information in it is very quickly lost unless
certain processes are engaged in that transfer it into working (short-term) or long-term memory.
Think about all sights and sounds you encounter as you walk to work on a typical morning.
Literally thousands of stimuli come into your fields of vision and hearing. We do not process all
of these stimuli, but we do process a number of them, the sensory registers retain this
information from your senses, including large portion of what you think you ignore. But the

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sensory register does not retain the information very long. Echoic memory (from the word echo)
is the name given to auditory sensory memory system in which information is retained up to
several seconds. Iconic memory (from the word icon, which means “image”) is the name given
to visual sensory memory in which information is retained only for about ¼ seconds.
2. Short term memory (working memory)
Also some time called working memory, is a limited capacity memory system in which
information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which
case it can be retained longer. Compared to sensory memory, working memory is limited in
capacity but is relatively longer in duration. Short term’s limited capacity was examined by
George Miller (1956) in a classic paper with a catchy title, “The magical number of seven, plus
or minus two.” Miller pointed out that on many tasks individuals are limited in how much
information they can keep track of without external aids, usually the limit is in the range of the 7
+ 2 items. The most widely cited memory span, which is the number of digits an individual, can
report back in order after a single presentation of them. Characteristics of short-term memory:
 Short-term memory is active. Information remains in STM only so long as the person is
consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it. People use STM as a
“workspace” to process new information and to call up relevant information from long-term
memory.
 The second characteristics of short term memory, rapid access, is easily demonstrated, you
can probably repeat the last sentence you just read without looking back but would likely
take longer to recall the first characteristics of short-term memory (above) which is not
longer immediately available to consciousness and has to be accessed from long-term
memory. In this respect, the difference between STM and LTM is the difference between
pulling a file from the top of the desk versus searching for it on a file drawer, or between
searching for information in an open computer file versus a file stored on the hard drive.
 STM preserves the temporal sequence of information. Subjects provided with a list such as
“fly, ten, chair, foot, seven” will generally remember it (and repeat it if asked) in just that
order.
 Finally short-term memory has limited capacity. On the average, people can hold about
sever pieces of information is STM at a time, with a normal range from five to nine items.
Controlling information in short term memory

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Because STMs capacity is limited, use of this con scious workspace requires controlling the
information in it. In fact, two conscious processes allow more efficient use of STM: Rehearsal
and chunking.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal for STM involves repeating the information again and again to prevent it from fading.
This kind of rehearsal is called maintenance rehearsal, since its purpose is to maintain
information in STM.
Rehearsal is also important in transferring information to LTM. As we shall see, however,
maintenance rehearsal is less useful for storing information in LTM than thinking about, or
elaborating the information’s meaning while rehearsing, a procedure known as elaborative
rehearsal.
Chunking
Because STM’s capacity is limited to seven pieces of information, most people would find a
number like 1062363392 difficult to hold in mind. One way to increase the workspace, however,
is to store information in larger Chapters rather than as isolated letters or digits, a process known
as chunking.
3. Long terms memory
Long-term memory is a relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amount of
information for a long period of time. Long-term memory appears to be composed of multiple
systems. Many psychologists now distinguish between two types of long – term memory,
Explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory, also called declarative memory, refers to
knowledge that can be consciously brought to mind and “declared.” Explicit memory is
conscious memory for facts and events. Explicit memory may be semantic or episodic.
Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge or facts, such as the knowledge that the
three systems of memory, H2o is the chemical formula of water or Nacl is the chemical formula
for table salt. Episodic memory consists of memories of particular episodes or events from
personal experience.
Implicit memory: Refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which behavior is affected by
prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected. Because such as
finding implicit memory cannot be verbalized or consciously recollected, at least not in the form
of specific events or facts, it is also called Non-declarative memory. Examples of non-declarative

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(implicit) memory include the skills of playing tennis, riding a bicycle and typing. Non-
declarative memory also include perpetuate abilities, often called “priming” a product in a
grocery store shelf. The first time you purchase a certain kind of product it often takes a while to
find it on the shelf, even if you know that aisle to walk down. But with practice the product
“pops out” perceptually as you scan down the aisle. Another example of non-declarative
(implicit) memory is classical conditioning, as when a dog (or even you, yourself) begins to
salivate after hearing the dinner bell.
3.4. Forgetting and theories of forgetting
According to William James “if we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as
ill off as if we remembered nothing.” James believed that forgetting is adaptive because it
rids us of useless information that might impair our recall of useful information. But even
useful information that has been stored in memory is not always retrievable. We refer to this
inability to retrieve previously stored information as forgetting.
The first formal research on forgetting was conducted by the German psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus (1885) Ebbinghaus studied memory by repeating lists of items over and over until
he could recall them in order perfectly. The items he used were called nonsense syllables
(consisting a vowel between two consonants) such as VEM, because they were not real words.
He used nonsense syllables instead of words because he wanted a “pure” measure of memory,
unaffected by prior associations with real words. Ebbinghaus found that immediate recall is
worse for items in the middle of a list than for those at the beginning and end of a list. This
differential forgetting is called the Serial-position effect.
The better memory for items at the beginning of a list is called the primacy effect. And the
better memory for items at the end of a list is called the recency effect.
What accounts for the serial position effect? The primacy effect seems to occur because the
items at the beginning of a list are subjected to more rehearsal as a learner memorizes the list,
firmly placing those items in long-term memory. And the recency effect seems to occur because
items at the end of the list remain readily accessible in short term memory. In contrast, items in
the middle of the list are neither firmly placed in long term memory nor readily accessible in
short term memory.
3.5 Theories of forgetting
 Decay theory: The theory that forgetting occurs because memories naturally fade over time.

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 Interference Theory: Interference theory assumes that forgetting results from particular
memories’ interfering with the retrieval of other memories. There are two types of
interference Proactive interference, Retroactive interference. In proactive interference,
old memories interfere with new memories. That is when the materials that were learned
earlier disrupt the recall of material learned later. Remember that pro- means “forward in
time.” For example suppose you had a good friend 10 years ago named Mary and last night
you met someone at a party named Marie. You might find yourself calling your new friend
Mary because the old information (Mary) interferes with retrieval of new information
(Marie). Retroactive interference occurs when material learned later disrupts retrieval of
information learned earlier. Remember that retro-means “backward in time.” suppose you
have become friends with Marie (and finally have gotten her name straight) If you find
yourself sending a letter to your old friend Mary you might address it to Marie because the
new information (Marie) interferes with the old information (Mary).
 Motivation theory: Sigmund Freud claimed that we can forget experiences through
repression, the process by which emotionally threatening experiences, such as witnessing a
murder, are banished to the unconscious mind.
 Cue Dependency theory: Because the retrieval of long-term memories depends on adequate
retrieval cues, forgetting can sometimes be explained by the failure to have or to use them.
For example odors that we associate with an event can aid our recall of it. This is known as
cue- dependency theory. At times we might fail to find an adequate cue to activate the
relevant portion of a semantic memory network. Consider the tip–of–the tongue
phenomenon, in which you cannot quite recall a familiar word though you feel that you know
it.
Unit 3
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation: The word motivation comes from the Latin word “mover” which means to move,
however technically motivation is a term referring to the driving and pulling forces which result
in persistent or enduring behaviour directed towards certain goals.
Theories of motivation
1. Drive theory of motivation: Push theory of motivation

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Derive reduction theory of motivation indicates that when people luck some basic biological
needs such as water, food; derives to obtain these needs are produced. To this theory, behaviour
is pushed toward certain goals by deriving states with in the person. This theory emphasizes on
the interaction between inner pushes and external pulls. A drives is an internal state of tension
that motivates (pushes) an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension.
2. Incentive theory of motivation: Pull theory of motivation
This theory explains motivation in terms of external stimulus. For this theory of motivation
properties of external stimulus largely accounts for a person’s motivation. This theory suggested
that not only luck of biological needs produces behaviour but sometimes the goal itself attracts
behaviour.
3. Instinct theory
Instinct refers to inborn, automatic, unlearned involuntary goal directed behaviour that is
characteristics of an entire species. Instinct is biologically determined behaviour. According
to instinct theory to motivation, people and animals are born with pre-programmed sets of
behaviour essential to their survival. This instinct provides the energy that channels
behaviour in appropriate directions. For instance, birds learn to fly through nature or spiders
learn to spin webs in nature.
4. Opponent Process Theory
The opponent process theory takes a hedonistic view of motivation. Basic to this theory is the
observation that many emotional-motivational states are followed by opposing, or opposite
states. Opponent process theory of motivation seeks to explain the motivation behind such
phenomena as drug addiction and the psychological and emotional reactions that occur as a
result of extremes of physical danger, as in skydiving. According to this theory, stimuli that first
produce increases in arousal later produce an opposite calming reaction in the nervous system,
whereas stimuli that first produce decreases in arousal later produce an increase in arousal.
Moreover, with each exposure to a stimulus, the original response to the stimulus remains fairly
stable or perhaps even declines, while the opponent process- the reaction to the original
response- tends to grow in strength. In sum, opponent process theory helps explain why people
hold strong motivation for behaviour that on the surface has few benefits. It is frequently the
opponent process not the initial reaction, which maintains the motivation to carry out such
behaviour.

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5. Arousal theory
It suggests that each individual has an optimum level of arousal that varies from one situation to
another and over the course of the day. According to the theory, behaviour is motivated by the
desire to maintain the optimum level of arousal for a given moment. This theory states that
people try to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as
necessary. Generally, this theory emphasize on the urge for an optimum level of stimulation.
6. Hierarchy theory
Abraham Maslow, a prominent humanistic theorist, proposes that human motives are organized
into a hierarchy of needs, a systematic arrangement of needs according to priority, which
assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused. Maslow’s model
considers different motivational needs to be ordered in a hierarchy, and it suggests that before
more sophisticated, higher order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied.
Means lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs are felt. This theory describes how
some motives are, if unsatisfied, more basic and compelling than others. The model can be
conceptualized as a pyramid in which the more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher
levels needs are at the top. The most basic needs are those described as primary drives: needs for
water, food, sleep, sex and the like. In order to move up the hierarchy, the person must have
these basic physiological needs met.
Safety needs come next in he hierarchy; Maslow suggests that people need a safe, secure
environment in order to function actively. Safety needs reflect concern about long-term survival.
Safety and security needs motivate adults to seek a stable job, to buy insurance, and to put
money in their savings accounts. Physiological and safety needs compose the lower order
needs. Only when the basic lower order needs are met can a person consider fulfilling higher
order needs, consisting of love and belongingness, esteem and self-actualization.
Love and belongingness needs include the need to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or society. After these needs are fulfilled the person strives
for esteem.
In Maslow’s thinking esteem relates to the need to develop a sense of self-worth by knowing that
others are aware of one’s competence and value. People with esteem needs become concerned
about their achievement, and the recognition and the recognition respect and status that they

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earn. Once these four sets of needs are fulfilled- no easy task- the person is ready to strive for
the higher level need, self-actualization.
Self- actualization is a state of self-fulfilment in which people realize their highest potential.
The important thing in self-actualization is that people feel at ease with themselves and satisfied
that they are using their talents to the fullest.
In a sense, reaching self-actualization produces a decline in the striving and yearning for greater
fulfilment that marks most people’s lives and instead provides a sense of satisfaction with the
current state of affairs.
Unit 4
BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1.1 The Concept of Growth
Growth is sometimes used to refer all the quantitative changes brought about in the structure
and functions of the human anatomy and physiology. It more specifically refers to the
quantitative changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal
organs, etc. Growth involves changes in body proportions as well as in overall stature and
weight. The term growth thus indicates an increase in bodily dimensions. But the rate of growth
differs from one part of the body to the other.
1.2 The Concept of Maturation
Maturation- is the unfolding of traits potentially present in the individual considering his
hereditary endowment (Gesell 1977). It is the sum of the gene effects operating in a self-limited
life style. It doesn’t only refer to change in physical characteristics but also in function, in the
capacity to perform or to behave, which are possible through changes in any part of the
organism. It rather refers to changes that take place in one’s body and behavior because one is
getting older, or because of age (Shaffer, 1996). A one-month-old baby is incapable of learning
to walk because he/she is simply not mature enough, not old enough to be capable of walking.
All humans are biologically programmed to mature at about the same rate, i.e. go through
changes at roughly the same time.
1.3 The Concept of Learning
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change that occurs in an individual as a result of
experience or practice (Slavin, 1997). In order to develop or change, we also need to learn how
to do things. We often talk of learners learning the multiplication tables but not developing an

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understanding of multiplication. This illustrates that the term learning is often used to refer to
short-term specific gains in knowledge, while development is used to refer to more long-term,
broader changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and mental states. (Desforges, 1995). Learning is
the result of activities or day-to-day experiences on the child her/himself. Maturation and
learning complement one another in the development of an individual.
1.4 The Concept of Development
Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that begins at
conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it
also eventually involves decay/dying (Santrock, 2011). It is a progressive series of qualitative
changes that occur as a result of maturity and experience. Thus at each stage certain
developmental processes bring changes in the individual in different aspects of life such as
physical, social, psychological and emotional. The speed of change varies from one individual to
another but it follows a definite and predictable pattern. Every individual has to go through the
various stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. The terms growth and
development are often used interchangeably. Actually they are conceptually different. Neither
growth nor development takes place all by itself. Human beings keep changing. During their
lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological makeup. The way they change differs
from individual to individual. But the fundamental underlying patterns of growth and
development remain more or less the same and take place in an orderly way.
1.5 Significant Facts about Child Development
Dear learners please carefully read each of the following significant facts about child
development such as continuity, sequentiality, generality to specifity, differentiality, and
development proceeds from the simple to the more complex and compare your answers.
1.5.1 Continuity
Development is a continuous process from conception to death. In the early years of life,
development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size and
functioning, but also of behavior. Even after maturity has been attained, development doesn’t
end. Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as old age. These changes
continue until death ends the life cycle.
1.5.2 Sequentiality

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Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or orderly. Every species, whether
animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the
same for all individuals. In prenatal development there is a genetic sequence, appearing at fixed
intervals with certain characteristics. Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have come to
see development as a relationship between organism and environment in a transaction or
collaboration. Individuals work with and affect their environment, and in turn the environment
works with and affects them. The directional sequence of development during both prenatal and
postnatal stages may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the extremities
of the body. All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. Infants
stand before they walk; draw circles before they make squares. Even though development is
continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain characteristics stand out more visibly
than others. Since development is continuous, what happens at one stage influences the
following stages.
1.5.3 Generality to Specificity
Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activity
always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus moves its whole body but is incapable
of making specific responses. In early postnatal life, infants wave their arms randomly. They can
make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them. In language, from genetic
sounds emerge words and then specific sentences with meaning. With respect to emotional
behavior, infants approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of a general fear response.
Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds of behavior, such as crying,
turning away and hiding or pretending to be not afraid.
1.5.4 Differentiality
The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development.
Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate
of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace. There are periods of great intensity and
equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. Development achieves a plateau and this may
occur at any level or between levels. Developmental changes do not always go forward in a
straight line. While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is
never uniform. Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur. The
feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in adolescence, while the

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lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly. Mental abilities like verbal,
numerical, spatial, etc. develop at different ages. Creative imagination develops rapidly in
childhood and reaches its peak in early adolescence. Reasoning develops slowly. Rote memory
and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than memory for the abstract.
The point that you should remember here is that all these changes in individuals are not uniform.
These changes occur at different rates.
1.5.5 Development Depends on Maturation and Learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The
biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain
and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous
system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also,
children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (readiness). For
example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant's brain has not matured
enough to allow the child to talk. By two years , the brain has developed further and with help
from others, the child will have the capacity to say and understand words. Also, a child can't
write or draw until she/he has developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon.
Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The child's environment and
the learning that occurs as a result of the child's experiences largely determine whether the child
will reach optimal development. A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child
to develop to his or her potential.
1.5.6 Development proceeds from the simple to the more complex
Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example,
learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important
ability in cognitive development. The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are
alike begins with the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two. Seeing no
relationship, a preschool child will describe the objects according to some property of the object,
such as colour. Such a response would be, an apple is red (or green) and an orange is orange. The
first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional
relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects. An apple and orange are round
and an apple and orange are alike because you eat them are typical responses of three, four and
five year olds. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a

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higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that an apple and
orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is then capable of classification.
COURSE NAME:
PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD PERIOD
2.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Child Development
The psychodynamic perspective is most closely associated with the work of an Austrian
physician Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939). Freud's psychoanalytic theory viewed human
development interms of personality and emotional changes and he suggested that unconscious
forces act to determine personality and behaviour.

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2.1.1 Freud’s psychosexual development
In addition to providing an account of the various parts of the personality, Freud also suggested
the ways in which personality develops during childhood. He argued that psychosexual
development occurs as children pass through a series of stages in which pleasure, or
gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. He suggested that

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pleasure shifts from the mouth (the oral stage) to the anus (the anal stage) and eventually to the
genitals (the phallic stage and the genital stage).
i) Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral
pleasures (sucking). At birth, the oral region is very sensitive to any kind of stimulation.
However, Freud noted that too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral
Fixation (Fixation is behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development due to an
unresolved conflict) or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with
oral activities.
This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eating,
biting his or her nails, etc. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent
upon others, susceptible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these
urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.
ii) Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining feces. Society’s pressure, mainly parents, the child has to learn
to control anal stimulation. Anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum,
they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).
iii) Phallic Stage (ages three to six). During this stage, the pleasure zone (what is also called
the erogenous zone) switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boys
develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and girls go through a similar
situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. The boy becomes rival
with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection. During this time,
boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by
castrating ( losing testicles) them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex
(after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his
mother) and the Electra Complex for girls.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys
eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the
boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual
feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts

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iv) Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It is a time when sexual desires are directed to
relevant non sexual behaviors such as home/school related activities. It’s during this stage
that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex
peers.
v) Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the
start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned
during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex, with
the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.
2.2 Piaget Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is probably the best-known developmental psychologist in education.
Piaget proposed that children pass through an invariant sequence of stages, each characterized by
qualitatively different ways of organizing information and learning about the world. According
to Piaget, development is a qualitative change in the mind or knowledge or intelligence of people
from age to age.
He defined knowledge as the underlying cognitive structure that guides the thinking and
behaviour of children. The basic assumption of this theory is that development is a qualitative
change in mind or knowledge of a person from age to age. And knowledge, according to Piaget,
is our own construction and is not just poured from the environment. Piaget believes that
everybody makes his/her own knowledge.
2.2.1 Key concepts in Piaget’s Theory
a) Cognitive Structure – is a psychological unit of the mind that enables us to think and know.
Our cognitive structures develop because of two psychological mechanisms- adaptation and
organization.
b) Adaptation – consists of two processes called assimilation and accommodation
 Assimilation – refers to how human beings take things into their minds. It is the process of
taking objects, concepts, and events and changing them to fit to the already existing mental
structures. It refers to a kind of matching between the already existing cognitive structures
and the environmental needs as they arise. For example, if a six month infant is given with
a toy, it will take it to its mouth because the sucking schema already exists and thus it is
trying to assimilate the new experience with the already existing one. Another example to
elaborate the process of assimilation is that, while learning a new concept – say Piaget’s

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Theory of Development- we attempt to comprehend the new concept by using our
cognitive structure. In taking in this new concept, we try to assimilate it to the existing
structure.
 Accommodation – refers to a change in cognitive structure that produces corresponding
behavioral changes. This means that stimuli incorporated or assimilated into our minds also
produce mental changes. These mental changes are referred as accommodation. In the
process of accommodation one has to learn new ways of thinking and behaving by making
changes or modifications in one’s existing cognitive structures. The process of assimilation
and accommodation occur at the same time because at the same time we take something in
to our mind and change it fit to our existing cognitive structure (assimilation), we are also
changed by what we take in (accommodation). According to Piaget, the process of
assimilation or accommodation will help the individual to adjust to the environment. This
adjustment mechanism was called equilibration by Piaget. It refers to a balance between
assimilation and accommodation.
Organization – refers to the connections among cognitive structures. Organization and
adaptation are inseparable; rather they are two complementary processes of a single mechanism.
The mind does not consist of random sets of ideas rather a set of organized ideas. These
organized patterns of thought and action are referred to as schemas. For example the grasping
scheme, the sucking scheme, the kicking scheme, the throwing scheme.
2.2.2 Stages of Cognitive Development
i) Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
Cognitive development during this stage comes mainly through the use of sense organs and
bodily movements as infants explore their environment. They use their mouths, hands, eyes, etc
to explore and understand objects around them. Babies in this stage are initially egocentric –
entirely centered on the self and unaware of the existence of other viewpoints. Before the age of
six months, babies believe that “out of sight is out of mind”. But afterwards, they develop object
permanence – a belief that objects out of sight still exist – and thus they continue to search for
them. Babies during this stage begin to distinguish their own actions as causes – a phenomenon
called causality. By moving from object to object, babies learn about space and time that takes
to move from one object to the others. Babies progress from reliance on reflexes (such as

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sucking and grasping) to a basic understanding of the world around them, (such as pleasant and
unpleasant) of the ability to represent the world through language.
To enhance the cognitive development of infants:
 Provide them with objects of various sizes, shapes, and colors to use. Furnish them with
toys and objects that are circular, square, soft, hard, stationary, or mobile. By manipulating
these objects, their physical actions form the cognitive groundwork of their cognitive lives.
 Allow them to actively engage themselves with environmental objects. They must touch
them, mouth them, push them, squeeze them, drop them, throw them, and perform any
other conceivable actions because they will learn through sensory and motor activity.
ii) The Preoperational Stage (2-7years)
According to Piaget operation refers to the actions individuals perform mentally to gain
knowledge. Comparing and noting similarities and differences, ordering, measuring,
joining together and taking apart, reversing, etc are mental operations. Preoperational,
thus, refers to children who have begun to use symbol (such as language) but are not yet
capable of manipulating them mentally. Features of preoperational thought include:
 Realism – a child at this stage slowly distinguishes and accepts a real world. Piaget
believed that young children initially confuse internal and external, they confuse thought
and matter. This confusion disappears at about age 7.
 Animism – is a child’s tendency to consider a large number of objects as alive and
conscious, although adults label them as inanimate. Comparison of one’s own thoughts
with the thoughts of others can slowly conquer animism. Piaget identified four stages of
animism:
 Almost everything is alive and conscious
 Only those things that move are alive
 Only those things that manifest spontaneous movements are alive
 Consciousness is limited to the animal world
 Artificialism – children at this stage assume that everything is the product of human
creation. As realism improves, artificialism declines gradually through this stage
 Transductive Reasoning – children at this stage use neither deductive nor inductive but
transductive reasoning – or reasoning from particular to particular e.g. the sun will not fall
down because it is hot, the sun stops there because it is yellow.

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Cognitive limitations of the preoperational stage include:
 Centering – refers to only part of an object or an activity. Children of this stage ignore
the relationships among the various parts.
 Egocentrism – refers to children’s tendency to see things as they want them to be. E.g.
a three year old child may cover her eyes and say “you can’t see me”. Egocentrism can
also be demonstrated by a three mountain task – table displaying three model
mountains with three perspectives and a child of this stage assumes others also see his
perspective.
 Irreversibility – refers to inability to reverse thinking. Children of this stage of
cognitive development may learn that 2+3=5. But they cannot yet grasp that 5-3=2.
To enhance preoperational children’s cognitive development, encourage them to imitate
what they have witnessed, to play, to draw pictures, to form mental images, to talk with
adults and with each other.
iii) The concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
Children at this stage overcome the limitations of preoperational thinking and group objects into
classes. The mental operations are, however, focused on concrete objects. This means that
concrete operational children are capable of logical thinking but with only the concrete or
tangible rather than with abstract subjects. They can now make use of inductive and deductive
approaches in terms of reasoning and arriving at conclusions.
Features of concrete operational thinking include:
 Conservation – refers to the realization that the essence of something remains constant
although surface features may change. Children of this stage can very well think that the
change in the appearance of an object does not alter either its quantity or its number. They
achieve conservation of number, liquids, length, substance, area, weight, volume, and the
like. Children of this stage use three arguments to conserve: a) the argument of identity – it
is the still the same thing, (b) the argument of reversibility – you will find the same if you
reverse it, and (c) the argument of compensation – the width is compensated by height and is
still the same.
 Seriation– is the ability to arrange objects by increasing or decreasing size. Children of this
stage can arrange things in ascending or descending order.

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 Classification – is the ability to group objects with some similarities within a large category.
If children of this stage are shown with six hens and four ducks and asked ‘are there more
hens than birds?’ they will not say hens as preoperational children do; rather they correctly
answer that both are birds.
 Number concept – refers to the children’s understanding of the meaning of numbers or “the
oneness of one”. That is children of this stage will understand one boy, one girl, one apple,
one orange are all one of something
iv) The Formal Operational Stage (11 + years)
During this stage logical, abstract thinking begins. The features of formal operational thinking
include:
 Understanding of possibility – adolescents are able to separate the real from the possible
 Propositional Thinking – Adolescent’s thinking is propositional. If you talk to a concrete
operational child as “if I had wing, I would fly”, then s/he will say “but you have no wing”.
But if you say the same thing to an adolescent, s/he would say “it is a possible assumption”.
 Hypothetico deductive reasoning – adolescents are able to combine as many propositions as
possible – which Piaget referred to as hypothetic-deductive reasoning.
Adolescent egocentric thinking – adolescents assume that everyone else thinks as they do and
shares their concerns. There are two types of egocentrism during adolescence: i) Imaginary
audience – is adolescent’s belief that others are as preoccupied with her/him as s/he is. (ii)
personal fable – is an adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibly.

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CHAPTER THREE
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Stages of pre-natal development
Dear learners! Life begins at conception, when a new organism is created with the mother’s
ovum fertilized by the father’s sperm. From that point till death, an individual keeps on growing
and changing. Such changes are not random but orderly and they generally follow a pattern. In
this section, we will examine the prenatal development comprising the germinal, embryonic and
fetal stages. This 9-month period is the most rapid time of change, during which a one-celled
organism is transformed into a human baby with remarkable capacities for adjusting to life in the
surrounding world.
3.1.1 Stages of prenatal development: The Onset of Development
The prenatal period consists of three phases: the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.
a) The Germinal Stage: Fertilization to 2 Weeks
In the germinal stage, the first and shortest stage of the prenatal period, the zygote begins to
divide and grow in complexity during the first 2 weeks following conception.
When fully developed, the placenta serves as a channel between the mother and fetus, providing
nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord. In addition, waste materials from the developing
child are removed through the umbilical cord.
b) The Embryonic Stage: 2 Weeks to 8 Weeks

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By the end of the germinal period—just 2 weeks after conception—the organism is firmly
secured to the wall of the mother's uterus. At this point, the child is called an embryo. The
embryonic stage is the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization. One of the highlights of
this stage is the development of the major organs and basic anatomy. At the beginning of the
embryonic stage, the developing child has three distinct layers, each of which will ultimately
form a different set of structures as development proceeds. The outer layer of the embryo, the
ectoderm, will form skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, and the brain and spinal cord. The endoderm,
the inner layer, produces the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system.
Sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm is the mesoderm, from which the muscles,
bones, blood, and circulatory system are forged. Every part of the body is formed from these
three layers. The head and brain undergo rapid growth during the embryonic period.
a) The Fetal Stage: 8 Weeks to Birth
The fetal stage starts at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth. The fetal stage
formally starts when the differentiation of the major organs has occurred. Now called a fetus,
the developing child undergoes amazingly rapid change during the fetal stage.
For instance, it increases in length some 20 times, and its proportions change dramatically. The
fetus also substantially increases in weight. At the same time, the developing child is rapidly
becoming more complex. Organs become more differentiated and start to work. By 3 months,
for example, the fetus swallows and urinates. In addition, the interconnections between the
different parts of the body become more complex and integrated. Arms develop hands; hands
develop fingers; fingers develop nails. As this is happening, the fetus makes itself known to the
outside world. The brain becomes increasingly sophisticated during the fetal stage. The two
symmetrical left and right halves of the brain, known as hemispheres, grow rapidly, and the
inter-connections between neurons become more complex. The fetus is also able to hear (and
feel the vibrations of) sounds to which it is exposed. In weeks 8 to 24 following conception,
hormones are released that lead to the increasing differentiation of male and female fetuses.
3.1.2 Challenge hazard during the prenatal period
 A miscarriage—known as a spontaneous abortion—occurs when pregnancy ends before
the developing child is able to survive outside the mother's womb. The embryo detaches
from the wall of the uterus and is expelled. Many occur so early that the mother is not even

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aware she was pregnant and may not even know she has suffered a miscarriage. Typically,
miscarriages are attributable to some sort of genetic abnormality.
 In abortion, a mother voluntarily chooses to terminate pregnancy. Involving a complex set
of physical, psychological, legal, and ethical issues, abortion is a difficult choice for every
woman.
 A teratogen is an environmental agent such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that
produces a birth defect. Generally, teratogens have their largest effects during periods of
especially rapid prenatal development.
 Mother's Diet clearly plays an important role in reinforcing the development of the fetus.
A mother who eats a varied diet high in nutrients is apt to have fewer complications during
pregnancy, an easier labor, and a generally healthier baby than a mother whose diet is
restricted in nutrients (Gurling, 2007).
 Mother's Age: delay in childbirth has potential consequences for both mothers' and
children's health. Women who give birth when over the age of 30 are at greater risk for a
variety of pregnancy and birth complications than younger ones. Older mothers are also
considerably more likely to give birth to children with Down syndrome, a form of mental
retardation. The risks involved in pregnancy are greater not only for older mothers, but for
atypically young women as well. Women who become pregnant during adolescence—are
more likely to have premature deliveries.
 Mother's Prenatal Support: Young mothers often face adverse social and economic
factors that can affect infant health. Many teenage mothers do not have enough money or
social support, a situation that prevents them from getting good prenatal care and parenting
support after the baby is born.
 Mother's Health: Depending on when it strikes, an illness in a pregnant woman can have
devastating consequences. For instance, the onset of rubella (German measles) in the
mother prior to the 11th week of pregnancy is likely to cause serious consequences in the
baby, including blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage. Several other diseases
such as syphilis, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) may affect a developing
fetus, again depending on when the illness is contracted. Mothers who have the disease or
who merely are carriers of the virus may pass it on to their fetuses through the blood that

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reaches the placenta. However, if mothers with AIDS are treated with antiviral drugs such
as AZT during pregnancy, less than 5% of infants are born with the disease.
 Mother's Drug Use: Mother's use of many kinds of drugs—both legal and illegal—poses
serious risks to the unborn child. Even drugs prescribed by medical professionals have
sometimes had disastrous consequences. Birth control or fertility pills taken by pregnant
women before they are aware of their pregnancy can also cause fetal damage.
 Mother's Use of Alcohol and Tobacco: Mothers' use of alcohol can have profound
consequences for the unborn child. The children of alcoholics, who consume substantial
quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, are at the greatest risk. Smoking also produces
several consequences, none good.
3.2 Infancy and Babyhood Stages
3.2.1 Infancy and toddlerhood: from birth to 2 years
i) Birth: From Fetus to Neonate
The exact moment of birth occurs when the fetus, having left the uterus through the cervix,
passes through the vagina to emerge fully from its mother's body. In most cases, babies
automatically make the transition from taking in oxygen via the placenta to using their lungs to
breathe air. Consequently, as soon as they are outside the mother's body, most newborns
spontaneously cry. This helps them clear their lungs and breathe on their own. This refers to the
time the baby emerges from mother’s body until the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord.
Until this, the child is a parasite and makes no adjustments to the postnatal environment. What
happens next varies from situation to situation and from culture to culture.
ii) Period of neonate: (From birth to two weeks)
This refers to the period from the cutting and tying of umbilical cord to approximately the end of
second week of postnatal period. The infant is now separate, independent, individual and no
longer a parasite. During this period the infant begins to make adjustments to the new
environment outside the mother’s body. The neonate (birth to one month) displays:
 Several reflexes as well as skills which help the process of development.
 The new born infant responds to pressure or touch on the cheek by turning the head towards
the touch and opening the mouth. This automatic and involuntary response or reflex, known
as rooting reflex.

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 Feeding is further facilitated by sucking reflex by which the neonate sucks on objects
placed into the mouth.
 The rooting reflex disappears over the first few weeks of life and is replaced by voluntary
head turning.
 The sucking reflex is also gradually modified over the first few months of life as sucking
comes under voluntary control.
Much before birth, the fetus responds to sounds and within few hours after birth, the
neonate can discriminate between different sounds of language (e.g. /ba/ and /ga/ sounds)
and between mother’s voice and other human voice. This shows that human infants are
remarkably well prepared to receive spoken language and learn the same.
3.2.1.1 Characteristics of Infancy
This period brings dramatic changes in the body and brain that support the emergence of a wide
array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities; the beginnings of language; and first
intimate ties to others. Infancy spans the first year; toddlerhood spans the second, during which
children take their first independent steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy. During infancy,
the physical and motor development is quite rapid. Primarily due to maturation, children show
regularity in development of locomotion and motor skills. They are able to raise their head by
about 2 months, sit with support by 4 months, walk with support by 9 months and walk on their
own by 10-12 months. The rate of growth is very rapid during the first two years. A normal two
year old infant grows to a height which is almost half of the adult height and the birth weight
increase nearly four times by that age. The body proportion also changes dramatically from birth
till adulthood. In general:
 A neonate is the shortest of all developmental periods. It is the time that the fetus must
adjust to life outside the uterine walls of the mother after approximately nine months. It
requires approximately two weeks to adjusting to the new environment outside the mother’s
body.
 Infancy is a plateau in development. The rapid growth and development which took place
during the prenatal period suddenly come to stop with birth. There is a slight regression such
as loss of weight, less strong and healthy than it was at the time of birth due to adjustment
issues to the postnatal environment.

36. 36
 Infancy is a preview of the later development. It is not possible to predict exactly what the
future development of the individual will be on the basis of the development at birth. We
notice only a clue of what to expect later on.
 Infancy is a hazardous period both physically and psychologically. Physically the infant
finds it difficult in making adjustments to the new environment. Psychologically the infant
suffers a little when the attitudes of significant people towards the infant radically changes.
3.2.1.2 Aspects of Development during Infancy
Can you mention, using your knowledge from theories of child development, the cognitive and
social emotional aspects of development during infancy?
 Physical Development: needs to be touched and held physically, feeding pattern is
established, has sucking and grasping reflexes, reaches toward objects and grasps them,
makes large muscle movements (arms and legs), is able to follow objects and focus, rolls
over, supports head, sleeps a lot and no bladder or bowel control rapid physical growth.
 Intellectual Development of Infant babies: vocalizes (makes cooing sounds and chuckles),
vocalizes spontaneously and discovers s/he has impact on environment (e.g., if s/he cries,
caregiver will come)
 Emotional Development of Infant babies: establishes attachment/bonding with caregivers
(caregiver and child get to know each other – learn to read each other’s cues and become
emotionally attached to one another), crying and smiling, comforts self with thumb or
pacifier learns to trust that basic needs will be met, concerned with satisfaction of needs.
 Social Development of Infant babies:recognizes caregivers, very dependent upon
caregivers for fulfillment of needs and initiates social contact (e.g., smiles when caregiver
appears)
 Moral Development of Infant babies:sees him/herself as the center of the world and has no
sense of right or wrong.
3.2.1.3 Major adjustment problems of Infants
 Change in temperature requires adjustment.
 Starting breathing by own creates problems. When the umbilical cord is cut the infant must
begin to breath eon its own.

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 Starting to suck and swallow is difficult for neonates. When the umbilical cord is cut off, the
child gets nourishment by the reflexes of sucking and swallowing instead of receiving it from
the mother through umbilical cord.
 Beginning the elimination of waste products also creates problems. Some infants are seen to
have trouble shooting with elimination matters.
3.3 Babyhood (From 2 weeks to 2 years)
3.3.1 Aspects of Development during Babyhood
 Physical Development during babyhood: feeds self with a spoon, stands and walks
“dances” to music, sits by him/herself, has precise thumb and finger grasp and can stack 2
or more blocks
 Intellectual Development during babyhood: uses one or two words to name things or
actions, says words like “Mama” and “Dada”, points to familiar things, points to at least one
body part, curious about everything (explores his/her world), realizes an object can exist
when out of sight and will look for it (e.g., drops things from high chair and looks for it
 Emotional Development during babyhood: At birth, the emotions appear in simple and
undifferentiated forms. In babyhood, the emotions are differentiated and they are aroused by
a number of stimuli. Emotions are more easily conditioned during babyhood than at latter
stage. This is due to the reason that the intellectual abilities of babies are limited. They
respond easily and quickly to stimuli. Anyhow there is hesitation to respond in some cases.
A babyhood hugs caregiver, does not like separation from caregiver, expresses several
emotions clearly but is unable to identify them, trusts caregivers and sees him/herself as
permanent with enduring qualities (e.g., male versus female.
 Social Development during babyhood: Early social experiences play a dominant role in
determining the baby’s future social relationships and patterns of behavior towards others.
Since the baby’s life is centered around home, it is here that the foundations for later
behavior and attitudes are laid. That is why good social foundations are so important during
the babyhood years. A babyhood plays simple games (e.g., peek-a-boo, pat-a-cake), extends
attachment to people other than caregiver developing some independence from caregivers
(can meet some of his/her own needs e.g., can feed him/herself and reach for objects)
 Moral Development during babyhood: sees him/herself as the center of the world and has
no sense of right or wrong

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3.4 Childhood Stage
3.4.1 Early Childhood (Preschool years)
Early childhood (sometimes called the preschool years) extends from the end of infancy to
about 6 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness
skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend many hours with
peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood. This is the time during which the
child who has become mobile is able to widen the sphere of his/her activities beyond the
caregivers and the family. Through his/her interaction with the wider society and the
environment, the child learns the rules of appropriate social behaviour and develops mental
abilities which prepare him/her for formal education and schooling.
3.4.1.1 Aspects of Development during Early childhood
Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all areas of development. The dependent
newborn grows into a young person who can take care of his or her own body and interact
effectively with others. For these reasons, the primary developmental task of this stage is skill
development. Physically, between birth and age three a child typically doubles in height and
quadruples in weight. Bodily proportions also shift, so that the infant, whose head accounts for
almost one-fourth of total body length, becomes a toddler with a more balanced, adult-like
appearance. Despite these rapid physical changes, the typical three-year-old has mastered many
skills, including sitting, walking, toilet training, using a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-
eye coordination to catch and throw a ball.
Between three and five years of age, children continue to grow rapidly and begin to develop
fine-motor skills. By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control of pencils, crayons,
and scissors. Gross motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip and balance on one
foot. Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body proportions
and motor skills become more refined. Physical changes in early childhood are accompanied by
rapid changes in the child's cognitive and language development. From the moment they are
born, children use all their senses to attend to their environment, and they begin to develop a
sense of cause and effect from their actions and the responses of caregivers.
Over the first three years of life, children develop a spoken vocabulary of between 300 and
1,000 words, and they are able to use language to learn about and describe the world around
them. By age five, a child's vocabulary will grow to approximately 1,500 words. Five-year-olds

39. 39
are also able to produce five-to seven-word sentences, learn to use the past tense, and tell
familiar stories using pictures as cues. Language is a powerful tool to enhance cognitive
development. Using language allows the child to communicate with others and solve problems.
By age eight, children are able to demonstrate some basic understanding of less concrete
concepts, including time and money.
However, the eight-year old still reasons in concrete ways and has difficulty understanding
abstract ideas.A key moment in early childhood socio-emotional development occurs around
one year of age. This is the time when attachment formation becomes critical. Attachment theory
suggests that individual differences in later life functioning and personality are shaped by a
child's early experiences with their caregivers. The quality of emotional attachment, or lack of
attachment, formed early in life may serve as a model for later relationships.From ages three to
five, growth in socio-emotional skills includes the formation of peer relationships, gender
identification, and the development of a sense of right and wrong. Taking the perspective of
another individual is difficult for young children, and events are often interpreted in all-or-
nothing terms, with the impact on the child being the fore-most concern. For example, at age five
a child may expect others to share their possessions freely but still be extremely possessive of a
favorite toy. This creates no conflict of conscience, because fairness is determined relative to the
child's own interests. Between ages five and eight, children enter into a broader peer context and
develop enduring friendships.
Social comparison is heightened at this time, and taking other people's perspective begins to play
a role in how children relate to people, including peers.
3.4.1.2 Characteristics of early childhood
 In childhood, behavior problems become more frequent and more troublesome than the
physical care problems in babyhood. Since the behavior problems dominate the early
childhood, the young children develop distinctive personalities and aspire for independence.
 Also, they are very often obstinate, stubborn, disobedient, protesting and antagonistic.
 They are often bothered by day dreams at night and irrational fears during day times and
suffer from jealousies.
 The dependency during babyhood changes to independence on attaining childhood age. In
many occasions, they seem to reject the help offered by elders.

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 Still, the early childhood is an age of playing with toys in most of the time. When the
children enter the first standard in school, they begin to be engaged in games and modified
form of sports without toys. Anyhow, when alone, the children are seen to play with toys.
 It is the pre gang age during which the children learn the foundations of social behavior. As a
general rule, during the preschool years, children find social contacts with members of their
own sex more pleasurable than those with members of the opposite sex.
 It is an exploratory age in the sense that they want to know what their environment is and
how it works, how it feels, and how they can be a part of it.
 It is an imitative age. Imitations of speech and actions of others are prevalent. Imitative
nature develops creative talents.
 It is an ideal age to learn various skills by repeated trials and adventurous attempts. The skills
are learned easily and quickly.
 Improvement in speech and comprehension is an important matter. Skills in building up a
vocabulary, mastering pronunciation and combining words into sentences are in rapid
growth.
 Moral development is on a slow level. This is because the intellectual development has not
reached the point where the children can learn or apply the abstract principles of right and
wrong.
 Children may be told not to do something one day but the next day or even the day after that,
they may have forgotten what they were told not to do so. Thus what may appear willful
disobedience is often only a case of forgetting. They obey rules without using reason or
judgment because they regard adults in authority in Omni point. They judge all acts as right
or wrong in terms of the consequences rather than in terms of motivation behind them. They
view a matter a wrong one in punishment.
Question asking behaviour is another important concern. The questions asked at beginning are
concerned with physical causality and then on diverse number of categories. If they are not
satisfied in the answer, they use to raise more and more questions in chain until they are
satisfied. Also they feel proud of themselves asking such questions with aspirations.
3.4.2 Late Childhood (Elementary school years)

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Late childhood (sometimes called the elementary school years) extends from about 6 to 11 years
of age. Historically, late childhood has not been considered an important stage in human
development. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory labeled this period of life the latency stage,
a time when sexual and aggressive urges are repressed. Freud suggested that no significant
contributions to personality development were made during this period.
However, more recent theorists have recognized the importance of late childhood for the
development of cognitive skills, personality, motivation, and inter-personal relationships. During
late childhood, children learn the values of their societies. Thus, the primary developmental task
of middle and late childhood could be called integration, both in terms of development within
the individual and of the individual within the social context.
Perhaps supporting the image of middle and late childhood as a latency stage, physical
development during middle and late childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or
adolescence. Growth is slow and steady until the onset of puberty, when individuals begin to
develop at a much quicker pace. The age at which individuals enter puberty varies, but there is
evidence of a secular trend–the age at which puberty begins has been decreasing over time. In
some individuals, puberty may start as early as age eight or nine. Onset of puberty differs across
gender and begins earlier in females.
As with physical development, the cognitive development of middle and late childhood is slow
and steady. Children in this stage are building upon skills gained in early childhood and
preparing for the next phase of their cognitive development. Children's reasoning is very rule
based. Children are learning skills such as classification and forming hypotheses. While they are
cognitively more mature now than a few years ago, children in this stage still require concrete,
hands-on learning activities. Middle or late childhood is a time when children can gain
enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can become a motivating factor as children
work toward building competence and self-esteem. This stage is also a time when children
develop competence in interpersonal and social relationships. Children have a growing peer
orientation, yet they are strongly influenced by their family.
The social skills learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability
to participate in meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the
challenges of adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these
relationships may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships.

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Children at this stage master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and math, achievement
becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period, children interact more
with the wider social world beyond their family. It is a troublesome age by which the children
are no longer willing to do what they are told to do. Older children, especially boys, are careless
about their clothes and other material possessions. Such an age is called as the sloppy age. Again
it is regarded as a quarrelsome age because we can see the boy child and girl child often indulged
in mini quarrels. It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are
considered as essential for successful adjustment to adult life. Again there is a gang spirit in
which the major concern is the acceptance by the age-mates in a gang. There is a team spirit in
play activities and creative works. By 12, the child becomes sexually mature. For most young
children, there is a major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the new demands
and expectations, most children are in a state of disequilibrium. They are emotionally disturbed.
Many changes take place in attitudes, values and behavior.
3.4.2.1 Characteristics of Late childhood
 The child develops play skills, school skills, self-help skills, social help skills, hand skills,
speech skills, pronunciation skills, vocabulary skills and health maintenance skill
 Unpleasant emotions are socially unacceptable
 Expression of anger in moodiness
 Heightened emotional expressions
 Learning to curb external emotional expressions
 Boys have more extensive peer groups than girls
 Not satisfied with associates
 Aim for socio-metric status in age-mates
 Desire for leadership in peers
 Constructive play activities
 Exploring and collecting things
 Describe the role of family in early childhood development, noting direct and
indirect family, community and school influences, as well as the adaptable nature
of the societal structure.


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3.4.2.2 Aspects of Development During late childhood
 Physical Development during late childhood: the child can play sports and develop new
skills, are energetic, has a large appetite, height and weight increasing at a steady rate,
increased coordination and strength, body proportions becoming similar to an adult’s, and
fine motor coordination well-developed (e.g., writing and drawing skills).
 Intellectual Development during late childhood: the child is highly verbal (e.g., tells jokes,
makes puns), asks fact-oriented questions (e.g., wants to know “how,” “why” and
“when”)can deal with abstract ideas, judges success based on ability to read, write and do
arithmetic, wants to develop skills and become competent, enjoys projects that are task-
oriented (e.g., sewing, woodwork), learns to think systematically and generally about
concrete objects, and learns the concept of “past,” “present” and “future”.
 Emotional Development during late childhood: the child acts very independent and self-
assured but can be childish and silly at times, self is partly defined by school environment
(personality is more defined), likes affection from adults more independent but wants
caregivers to be present to help, can identify and label what s/he is feeling and can
distinguish between wishes, motives and actions
 Social Development during late childhood: the child participates in community activities,
enjoys working and playing with others, has friends plays mostly with same sex peers, can
be alone, strong group identity, learns to achieve and compete, and imitates and identifies
with same-sex adult.
Moral Development during late childhood: begins to experience conflict between parents’
values and those of peers, has strong sense of fairness, rules are important and must be
followed (i.e., breaking rules is bad).
TOPIC 3:
COURSE NAME
PSYCHOLOGYADOLESCENCE
 Theories are scientific explanations used as framework for understanding adolescent
development.
 Main theoretical views guide research
 Theories about adolescent development can be grouped in to five major perspectives in
general.

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 Biological perspectives
 Psychoanalytical perspectives
 cognitive and moral development perspectives.
 learning and social- learning perspectives
 Contextual/ecological
1.1. INTIMACY AS AN ADOLESCENT ISSUE
Meaning and process of intimacy development during adolescence
Probably the most important feature of adolescent friendships is intimacy. Intimacy is the degree
to which two people share personal knowledge, thoughts, and feelings. Adolescent friends
confide hopes and fears, and help each other understand what is going on with their parents, their
teachers, and peers to a far greater degree than younger children do.
Even though intimacy is an important concern throughout most of the life span, and close
relationships are important to people of all ages, the development of intimacy is especially
important during adolescence. There are a number of possible reasons that intimacy becomes an
important psychological concern in adolescence.
1. It is not until adolescence that truly intimate relationship characterized by openness, honesty,
self-disclosure, and trust-first emerge. For example, for a child, a friend is someone who likes to
do the same things he or she does. But for teenagers’, close friendships are more likely to have a
strong emotional foundation; they are built on the sorts of bonds that form between people who
care about, know and understand each other in a special way.
2. The changing nature of the adolescent’s social world: that is, during early adolescence the
increasing importance of peers in general and during middle and late adolescence, the
increasing importance of opposite sex peers in particular. During the course of pre-
adolescence and adolescence, relationships are gradually transformed from the friendly but
activity oriented friendships of childhood to the more self conscious, more analytical, and
more intimate relationships of adulthood.
Why do such important changes take place in close relationships during adolescence?
I. Puberty and its attendant changes in sexual impulses often raise new issues and concerns
requiring serious intimate discussion.
II. Advances in thinking- especially in the realm of social cognition- are related to the
development of intimacy during adolescence. These changes permit them to establish and

45. 45
maintain far more mature relationships, characterized by higher levels of empathy, self
disclosure, and responsiveness to each other’s thoughts and feelings. It is hard to be an
intimate friend to someone when you are unable to empathize with that person. Adolescent’s
social roles as potentially affecting the development of intimacy.
4.2.1. Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescent Intimacy
The most theoretical perspectives on the development of intimacy during adolescence are
developed by Harry Stack Sullivan (1953), Erik Erikson (1968) and Attachment Relationships in
adolescence (1980’s).
4.3.2.1. Sullivan’s Theory of Interpersonal Development
Harry Stack Sullivan was the most influential theorist to discuss the importance of adolescents’
intimacy and friendships. Sullivan by emphasizing the social aspects of growth, psychological
development can be best understood when looked at in interpersonal terms. Specifically focuses
on transformations in the adolescent’s relationships with others.
According to Sullivan, as the child develops, different interpersonal needs surface that lead
either to feeling of security (when the needs are satisfied) or to feelings of anxiety (when the
needs are frustrated). He charted a developmental progression of needs, beginning in infancy
and continuing through adolescence. Individuals in their entire life cycle are concerned with
satisfying their changing interpersonal needs.
Developmental Epochs Interpersonal Needs
Infancy (0 to 2-3 yrs) Needs for contact with people & tenderness from the mothering one
Childhood (2/3-6/7 yrs) Needs for adult participation in child's play.
Juvenile era (6/7-8/10 yrs) Need for peer play mates, acceptance into peer society groups
Pre adolescence (8/10-12/14 yrs) Need for intimacy and Consensual validation in same-sex
Chumships
Early adolescence (12/14-
17/18yrs)
Need for intimacy with an opposite sex peer, need for
sexual contact
Late adolescence (17/18--adult) Need for integration in to adult society.

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In Sullivan's View, the security derived from having satisfying relationships with others is the
bond that holds together a sense of self. Identity and self esteem are gradually built up through
interpersonal relationships.
Like Erickson, he viewed psychosocial development as cumulative: The frustration and
satisfactions we experience during early periods affect our latter relationships and developing
sense of identity. Sullivan felt that forming intimate friendships during preadolescence is a
prerequisite to forming close relationships as an adolescent or young adult.
Just as Erikson views adolescence as a time of experimentation with different identities, Sullivan
saw the period as a time of experimentation with different types of interpersonal relationships.
Some adolescents choose to date many different people to try to find out what they are looking
for in relationship that lasts throughout their entire adolescence. If interpersonal tasks of
adolescence have been negotiated successfully, the young person enters late adolescence able to
be intimate, able to experience intimacy and sexuality in the same relationship.
4.2.1.2. Erikson's View of Intimacy
Erik Erikson argued that development during the adolescence and young adult years revolves
around two psychosocial crises:
 Identity versus Identity diffusion: prominent during adolescence.
 Intimacy versus Isolation: Prominent during early adulthood.
He argued that adolescents must establish a sense of identity before they are capable of real
intimacy. Without a secure sense of identity, people are afraid and unwilling to make serious
commitments to others. Individuals who have not yet established a sense of identity may look
intimate, but it is pseudo/superficial intimacy, which is expected during the stage of adolescence.
The position of Erikson contradict somewhat with that of Sullivan. Sullivan argues that
development of intimacy occurs primarily in preadolescence; the development of the capacity for
intimacy is a precedent to the development of a coherent sense of identity, which does not occur
until late adolescence.
Erik Erikson believes that establishment of a coherent sense of identity necessarily occurs prior
to the development of intimacy, since one must have a clear sense of who one is in order to avoid
becoming lost in a relationship with someone else.
 What are we to make of this difference? Which comes first, identity or intimacy?

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A number of studies have attempted to answer this question; but none of the studies of the
relation between identity and intimacy provide clear support for one theory over the other. Even
if they are generally correlated, it has been difficult to determine whether development in one
domain leads to development in another.
 Their conflicting views on sex differences in Intimacy
Intimacy is a far more fundamental concern for the adolescent girl than for the adolescent boys,
and psychological crises of identity and intimacy may even be merged for female adolescents
(Sullivan). For adolescent boy, males at all ages- intimacy is more distant in the process of self-
definition. In essence, Sullivan's view may be more applicable to girls; Erikson’s view may be
more applicable to boys.
4.2.1.3. The Attachment theorist view of intimacy in Adolescence
According to attachment theorists, intimacy during adolescence must be examined in relation to
the individual’s history of close relationships and in particular, the nature of individual’s
attachment relationships in infancy. Because individual’s attachment relationships during infancy
continues to have an influence on his or her capacity to form satisfying intimate relationships in
adolescence and adulthood, for two reason.
i. Internal Working Model: initial attachment relationship forms the basis for a more general
model of interpersonal relationships that we employ throughout life. Individuals who had
enjoyed a secure attachment relationship in infancy will have a more positive and healthy
relationships in adolescence, whereas individuals who had been anxiously attached as infants
will not.
ii. Cumulative effect: infant attachment has followed individuals into and through adolescence.
Anxiously attached infants are more likely to develop psychological and social problems in
childhood, including poor peer relationships. These problems in peer relations likely affect
the development of social competence in adolescence, forming a link between early
experience and latter social relations.
Attachment Pattern
Attachment is defined as a strong and enduring emotional bond (usually formed first in infancy).
The pattern of attachment between parents and their children latter determine the quality
relationship during adolescence. Adolescents grown up with different attachment pattern have
different behavioral pattern in interpersonal relationship. The attachment styles (i.e. the amount

48. 48
of closeness & security provided by attachment figure) of early years of life is reflected in later
interpersonal relationships.
Adolescents who grown up in:
 Secure Attachment Pattern: optimist in relationship, no conflict in peers, empathy,
 Insecure Attachment Pattern: hostile, distant in social relationship, resistant to seek help
from adults
 Ambivalent Attachment Pattern: dependent on others & angry, unenthusiastic/not sociable
The four adult attachment patterns Griffin &Bartholomew (1994)
Adolescents’ evaluation of themselves and that of others determine their relationship with others.
(+) self Image (-)Self Image
(+) Image of others Secure attachment pattern Preoccupied attachment pattern
(-)Image of others Dismissing attachment pattern Fearful attachment pattern
4.3.3. Changes in the nature of friendship
How do you know someone is your best friend? When this question is posed to children and
adolescents of different ages, younger and older respondents give different sorts of answers. This
indicates the development of children’s conceptions of friendship. Various studies revealed that
conceptions of friendship come to place greater weight on such dimensions as intimacy, loyalty,
and shared values and attitudes during early adolescence. The findings are consistent with
Sullivan's theory & more advanced cognitive changes that characterize early adolescence. For
example, adolescents have greater facility than children in thinking about abstract concepts, such
as intimacy and loyalty.
Psychologists indicated that intimacy continues to increase throughout earl and middle
adolescence. But during middle adolescence (between age 13 & 15), particularly for girls,
concerns about loyalty and anxieties over rejection become more pronounced.
Why might loyalty become such pressing concern for girls during the middle adolescent rears?
Perhaps it is anxiety over dating and heightened feelings of insecurity the cause adolescent girls
temporarily to place a great deal of emphasis on the trust and loyalty of their close friends.
4.3.4. Changes in the display of intimacy
There are a number of changes in the display of intimacy during the course of adolescence.
Consistent with Sullivan's view point, during preadolescence and early adolescence, youngsters’

49. 49
friendships become more personal. For instance, knowing what their friends worry about or
what they are proud of. But children know non intimate characteristics of their best friends (such
as the friend’s telephone number or birth date).
Individuals also become more responsive toward close friends during adolescence. Children are
less likely to help and share with their friends than with other classmates (perhaps because
children are more competitive). Finally, during the course of adolescence, individuals become
more interpersonally sensitive- they show greater levels of empathy and social understanding.
4.3.5. Changes in the targets of intimacy
New targets of intimacy do not replace old ones. Rather, new targets are added to old ones
throughout the course of adolescence. The increasing intimacy between teenagers and their
friends during the curse of adolescence is generally not accompanied by a decrease intimacy
towards parents. Declines in intimacy between adolescents and their parents, which appear to
occur during early adolescence, are temporary. By the end of adolescence, younger people and
their parents are quite close.
Even though, adolescents begin to see their friends as increasingly important sources of
emotional support, they do not cease needing or using their parents for the same purpose.
Adolescents interact much more often with their mother than with their father, and this is true for
males as well as females. This is because compared to their fathers, adolescents see their mothers
as more understanding, accepting, and willing to negotiate, and less judgmental, guarded and
defensive. Parent adolescent relations are characterized by an imbalance of power. For example,
Parents are nurturers, advice givers, and explainers whom adolescents turn to because of their
experiences and expertise.
Adolescents’ interactions with their friends in contrast are more mutual and balanced and are
more likely to provide adolescents with opportunities to express alternative views and engage in
all equal exchange of feelings and beliefs. Generally, both types of intimacy are important, for
reach influences a different aspects of adolescent’s developing characteristics in important ways.
4.3.6. The Same Sex or Opposite Sex Friendship
Early adolescents show very strong sexual cleavage. Friendly interactions between early
adolescent boys and girls, when they occur, typically involve overacting attraction or romantic
interest in such a pronounced or playful way that the indication of interest can be written off as

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teasing or fooling around. The most common reason for marriage during adolescence: economic
stress, low levels of education, and poor job prospects.
Pre marital pregnancy, economic stress, and low levels of education are associated with higher
divorce rate at all ages. Not all adolescents who marry get divorced, the factors most predictive
of marital success are:
 Adequate financial resources.
 A long standing relationship before marriage.
 Having completed high school.
 Delaying pregnancy until at least one year into married life.
4.3.7. Intimacy and Psychosocial Development: what is the function of close relationships?
Intimate friendships during adolescence play all important roles in the young person’s overall
psychological development, particularly in the realms of identity and sexuality.
i. Identity
Adolescents often take friends about the careers they hope to follow the people they hope to get
involved with, and the life they expect to lead after they leave home. Peers also play an
extremely important role in socializing adolescents into the roles of adulthood. This is especially
the case when it comes to sex roles.
ii. Sexuality
Friends are important agents of sexual socialization during adolescence. Teenagers are far more
likely to discuss sex with their friends than with their parents. Through close friendships,
adolescents learn a great deal about sex and about ways of dealing with members of the opposite
sex- lessons that are less likely to be learned from parents and other adults.
Friendships often provide for positive things like self- disclosure, intimacy and companionship,
but they also may give rise to insecurity, jealousy, and mistrust. Adolescents who are intimate
with peers with antisocial habits are themselves more likely to develop similar patterns of
behavior. Generally, not all close relationships foster positive developmental outcomes.
4.3.8. Adolescent Loneliness
According to several surveys of high school and college students, late adolescence is one of the
loneliest times in the lifespan even compared to adulthood. This is because:

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 Adolescents may have developed strong needs for intimacy but may not yet have forged
the social relationships necessary to satisfy these needs, they may be especially prone to
feelings of social isolation.
 Being with other people who have active social lives.
 The transition from junior high school to high school.
 The transition from high school to college.
SEXUALITY AS AN ADOLESCENT ISSUE
The teen years mark the first time that young people are both physically mature enough to
reproduce and cognitively advanced enough to think about it. Given this, the teen years are the
prime time for the development of sexuality.
4.4.1. Definition of the term sexuality
Sexuality is the properties that distinguish organisms on the basis of their reproductive ability.
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human and encompasses sex, gender identity and roles,
sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Healthy sexuality is an
important part of persons overall health and well being which involves the values,
communication, personality, body image, self image, physical expression, socialization and sex
life of a person. Accordingly, healthy sexuality is a state of physical, emotional, social wellbeing
related to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction, or infirmity.
1.4.2. Why is sexuality an adolescent issue?
Adolescence is arguably an important time- if not the most important time in the life cycle for
the development of sexuality. Several reasons can be forwarded as to why sexuality is
fundamentally important in adolescence; and commonly cited reasons are:-
 There is an increase in the sex drive in early adolescence as results of hormonal changes.
 It is not until puberty that males can ejaculate semen or females begin to ovulate.
 Not until puberty do individuals develop the secondary sexual characteristics.
 Emerging cognitive capabilities in adolescence such as introspection and reflection about
sexual behavior.
 In addition, the new social meaning given to sexual and dating behavior during
adolescence makes sexuality an especially important psychosocial concern.
The emerging sexuality that accompanies adolescence poses fundamental challenges for young
people. These include:

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- Adjusting to the altered appearance and functioning of a sexually maturing body.
- Learning to deal with sexual desires.
- Confronting sexual attitudes and values.
- Experimenting with sexual behaviours.
- and integrating these feelings , attitudes and experiences into a developing sense of self
Adolescents’ responses to these challenges are profoundly influenced by the social and cultural
contexts in which they live.
4.4.3. Cultural variations in adolescent sexual socialization
Like any other aspect of psychosocial growth, the development of sexuality is determined largely
by its context. Of particular importance is in which adolescents and children are exposed to and
educated about sexuality- a process called sexual socialization. Keeping in view, sexual
socialization, Ford & Beach categorized societies into three groups:
 Restrictive societies
 Semi restrictive societies
 Permissive societies
I. Sexual socialization in Restrictive societies
In restrictive societies, adolescents’ transition in to sexual activity is highly discontinuous.
Pressure is exerted on youngsters to refrain from sexual activity until they either have undergone
a formal rite of passage. Or have married. In order to discourage sexually activity before
marriage, adults clamp down and protect adolescent females from males by chaperoning them or
separating the sexes throughout childhood and adolescence. In other societies, sexual activity
before the attainment of adult status is restricted through the physical punishment and public
shaming of sexually active youngsters. In Ethiopia, for instance, children and adolescents are
likely to be discouraged from sexual exploration and sex play.
II. Sexual socialization in Semi-Restrictive societies
In semi-restrictive societies, sexual activity among youngsters may be formally prohibited, but
they playing together and may imitate the sexual behavior of their elders. In other society, pre
marital sex is common but the parents discourage premarital pregnancy. Unmarried adolescents
whose sexual activity has resulted in pregnancy are often forced to marry.
III. Sexual socialization in permissive societies

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In permissive societies, the transition of adolescent into adult sexual activity is highly continuous
and usually begins in childhood. Adolescent boys and girls are allowed for sexual exploration
and experimentation at early age. The parents do not object premarital sexual affairs.
4.4.4. Sexual Attitudes among Adolescents
To master the important developmental tasks of forming new and more mature relationships with
members of the opposite sex, and of playing the approved role for one's own sex, young
adolescents must acquire more mature and more complete concepts of sex than they had as
children. Because of their growing interest in sex, adolescent boys and girls seek more and more
information about it. In general, adolescence is a period of sexual exploration and
experimentation, and the incorporation of sexuality into one’s identity. They think about whether
they are sexually attractive, how to perform sexually, and what the future holds for their sexual
lives. By the end of adolescence, most boys and girls have enough information about sex to
satisfy their curiosity and develop a mature sexual identity.
Sexual Identity and Orientation in Adolescence
Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense of sexual identity is multifarious, it
involves learning to manage sexual feelings and learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior to
avoid undesirable consequences. Apart of discovering one’s total identity is the firming of
sexual orientation, or sexual, emotional, romantic, and affectionate attraction to members of the
same sex, the other sex, or both.
A person who is attracted to members of the other sex is heterosexual. A person who is attracted
to members of the same sex is homosexual. Many use the term gay to refer to a male
homosexual, and lesbian to refer to a female homosexual. A person who is attracted to members
of both sexes is bisexual.
4.4.5. Sexual activity during adolescence
Now that they are sexually mature, both boys and girls begin to have new attitudes toward
members of the opposite sex, and to develop an interest not only in members of the opposite sex
but also in activities in which they are involved.
The motivation to do so comes partly from social pressures but mainly from the adolescent's
interest in and curiosity about sex.
PERSONALITY CHANGE DURING ADOLESCENCE

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Adolescence is a time when a child's unique identity emerges. Until adolescence, a child
basically fulfills the will of his parents. However, as an adolescent naturally separates from his
parents, he develops his own distinct personality. Besides maturing physically and emotionally,
adolescents grow intellectually, while they develop moral understanding and an ability to plan
toward the future. While this independence can cause stress and conflict at home, parents should
not feel rejected by the change in their child's personality; on the contrary, they should guide
their adolescent to make the transition as smooth as possible.
Personality is based on temperament, character and environment. Temperament is controlled by
a person's inborn genetic composition; character is determined by how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves; and environment is the total sum of a person's life experiences. Parents can play a
crucial role in developing their children's personality and behavior by anticipating issues that
might be problematic and avoiding difficult situations altogether. They can steer a child toward
his strengths, increasing his positive experiences.
As teenagers get older they become more sure of themselves and are willing to experiment with
different roles until they find one that fits. Their personality changes according to the situation or
group of friends. An adolescent's identity is a combination of religious beliefs, occupational
goals, personal moral standards and sexual identity. Teens are often idealistic and willing to
actively pursue an issue that's important to them. As adolescents look toward the future, they
broaden their view of the world. Suddenly they are worried about global problems, the needy and
life beyond college. As they emerge as a separate entity from their parents, they understand their
parents' limitations and become more critical of themselves and their friends.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS
6.1. Adolescent Pregnancy & High-Risk Sexual Behaviour
Although most adolescents become sexually active at some point during adolescence, some
adolescents engaged at an early age and experience a number of partners over time. Those
adolescents are the least effective users of contraception’s. Perhaps the greatest potential
problem faced by those sexually active teenagers are an unplanned pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs), including AIDS. Early sexual activity also is linked with other
risky behaviors such as excessive drinking, drug use, delinquency and school-related problem.
6.1.1. Unplanned adolescent pregnancy

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Adolescents who are sexually active face of challenge of protecting themselves from the
possibility of unintended pregnancy. Study showed that a sexually active adolescent woman
women not using contraception has a 90 percent chance of being pregnant with in a year.
Medically, pregnancy and childbirth during adolescence are risky to both child and mother. An
adolescent girl’s body is not fully developed, and she may not have access to adequate medical
care or understand the importance of proper nutrition. Thus, she is at higher risk of having a
miscarriage or a premature, low birth weight baby. The young mother also may die during
childbirth.
Financially, many adolescent mothers are single and live in poverty. Adolescent mothers often
drop out of school. If they drop out of high school, they have limited earning power. With less
money and more expenses, they are forced to accept welfare to support their children and
themselves.
Teenage mothers who are married face similar problems. About 50percent of teenage mothers
are married, and according to statistics they struggle financially just as much as unwed teenage
mothers. Not surprisingly, teenage marriages are plagued by poverty, again because of limited
education and earning power. They are also highly susceptible to divorce because of their
emotional and financial instability, some of which is due to immaturity and marrying for the
wrong reasons.
Adolescent fathers may be eager to help their partners and offspring, but they usually do not
have the means to do so. Like teenage mothers, teenage fathers lack the education and skills
needed to find suitable employment. Of course, other teenage fathers do not want the
responsibilities of marriage and parenting. In turn, they abandon the mother and child, who then
must struggle even more to survive.
Preventing unintended pregnancy is possible with a wide range of methods, including birth-
control pills, intrauterine device (IUDs), diaphragms, and condoms. There has been significant
progress in adolescents’ use of some form of contraception. However, the likelihood of using
contraception so increase with age.
6.1.2. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
Given the high rate of sexual activity and poor record of contraceptive use among adolescents,
sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are another serious consequence of teenage sex. Each year,
many adolescents contract a STDs including those for which there is currently no cure and

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caused by virus, such as genital herpes and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The
other prevalent STDs are bacterial infections (gonorrhea, syphilis, and Chlamydia), and caused
by virus-genital warts and so on. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is sexually
transmitted infection that is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which destroys
the body’s immune system. Following exposure to HIV, an individual’s body is vulnerable to
germs that a normal immune system could destroy.
6.2. Substance use And Abuse
In addition to the sexual problems that we have just discussed above, other problems that can
develop during adolescence is substance use and abuse. The turn to drugs out of curiosity or a
desire for sensation, because of peer pressure, or as an escape from overwhelming problems, and
there by endanger their present and future physical and psychological health.
Substance abuse is refers to the misuse of alcohols or others drug. It is a poorly adaptive
behavior pattern, lasting more than 1 month, in which a person continues to use a substance after
knowingly being harmed by it or uses it repeatedly in a hazardous situation, such as driving
while intoxicated. Abuse can lead to substance dependence (addiction), which may be
physiological or psychological, or both, is likely to continue into adulthood.
Why do people take drugs in the first place? There are many reasons, ranging from the perceived
pleasure of the experience itself, to the escape that a drug-induced high affords from the
everyday pressures of life, to an attempt to achieve a religious or spiritual state. However, other
factors having little to do with the nature of the experience itself, also lead people to try drugs.
For instance, the highly publicized drug use of role models such as movie stars and professional
athletes, the easy availability of some illegal drugs, and peer pressure all play a role in the
decision to use drugs. In some cases, the motive is simply the thrill of trying something new.
Finally, genetic factors may predispose some people to be more susceptible to drugs and to
become addicted to them. Regardless of the forces that lead a person to begin using drugs, drug
addiction is among the most difficult of all behaviors to modify, even with extensive treatment.
Drugs can produce an altered state of consciousness. However, they vary in how dangerous they
are and in whether they are addictive.
Psychoactive drugs influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. Yet even this
category of drugs is common in most of our lives. If you have ever had a cup of coffee or sipped
a beer, you have taken a psychoactive drug. A large number of individuals have used more

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potent—and more dangerous—psychoactive drugs than coffee and beer affect the nervous
system in very different ways. Some drugs alter the limbic system, and others affect the
operation of specific neurotransmitters across the synapses of neurons. For example, some drugs
block or enhance the release of neurotransmitters, others block the receipt or the removal of a
neurotransmitter, and still others mimic the effects of a particular neurotransmitter.
The most dangerous drugs are addictive. Addictive drugs produce a biological or psychological
dependence in the user, and withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some
cases, may be nearly irresistible. In biologically based addictions, the body becomes so
accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it.
Psychologically based addictions are those in which people believe that they need the drug to
respond to the stresses of daily living. Although we generally associate addiction with drugs such
as heroin, everyday sorts of drugs, such as caffeine (found in coffee) and nicotine (found in
cigarettes), have addictive aspects as well.
We know surprisingly little about the underlying causes of addiction. One of the problems in
identifying those causes is that different drugs (such as alcohol and cocaine) affect the brain in
very different ways—yet they may be equally addicting. Furthermore, it takes longer to become
addicted to some drugs than to others, even though the ultimate consequences of addiction may
be equally grave.
Some adolescents abuse substances to escape the pains of growing up, to cope with daily
stresses, or to befriend peers who are part of a particular crowd. As alluring symbols of
adulthood, alcohol and tobacco/nicotine are the easily available drugs of choice for adolescents.
Alcohol is a depressant that acts to lower inhibitions while inducing pleasant state of relaxation.
Nicotine is a stimulant that allegedly produces a pleasant state of arousal. Marijuana, which
contains tetra hydro cannabinol (THC), is the most widely used illicit substance in the United
States. It produces a mild altered state of consciousness.
6.3. Juvenile Delinquency and other Antisocial Behaviour in Adolescence
Peer pressure during adolescence is strong; sometimes so much so that teenagers engage in
antisocial acts. The term Juvenile delinquency is a legal phrase that refers to a young person,
generally under 18 years of age, who engages in behaviour that is punishable by law. Two
categories of delinquency are:

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 Adolescents who commit crimes punishable by law (such as robbery, rape, homicide, illegal
drug use or aggravated assault).
 Adolescents who commit offenses ordinarily not considered criminal for adults (such as
truancy, underage drinking, running away or curfew violation).
Adolescents, especially males, are responsible for nearly half of crimes committed, especially
against property. The likelihood of a teenager becoming a juvenile delinquent is determined
more by lack of parental supervision and discipline than socioeconomic status.
Adolescent rebellion may grow out of tension between adolescents’ desire for immediate
gratification and parents’ insistence on delayed gratification. Parents who are unwilling or
unavailable to socialize younger children may be setting them up for problems later in
adolescence. While some offenders are sent to juvenile reform facilities, others are given lesser
punishments, such as probation or community service. Still others are court-mandated to seek
mental health therapy. Fortunately, most juvenile delinquents eventually grow up to be law-
abiding and contributing citizens.
6.4. Depression, Stress, and Suicide
Although the vast majority of teenagers pass through adolescence without major psychological
difficulties (such as stress), some experience unusually severe psychological problems (such as
depression). As many as 40 percent of adolescents have periods of depression, a type of mood
disorder characterized by feelings of low self-esteem and worthlessness, loss of interest in life
activities, and changes in eating and sleeping patterns. Some psychologists suggest that the sharp
rise in stress that teenagers experience—in terms of academic and social pressure, alcoholism,
drug abuse, and life challenges, family difficulties, hormonal changes, and/or concerns about
appearance —provokes the most troubled adolescents to take their own lives.
A real and tragic consequence of teenage depression is suicide (adolescents take their own lives).
Risk factors include feelings of hopelessness, suicidal preoccupation, a previous suicide attempt,
having a specific plan to carry out the suicide, having access to firearms or sleeping pills, and
stressful life events. Suicide is the third leading cause of death in adolescents. As with adults,
more teenage females attempt suicide, but more teenage males actually die from their attempts.
Females use less violent methods (such as taking pills) than males, who tend to use more
extreme and irreversible methods (such as shooting themselves).

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If you know someone who shows signs that he or she is suicidal, urge that person to seek
professional help. You may need to take assertive action, such as enlisting the assistance of
family members or friends. Talk of suicide is a serious signal for help, not a confidence to be
kept.
6.5.Eating Disorders
Eating disorders have become increasingly common in adolescence. Eating disorders involve a
preoccupation with food. Three common eating disorders in adolescence are Eating disorders
obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. The most common of these among teenagers is
obesity, which is defined as body weight that is more than 20 percent above the average weight
for a person of a particular height. Some causes of obesity are too little physical activity and poor
eating habits. Obesity carries with it the potential for social stigma, psychological distress, and
chronic health problems. Approximately 15 to 20 percent of adolescents are obese in developed
country.
A preoccupation with not becoming obese can lead to Anorexia nervosa, or self-starvation.
Anorexia nervosa is a severe eating disorder in which teenage girls may refuse to eat while
denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual. The
typical
anorexic is a model teenager who is obsessed with food—buying, cooking, and preparing it—but
who eats very little herself. She is probably a perfectionist and has a distorted self-perception of
her body, believing herself to be too fat. The anorexic is generally 20 percent under her ideal
weight. As many as 1 percent of adolescent girls are anorexic; 2 to 8 percent of them eventually
die from starvation.
Related to anorexia is Bulimia nervosa, a disorder that follows a pattern of binge-purge eating.
After eating an enormous amount of food, bulimics vomit, take laxatives, or exercise vigorously
to burn off recently consumed calories. Bulimics, like anorexics, are obsessed with food, weight,
and body shape. Unlike anorexics, they maintain a relatively normal body weight.
Both anorexia and bulimia are far more common among females than males. They also cross all
levels of society. The exact causes of these eating disorders are unknown.
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction

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“What sort of creatures are we?”
Ever since the beginning of recorded history, the most significant question to be answered is that
“What sort of creatures are we?” Many possibilities have been explored, with an enormous
variety of concepts employed yet a satisfactory answer still is not found. Additionally, there is
individual differences - Of the several billion people who presently inhabit the earth, no two
individuals are exactly alike even the identical twins. One important reason for the difficulty in
getting a clear answer is that human beings come in many shapes and sizes and behave in
exceedingly complex ways. There are so many differences to be accounted for biological,
physical, genetics, social and psychological. The vast differences among them have made it
difficult, if not impossible, to identify what they share in common as members of the human
race. Personality psychology is concerned with the differences among the people.
Therefore, this chapter will introduce you the concept of personality psychology, main patterns
and elements of personality, differences in the patterns of personality and the origin and some of
the salient issues regarding temperament.
1.1. The Meaning of Personality Psychology
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies about personality and individual
differences. One emphasis in this field is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or
her major psychological processes (Bradberry, 2007). Another emphasis views personality as the
study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third area
of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one other. These three
viewpoints merge together in the study of personality.
Personality psychology looks for answers to numerous questions like;
 In what ways do human beings differ?
 In what situations and along what dimensions do they differ?
 Why do they differ?
 How much do they differ?
 How consistent are human differences?
 Can they be measured?
Personality psychology is also known as personology, the study of the person, that is, the whole
human individual. Most people, when they think of personality, are actually thinking of
personality differences - types and traits and the like. This is certainly an important part of

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personality psychology, since one of the characteristics of persons is that they can differ from
each other quite a bit. But the main part of personality psychology addresses the broader issue of
"what is it to be a person."
1.2. The Meaning of Personality
The word "personality" originates from the Greek word ‘persona’, which means mask. The
masks worn by theatrical players in ancient Greek dramas term came to encompass the actor’s roles as
well. Thus, personality is the public personality that people display to those around them. The term
personality has many meanings, even within psychology there is disagreement about the
meaning of the term. In fact, there may be as many different meanings of the term “personality”
as there are psychologists who have tried to define it, the pioneer American psychologist;
Gordon Allport defined it as “a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical
systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings.”
Therefore, personality refers to the overall impression that an individual makes on others, that is,
a sum total or constellation of characteristics that are typical of the individual and thus
observable in various social settings.
Personality can also be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a
person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various
situations (Ryckman, 2004). It is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the
individual that is organized and relatively enduring and that influences his or her interactions
with, and adaptations to the environment (i.e. intra-psychic, physical, and social environment).
1.3. Features of Personality
The above definition indicates that personality is relatively enduring, consistent and unique to the
individual. The following are elements of personality pattern:
a) Personality is a set of traits or characteristics that describe the ways in which people are
different from each other.
b) Psychological Mechanisms refers to the processes of personality. Most Psychological
Mechanisms involve information processing activity. They are not activated all the time
rather they are activated under particular conditions or situations.
c) Within the individual means that personality is something that a person carries with him over
time and from one situation to next. So we are stable and consistent across time and situation.
Example we feel as the same person we were yesterday, last week or month.

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d) Personality is organized because traits and mechanisms are organized or linked to one
another in a coherent fashion. Suppose that you have two desires or needs you are hungry
and you have to appear for a job interview. Our personality is organized in the sense that it
contains decision rules which govern and control which needs are to be activated and which
needs are to be inactive. So in the example the hunger need is to be inactive or passive and
the need for the preparation for the interview is to be activated.
e) Influential forces in personality means that traits and mechanisms can act as influence how
we act, how we view our selves, how we feel, how we interact with the world, how we select
our environments, how we react to our circumstances so personality plays a key role in how
people shape their lives.
f) Person- environment interaction is perhaps a difficult and complex feature of personality.
Perception refers to how we see and interpret environment. Example smile of a clown and of
a stranger are seen and interpreted differently one as friendly and other with suspicion.
g) Adaptation conveys the notion that central feature of personality concerns adaptive
functioning such as accomplishing goals, coping, adjusting and dealing with challenges and
problems we face as we go through life. Example: People who worry a lot receive a lot of
social support and encouragement as a reward therefore they adapt to the concept of
worrying.
h) Different Environments: There are three types of environments which influence our behavior,
namely physical, social and intra-psychic. Now let us talk about them one by one:
1- The physical environment often poses challenges for people some of these are direct threats
to the survival, such as extreme temperatures, snakes, spiders, heights etc.
2- Social environment also poses challenges such as we desire friends, mates, love,
belongingness and unconditional positive regard.
3- Intra-psychic environment: We have memories, dreams, desires, fantasies, and a collection
of private experiences we live every day. The three physical, social and Intra- psychic are
the ones which are equally important for the survival of individual.
1.2. Patterns of Personality, their differences and elements
According to Kluckhohn & Murray (1948), every individual is similar to others in all respects
while in certain respects the individual is similar to others and different from others. These
researchers state that there are three levels of personality analysis which are described as follow:

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Every individual is:
1- Like all others (the human nature level)
This means, some traits or mechanisms are possessed by all of us. For example nearly every
human being has language skills which allow him (her) to learn and use language, so spoken
language is a universal human nature. At the psychological level all humans possess fundamental
psychological mechanism for example to live in harmony and to belong to social groups so there
are many ways in which each person is like every other person.
2- Like some others (the level of individual and group differences)
This second level pertains to individual and group differences. In individual differences there are
people who love to go out, have parties and socialize, while we have people who want to be
alone, read a book or listen to music, so there are ways or dimensions in which each person is
like some others (introverts, extroverts). When we say there is group difference, people in one
group may have certain personality features in common and these common features make them
different from other groups. Examples: Different cultures, different age groups, different
genders, different political parties.
3- Like no others (the individual uniqueness level)
There are no two similar individuals, even identical twins raised by the same parents in the same
home, country and culture are different. This indicates that no two individuals have exactly the
same personalities. Personality psychology focuses on the uniqueness of individual differences.
The important point is that personality psychology is concerned with all the three levels of
personality analysis: Every individual is
1-Like all others (universal level)
2-Like some others (individual and group level)
3-Like no others (the individual uniqueness level)
1.3. Personality Syndromes/Pattern
Personality Syndrome refers to a cluster of characteristics that occur together.
1.4. Temperament and Personality
Definitions, Origins and Characteristics of Temperament
What is temperament? What is the role of temperament in personality development?
If you were to spend a week working in the nursery, you could probably identify the active
babies, the ones who cry frequently and hopefully a few who are usually quiet and happy.

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Although it is possible these differences are the result of different treatment the children receive
at home, but, a growing number of researchers are convinced these general behavioral styles are
present at birth. Further, they argue that these general styles are relatively stable and influence
the development of personality traits throughout a person’s life. But does this mean that some
people are born to be sociable and others are born to be shy? Probably not! More likely we are
born with broad dispositions toward certain types of behaviors. Psychologists refer to these
general behavioral dispositions as temperaments.
Temperament is a consistent style of behavior and emotional reactions that are present from
infancy onward, presumably due to biological influences (Clonigner, 2004).
Temperament implies a genetic foundation for individual differences in personality.
Temperaments are general patterns of behavior and mood that can be expressed in many
different ways and that, depending on one’s experiences, develop into different personality traits.
How these general dispositions develop into stable personality traits depends on a complex
interplay of one’s genetic predispositions and the environment that a person grows up in.
Temperament is defined as constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor and
attentional reactivity and self-regulation, showing consistency across situations and relative
stability over time (Rothbart and Derryberry 1981). The term ‘constitutional’ refers to links
between temperament and biology. The term ‘reactivity’ refers to the latency, rise time, intensity
and duration of the person’s responsiveness to stimulation. The term ‘self-regulation’ refers to
processes that serve to modulate reactivity; these include behavioral approach, withdrawal,
inhibition and executive or effortful attention.
Although researchers agree that temperaments are general behavioral patterns that can often be
seen in newborns (Buss, 1991), they do not always agree on how to classify the different kinds of
temperaments they observe (Evans & Rothbart, 2007). Indeed, researchers often disagree on the
number of basic temperaments. One popular model identifies three temperament dimensions:
emotionality, activity, and sociability (Buss & Plomin, 1986).
(1) Emotionality refers to the intensity of emotional reactions. Children, who cry frequently,
easily frightened, and often express anger are high in this temperament. As adults, these
individuals are easily upset and may have a “quick temper.”
(2) Activity refers to a person’s general level of energy. Children high in this temperament move
around a lot, prefer games that require running and jumping, and tend to fidget and squirm

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when forced to sit still for an extended period of time. Adults high on this dimension are
always on the go and prefer high-energy activities like playing sports and dancing in their
free time.
(3) Sociability relates to a general tendency to affiliate and interact with others. Sociable
children seek out other children to play with. Adults high in this temperament have a lot of
friends and enjoy social gatherings.
The process through which general temperaments develop into personality traits is complex and
influenced by a large number of factors (Rothbart, 2007). Although the child’s general level of
emotionality or activity points the development of personality in a certain direction, that
development is also influenced by the child’s experiences as he or she grows up (Neiderhiser, &
Reiss, 2008). For example, a highly emotional child has a better chance of becoming an
aggressive adult than does a child low in this temperament. But parents who encourage problem-
solving skills over the expression of anger may turn a highly emotional child into a cooperative,
nonaggressive adult. A child low in sociability is unlikely to become an outgoing, highly
gregarious adult, but that child might develop excellent social skills, be a wonderful friend, and
learn to lead others with a quiet, respectful style. In short, adult personalities are determined by
both inherited temperament and the environment.
Moreover, temperament influences the environment, and the environment then influences the
way temperament develops into stable personality traits. Two children born with identical
temperaments can grow up to be two very different people. A child with a high activity level
may become an aggressive, achieving, or athletic adult. But that child will probably not become
lazy and indifferent. A child does not represent a blank slate on which parents may draw
whatever personality they desire. But neither is a child’s personality set at birth, leaving the
parents and society to settle for whatever they get.
Temperament and personality represent two distinct but interrelated approaches to studying
individuality.
Developmental research to date indicates that the reactive systems of emotion and orienting are
in place before the development of executive effortful attention (Posner and Rothbart 2007). In
the newborn, individual differences in irritability and orienting can be observed along with
variations in alertness, and by two to three months, infants demonstrate clear positive responses
to stimulation. Early forms of what will later be called Extraversion or Surgency are present in

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the smiling, laughter and rapid approach of infants to a novel object by six months, and measures
of approach tendencies and smiling and laughter at this early age predict children’s extraverted
tendencies at seven years (Rothbart, Derryberry and Hershey, 2000). Throughout early
development, children who are more extraverted also appear to express greater anger and
frustration, and are more prone to externalizing disorders (Rothbart and Bates 2006).
More extrovert temperament may also be a protective factor in a highly stressful environment.
For instance, children who are more sociable may attract warmth and responsiveness from
adults, thereby protecting them from the effects of poor parenting (Werner 1985). Better social
skills have also been shown for children whose temperament matched parental expectations and
desires, who were more persistent, and whose parents were higher on warmth (Paterson and
Sanson, 1999). When infants are four months of age, their distress and body movement to
laboratory-presented stimulation predict later fear and behavioral inhibition. Positive affect and
body movement, on the other hand, predict later surgency.
Infants’ behavioral approaches tendencies are also measured at six months, and their latency to
reach and grasp objects and their smiling and laughter also predict later surgency (Rothbart and
Evans, 2000). The onset of fear or behavioral inhibition in the last quarter of the first year of life
appears to work in opposition to the infant’s approach tendencies, in that some infants who
formerly rapidly approached novel objects are now slowed in their response to novel stimuli, and
may not approach at all. They may also show distress to threatening objects (Rothbart 1988). As
with approach tendencies, individual differences in fearful behavioral inhibition show
considerable stability across childhood and even into adolescence (Kagan 1998). It has also been
related to later development of internalizing disorders such as anxiety (Fox 2004). Morris et al.
(2002) found that mothers’ psychological control predicted internalizing behavior and mothers’
hostility predicted externalizing behavior among children high in irritable distress.
In another study, fear-related control of behavior can be seen in the early development of
conscience (Kochanska, Aksan and Joy 2007), with fearful children more likely to show early
development of conscience. In addition, fearful children whose mothers use gentle discipline,
presumably capitalizing on the child’s tendency to experience anxious states, are especially
likely to develop internalized conscience. Kochanska et al. (2007) have replicated findings by
Kochanska (1997) that, among children who were less fearful at twenty-two months, a positive
mother-child relationship rather than maternal discipline at twenty-two months predicted a

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stronger moral self at three years. More fearful infants also later tend to be empathetic and
susceptible to guilt reactions in childhood (Rothbart, Ahadi and Hershey 1994). Thus, fear can be
seen as a basic control mechanism that is important in socialization, with the pathway toward
conscience altered depending on the fearfulness of the child.
Beyond the inhibitory control provided by fear, later developing Effortful Control makes a
crucial contribution to socialization. Effortful Control is defined as the ability to inhibit a pre-
potent response and to activate a non-prepotent response, to detect errors and to engage in
planning. As executive attention skills develop in the second or third years of life and beyond,
individuals can voluntarily deploy their attention, allowing them to regulate their more reactive
tendencies (Posner and Rothbart 2007; Ruff and Rothbart 1996). All these researches indicate the
nature and development of temperaments across the ages.
CHAPTER TWO
2. DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Introduction
There are a number of factors that mainly put its impact in the development of personality; we
review some of the aspects stressed by various personality theorists in their attempts to explain
the determinants of personality. The major determinants of personality are physical, intellectual,
sexual, environmental, socio-cultural and psychological; these issues will be dealt in detail in this
chapter.
2.1. Physical Determinants
Physical differences i.e. differences in height, weight, complexion, bodily form or defects
influence personality of the individual. For example a child who is short statured may develop a
feeling of inferiority if other persons tease him. Similarly if the person is overweight his
playmates, class fellows and friends tease him and he will develop inferiority feelings.
Additionally, physically handicapped children have no well developed personalities as compared
to normal children. For example, blindness or weak eyesight, deafness or dull hearing directly
influences the development of personality. But, a person who has good health, strength, energy
and vigor generally develops emotionally balanced attitude towards life and takes part in various
types of competition. On the other hand, the person who is physically inferior develops an
unbalanced personality and generally cannot take part in various competitions.
2.2. Intellectual Determinants

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Intelligence: There is definitely some relationship between intelligence and personality.
Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make better adjustment in
home, school and society than those persons who are less intelligent.
The field of evolutionary psychology also stresses the role of genetics and evolved adaptations in
its explanation of personality. Thus, the question is not whether genes influence personality, but
rather to what degree and in what manner. The question of how much personality is influenced
by inheritance is as old as psychology itself. The nativism–empiricism controversy (the nature–
nurture controversy) exists in every major category within psychology, including personality
theory. In general, the nativists claim that an important attribute, such as intelligence, is largely
genetically determined. The nativist would say, for example, that the maximum level of
intelligence that people can attain is determined at conception, and life’s circumstances, at best,
can help people to realize this genetically determined intellectual potential. The empiricist,
conversely, believes that people’s major attributes largely created by experience. Intelligence, to
the empiricist, is determined more by people’s experiences than by their genetic endowment. To
the empiricist, the upper limit of a person’s intelligence is found in the environment, not in the
genes.
2.3. Sex Determinants
Sex differences: Boys are generally more assertive, tough minded and vigorous. They have
better need to succeed with regard to interest and aptitudes. Boys show interest in machinery and
outdoor activities. They prefer adventures. But girls are less vigorous games. They are quieter,
and interested in personal appearance. They have better sense of fine art. They are more injured
by personal, emotional and social problems. Thus sex differences play a vital role in the
development of personality of individual.
2.4. Family Determinants
Familial factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality.
Family consists of husband and wife and their children's. Family role is very important for
nurturing and personality development of their children. Family will guide, supervise, take care
of all family members, cooperation, Organizational Behavior coordination and cooperation in
work and also explained the role and responsibilities towards the family, society and real life.
Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individual personality.
Family atmosphere if disruptive will produce disrupted, delinquent, backward and maladjusted

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personalities. The number of members in the family, birth order of the child, emotional climate
of the family, outlook of parents, cultural and economic conditions of the family has an
important bearing in personality formation. Family life pattern such as family life aims
ambitions, aspirations and attitudes of parents; their emotional stability or instability; their
overprotection or under protection of children- all these factors are important in personality
development of the individual.
2.5. Social Determinants
Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. It
involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society. It refers to acquiring of
wide range of personality by acquiring and absorbed by themselves in the society or an
organization. Socialization process is starting from home and extending to work environment in
an organization or society. It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and
interaction among the members in the society or an organization or a family. In totally,
environment factors consist of cultural factors, family factors, and social factors.
2.6. Environmental Determinants
i. Geographical environment and personality: Physical or geographical conditions or areas
that we dwell influence the personality of the individual. People of cold countries are
industrious and hard working.
ii. Early childhood experiences and personality: Childhood experiences play a very important
role in the development of the individual. Tensions and emotional upsetting of early life
influence personality development. Methods of breast feeding and toilet training do play a
significant role in the personality development as of the Freud’s theory.
iii. Neighborhood: If the people in the neighborhood are cultured and educated then the child
may also grow into a good person through imitation and modeling.
iv. Friends and Companions: Psychologists like Burt and Kretschmer view that friends and
companions greatly affect the personality of the child. Children of laborers go to third rate
school and play with half naked children in dirty streets or slums. They live amidst hunger
and poverty. This may lead to delinquency. Children of upper class may go to first rate
school and their companions also belong to upper class. This may develop in them a
superiority feeling for higher social status.
v. School: School plays a vital role in the development of personality:

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a) Teacher’s personality, i.e. his attitudes, beliefs, ideas, habits, ambitions, aspirations,
sentiments and emotional maturity affect the personality development of the child.
b) Curriculum of school i.e. richness or drabness of curriculum also affects the personality
of an individual.
c) Methods of teaching and co-curricular activities also influence personality
development.
d) General atmosphere in school: congenial or uncongenial atmosphere influence
personality development.
vi. Radio, clubs, cinemas have a significant role to play in the personality development.
Children can learn a lot from these agencies of education.
vii. Names and personality: impressive names may give us an air of superiority and poor or
undesirable names are source of resentment. These names shape our ideas of ourselves and
hence influence personality development.
viii. Clothes and personality: if we wear funny clothes people will laugh at us and as a result we
may develop inferiority complex. Our clothes should resemble with great persons whom we
admire. The type of clothes we prefer also indicates our personality.
2.7. Psychological Determinants of Personality
Psychological factors play a big role in the functioning of the human behavior and development
of one’s personality. They focus on with the ways in which individuals differ from one another
in their emotions, self concepts, in physiological characteristics and even in their intra-psychic
mechanisms. The focus should be on the origin of these differences and how these develop and
how they are maintained. So traits or motives or cognitions are the raw material of personality
development. The goal of the psychologist is to identify and measure the important ways in
which individuals differ from one another. To conclude we can say that psychological factors are
affected by hereditary and environment. Hereditary supplies the raw material, culture supplies
the design, while family is the craftsman because it is the parents who carry the culture of the
society to the child. Thus hereditary and environment both play very important role in the
development of the personality of the individual.

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CHAPTER THREE
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
A personality theory is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles proposed to
explain personality. In this chapter, we can only explore a few of the many personality theories.
These are the four major perspectives we will consider:
1. Psychodynamic theories focus on the inner workings of personality, especially internal
conflicts and struggles.
2. Trait and type theories attempt to learn what traits make up personality and how they relate
to actual behavior.
3. Behavioral and social learning theories place importance on the external environment and
on the effects of conditioning and learning. Social learning theories attribute differences in
personality to socialization, expectations, and mental processes.
4. Humanistic theories stress on private, subjective experience, and personal growth.
3.1. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality
How do psychodynamic theories explain personality?
Psychodynamic theorists are not content with studying traits. Instead, they try to probe under the
surface of personality to learn what drives, conflicts, and energies animate us. Psychodynamic
theorists believe that many of our actions are based on hidden, or unconscious, thoughts, needs,
and emotions. Psychodynamic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of
various components of personality. Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school. Freud drew
on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea
of converting heat into mechanical energy, he proposed that psychic energy could be converted
into behavior. Freud’s theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological
conflicts.
Psychoanalytic theory, the best-known psychodynamic approach, grew out of the work of
Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician. As a doctor, Freud was fascinated by patients whose
problems seemed to be more emotional than physical. From about 1890 until he died in 1939,
Freud evolved a theory of personality that deeply influenced modern thought (Jacobs, 2003;
Schultz & Schultz, 2005). Let’s consider some of its main features.
The Structures of Personality

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How did Freud view personality? Freud’s model portrays personality as a dynamic system
directed by three mental structures, the id, the ego, and the superego. Let’s discuss each of them:
The Id: is made up of innate biological instincts and urges. It is self-serving, irrational,
impulsive, and totally unconscious. The id operates on the pleasure principle. That is, it seeks to
freely express pleasure-seeking urges of all kinds. If we were solely under control of the id, the
world would be chaotic beyond belief. The id acts as a well of energy for the entire psyche, or
personality. This energy, called libido, flows from the life instincts (or Eros). According to
Freud, libido underlies our efforts to survive, as well as our sexual desires and pleasure seeking.
Freud also described a death instinct, Thanatos, as he called it, produces aggressive and
destructive urges. Freud offered humanity’s long history of wars and violence as evidence of
such urges. Most id energies, then, are aimed at discharging tensions related to sex and
aggression.
The Ego: is sometimes described as the “executive,” because it directs energies supplied by the
id. What is the difference between the ego and the id? Recall that the id operates on the pleasure
principle. The ego, in contrast, is guided by the reality principle. The ego is the system of
thinking, planning, and problem solving, and deciding. It is in conscious control of the
personality and often delays the id’s action until it is practical or appropriate.
The Superego: The superego acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego.
One part of the superego, called the conscience, reflects actions for which a person has been
punished. When standards of the conscience are not met, you are punished internally by guilt
feelings. A second part of the superego is the ego ideal. The ego ideal reflects all behavior one’s
parents approved of or rewarded. The ego ideal is a source of goals and aspirations. When its
standards are met, we feel pride. The superego acts as an “internalized parent” to bring behavior
under control. In Freudian terms, a person with a weak superego will be a delinquent, criminal,
or antisocial personality. In contrast, an overly strict or harsh superego may cause inhibition,
rigidity, or unbearable guilt.
The Dynamics of Personality
How do the id, ego, and superego interact? Freud didn’t picture the id, ego, and superego as
parts of the brain or as “little people” running the human psyche. Instead, they are conflicting
mental processes. Freud theorized a delicate balance of power among the three. For example, the

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id’s demands for immediate pleasure often clash with the superego’s moral restrictions. Perhaps
an example will help clarify the role of each part of the personality.
Let’s say you are sexually attracted to an acquaintance. The id clamors for immediate
satisfaction of its sexual desires but is opposed by the superego (which finds the very thought of
sex shocking). The id says, “Go for it!” The superego icily replies, “Never even think that
again!” And what does the ego say? The ego says, “I have a plan!” Of course, this is a drastic
simplification, but it does capture the core of Freudian thinking. To reduce tension, the ego could
begin actions leading to friendship, romance, courtship, and marriage. If the id is unusually
powerful, the ego may give in and attempt a seduction. If the superego prevails, the ego may be
forced to displace or sublimate sexual energies to other activities (sports, music, dancing, push-
ups, and cold showers). According to Freud, internal struggles and rechanneled energies typify
most personality functioning.
Is the ego always caught in the middle? Basically yes, and the pressures on it can be intense. In
addition to meeting the conflicting demands of the id and superego, the overworked ego must
deal with external reality. According to Freud, you feel anxiety when your ego is threatened or
overwhelmed. Impulses from the id cause neurotic anxiety when the ego can barely keep them
under control. It is caused by the fear that the ego will be unable to control the id instincts
particularly those of a sexual or aggressive nature. Threats of punishment from the superego
cause moral anxiety. It occurs whenever the id strives toward active expression of immoral
thoughts or acts and the superego responds with feeling of shame, guilt, and self-condemnation.
Realistic anxiety is synonymous with fear and may have a debilitating effect on the individual’s
ability to cope effectively with the source of danger. Each person develops habitual ways of
calming these anxieties, and many resort to using ego-defense mechanisms to lessen internal
conflicts. Defense Mechanisms are mental processes that deny, distort, or otherwise block out
sources of threat and anxiety.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
The major psychodynamic functions of anxiety are to help the individual avoid conscious
recognition of unacceptable instinctual impulses and to allow impulse gratification only
indirectly. Ego defense mechanisms help to carry out these functions as well as to protect the
person from overwhelming anxiety.
(1) By blocking the impulse from expression in conscious behavior

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(2) By distorting it to such a degree that the original intensity is markedly reduced or deflected.
They operate an on unconscious level and are therefore self-deceptive and they distort one’s
perception of reality, so as to make anxiety less threatening to the individual and they protect the
ego. The ego fights a battle to stay at the top of id and super ego. The conflicts between id and
super ego produce anxiety that is a threat to ego. The threat or anxiety experienced by ego is a
signal that alerts the ego to use unconscious protective processes that keep primitive emotions
associated with conflicts in check. These protective processes are defense mechanisms. Let’s
have a look at some defense mechanisms:
Repression is an attempt by the ego to keep undesirable id impulses from reaching
consciousness. It occurs entirely on an unconscious level, and involves preventing unpleasant
experiences that are repulsive to the ego from reaching consciousness. Repressed memories are
not under the conscious control of the person.
Suppression involves the individual’s active and conscious attempt to stop anxiety-provoking
thoughts by simply not thinking about them. If a high school student finds herself thinking sexual
thoughts about her teacher, she may actively suppress them because of her moral training. The
thoughts would then be stored in the preconscious and could be reactivated and made conscious
by the student through an exertion of her will.
Denial refers to a person’s refusal to perceive an unpleasant event in external reality. In adults,
the use of denial may be normal during times of extreme stress. For example, we may engage in
denial when we are told of the death of a loved one. Our disbelief allows us to cope with the
shock and to assimilate it in a more gradual and less painful manner.
Displacement refers to the unconscious attempt to obtain gratification for id impulses by shifting
them to substitute objects if objects that would directly satisfy the impulses are not available. For
example, a young boy who is insulted by a strong teenager may not be able to retaliate for fear
that the adolescent might physically hurt him. Instead, he may vent his anger on someone smaller
and weaker than he is. In this case, a substitute object is sought so that the impulse can be
gratified, even though aggressing against the weaker child will not be as satisfying as aggressing
against the teenage antagonist.
Sublimation is a form of displacement in which the unacceptable id impulses themselves are
transformed, rather than the object at which they aim. The unacceptable impulses are displaced
by ones that are socially acceptable (Freud, 1946). A woman with a strong need for aggression

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may channel her energies into activities that are socially acceptable—becoming, for example, an
outstanding soldier or a world-class athlete. By so doing, she can demonstrate her superiority and
domination of others, but in a way that contributes to society.
Regression is a movement from mature behavior to immature behavior. That is, when the ego is
threatened, the person may revert to an earlier, more infantile form of behavior as a means of
coping with the stress. For example, a 6-year-old boy might start sucking his thumb or cling to
his mother on the first day of school. Or a woman who learns that she has not been promoted to a
higher paying job in the company may storm into her supervisor’s office and have a temper
tantrum. Or a man who is having marital difficulties may leave the home he shares with his wife
and move back into his parents’ house.
Projection When a person protects the ego by attributing his or her own undesirable
characteristics to others, we might infer that projection has taken place (Freud, 1938). For
example, a girl who hates her mother may be convinced that her mother hates her. A student who
cheats on examinations may continually assert that other students received high grades because
they cheated. Cramer (2002) found that young adult males (but not females) who chronically
used projection as a defense were distrustful, aloof, and antagonistic toward others.
Reaction formation is the process of converting an undesirable impulse into its opposite is
known as reaction formation. Freud considered it a lower form of sublimation (Freud, 1938). A
man who hates his wife and yet is exceedingly kind to her would be a pertinent example. He
could be said to be killing her with kindness.
Rationalization is the justification of behavior through the use of plausible, but inaccurate,
excuses. For example, a young athlete, dropped from the team because of lack of ability, comes
to the conclusion that he did not really want to be on the team because it is going to lose so many
games.
Intellectualization is a process that allows individuals to protect themselves against unbearable
pain. It involves dissociation between one’s thoughts and feelings. For example, a woman may
conjure up an elaborate rationale to explain the death of her young husband. By citing reasons
and focusing on the logic of her argument, she may avoid, for a while at least, the tremendous
pain associated with such a traumatic experience.

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Undoing Sometimes a person who thinks or acts on an undesirable impulse makes amends by
performing some action that nullifies the undesirable one. Such actions are typically irrational
and can be seen in various superstitious rituals and some religious ceremonies. By performing
the undoing act, the person is convinced that the wrong he or she committed has been rectified.
For example, a boy who has continual thoughts about masturbation and believes that they are
evil may wash his hands frequently as a means of cleansing himself.
Levels of Awareness
Freud’s fundamental assumption about our mental life was that it is divided into three parts: the
conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious refers to those ideas and
sensations of which we are aware. It operates on the surface of personality, and plays a relatively
small role in personality development and functioning. While it is true that psychologically
healthy people have a greater awareness of their experiences than do unhealthy ones, still Freud
believed that even relatively mature people are governed, to a degree greater than they would
care to admit, by unconscious needs and conflicts.
The preconscious contains those experiences that are unconscious but that could become
conscious with little effort. For example, you may have forgotten the foods you had for supper
yesterday, but you could probably recall them readily if you were asked to list them for a
dietician who is trying to help you lose weight. The preconscious exists just beneath the surface
of awareness. In contrast, the unconscious operates on the deepest level of personality. It
consists of those experiences and memories of which we are not aware. Such mental states
remain out of awareness because making them conscious would create tremendous pain and
anxiety for us. The unconscious could include sexual abuse that we experienced during early
childhood at the hands of a parent, relative, or family friend. It could consist of incestuous
feelings, strong emotional reactions of anger or rage toward certain authority figures, or painful
feelings of shame and humiliation growing out of competitive experiences. A key point is that
such repressed memories do not simply disappear once they have been thrust from awareness;
they continue to operate outside awareness, and seek expression in various defensive, disguised,
and distorted ways. Unconscious ideas, memories, and experiences may continually interfere
with conscious and rational behavior.
Personality Development

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How does psychoanalytic theory explain personality development? Freud theorized that the core
of personality is formed before age 6 in a series of psychosexual stages. Freud believed that
erotic urges in childhood have lasting effects on development. As you might expect, this is a
controversial idea. However, Freud used the terms “sex” and “erotic” very broadly to refer to
many physical sources of pleasure.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Freud identified four psychosexual stages, the oral, anal, phallic, and genital. (He also described
a period of “latency” between the phallic and genital stages. Latency is explained in a moment.)
At each stage, a different part of the body becomes a child’s primary erogenous zone (an area
capable of producing pleasure). Each area then serves as the main source of pleasure, frustration,
and self-expression. Freud believed that many adult personality traits can be traced to fixations in
one or more of the stages.
What is a fixation? A fixation is an unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by
overindulgence or by frustration. As we describe the psychosexual stages you’ll see why Freud
considered fixations important.
The Oral Stage: During the first year of life, most of an infant’s pleasure comes from
stimulation of the mouth. If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits may be created. Adult
expressions of oral needs include gum chewing; nail biting, smoking, kissing, overeating, and
alcoholism. What if there is an oral fixation? Fixation early in the oral stage produces an oral-
dependent personality. Oral-dependent persons are gullible (they swallow things easily!) and
passive and need lots of attention (they want to be mothered and showered with gifts).
Frustrations later in the oral stage may cause aggression, often in the form of biting. Fixations
here create cynical, oral-aggressive adults who exploit others. They also like to argue. (“Biting
sarcasm” is their gift!)
The Anal Stage: Between the ages of 1 and 3, the child’s attention shifts to the process of
elimination. When parents attempt toilet training, the child can gain approval or express rebellion
or aggression by “holding on” or by “letting go.” Therefore, harsh or lenient toilet training can
cause an anal fixation that may lock such responses into personality. Freud described the anal-
retentive (holding-on) personality as obstinate, stingy, orderly, and compulsively clean. The
anal-expulsive (letting-go) personality is disorderly, destructive, cruel, or messy.

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The Phallic Stage: Adult traits of the phallic personality are vanity, exhibitionism, sensitive
pride, and narcissism (self-love). Freud theorized that phallic fixations develop between the ages
of 3 and 6. At this time, increased sexual interest causes the child to be physically attracted to the
parent of the opposite sex. In males this attraction leads to an Oedipus conflict. In it, the boy
feels a rivalry with his father for the affection of his mother. Freud believed that the male child
feels threatened by the father (specifically, the boy fears castration). To ease his anxieties, the
boy must identify with the father. Their rivalry ends when the boy seeks to become more like his
father. As he does, he begins to accept the father’s values and forms a conscience.
What about the female child? Girls experience an Electra conflict. In this case, the girl loves her
father and competes with her mother. However, according to Freud, the girl identifies with the
mother more gradually. Freud believed that females already feel castrated. Because of this, they
are less driven to identify with their mothers than boys are with their fathers. This, he said, is less
effective in creating a conscience. This particular part of Freudian thought has been thoroughly
(and rightfully) rejected by modern experts in the psychology of women. It is better understood
as a reflection of the male-dominated times in which Freud lived.
Latency stage: According to Freud there is a period of latency from age 6 to puberty. Latency is
not so much a stage as it is a quiet time during which psychosexual development is dormant.
Freud’s belief that psychosexual development is “on hold” at this time is hard to accept.
Nevertheless, Freud saw latency as a relatively quiet time compared with the stormy first 6 years
of life.
The Genital Stage: At puberty an upswing in sexual energies activates all the unresolved
conflicts of earlier years. This upsurge, according to Freud, is the reason why adolescence can be
filled with emotion and turmoil. The genital stage begins at puberty. It is marked, during
adolescence, by a growing capacity for responsible social–sexual relationships. The genital stage
ends with a mature capacity for love and the realization of full adult sexuality.
3.1.1.1 The Neo-Freudians
Freud’s ideas quickly attracted a brilliant following. Just as rapidly, the importance Freud placed
on instinctual drives and sexuality caused many to disagree with him. Those who stayed close to
the core of Freud’s thinking are called neo-Freudians (neo means “new”). Neo- Freudians
accepted the broad features of Freud’s theory but revised parts of it. Some of the better-known
neo-Freudians are Karen Horney, Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Otto Rank, and Erich Fromm.

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Other early followers broke away more completely from Freud and created their own opposing
theories. This group includes people such as Alfred Adler, Harry Sullivan, and Carl Jung. For
now, let’s sample four views. The first represents an early rejection of Freud’s thinking (Adler).
The second embraces most but not all of Freud’s theory (Horney). The third involves a carryover
of Freudian ideas into a related but unique theory (Jung). And the fourth is Erich Fromm’s work.
1) Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Adler broke away from Freud because he disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious,
on instinctual drives, and on the importance of sexuality. Adler believed that we are social
creatures governed by social urges, not by biological instincts (Shulman, 2004). According to
Adler, Individual Psychology is a science that attempts to understand the experiences and
behavior of each person as an organized entity. He believed that all actions are guided by a
person’s fundamental attitudes toward life.
The Struggle for Perfection
In Adler’s view, the main driving force in personality is a striving for superiority. This striving,
he said, is a struggle to overcome imperfections or inferiority, an upward drive for competence,
completion, and mastery of shortcomings. People have a purpose in life, to attain perfection and
are motivated to strive toward attainment of this ideal. This movement toward perfection or
completion, this is known as the struggle for perfection. Adler’s efforts is to understand “that
mysterious creative power of life, the power which expresses itself in the desire to develop, to
strive and to achieve and even to compensate for defeats in one direction by striving for success
in another”
What motivates “striving for superiority”? Adler believed that everyone experiences feelings of
inferiority. This occurs mainly because we begin life as small, weak, and relatively powerless
children surrounded by larger and more powerful adults. Feelings of inferiority may also come
from our personal limitations. The struggle for superiority arises from such feelings. Although
everyone strives for superiority, each person tries to compensate for different limitations, and
each chooses a different pathway to superiority. Adler believed that this situation creates a
unique style of life (or personality pattern) for each individual.

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According to Adler the core of each person’s style of life is formed by age 5. (Adler also
believed that valuable clues to a person’s style of life are revealed by the earliest memory that
can be recalled. You might find it interesting to search back to your earliest memory and
contemplate what it tells you.) However, later in his life Adler began to emphasize the existence
of a creative self. By this he meant that humans create their personalities through choices and
experiences.
Creative Evolution and Social Interest: Creative Evolution is an active, continuous movement
and adaptation to the external world—a compulsion to create a better adaptation to the
environment, to master it. We are all born with the potential for social feeling or interest, Adler
believed, but it can only come to fruition with proper guidance and training. He defined social
interest as “a striving for a form of community which must be thought of as everlasting, as it
could be thought of if mankind had reached the goal of perfection” (Adler, 1973). By striving for
others’ goals, we help ourselves as well. This striving also implies respect and consideration for
all human beings.
Style of Life and the Creative Self: Two concepts—the style of life and the creative self—are
closely interrelated in Adlerian theorizing. The style of life, originally called the life plan or
guiding image, refers to the unique ways in which people pursue their goals. The concept of the
creative self implies that people create their own personalities, by actively constructing them out
of their experiences and heredities. As Adler saw it, individuals are the artists of their own
personalities (Adler, 1978). Healthy people are generally aware of the alternatives available to
them in solving problems and choose to act in a rational and responsible manner.
How can we develop healthy personality?
There are three basic problems of life that everyone must meet in order to function in a healthy
psychological way; namely,
Feelings
of
inferiority
Striving for
superiority
to attain
completion
Constructiv
e life style
Psychologic
al health
Striving for
personal
superiority
Destructive
life style Neurosis

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 The problems of society or communal life, work, and love,
 Parental Influence in Early Childhood (Both parents play crucial roles in the development
of their children); and
 Birth Order (The way the child is treated uniquely by his or her parents in relation to
his/her birth order affects their personality).
What are the causes for unhealthy personality?
There are three major sets of environmental factors that may give rise to severely destructive or
neurotic life goals are: organ inferiority, neglect or rejection, and pampering.
 Organ inferiority: interpreting the deficiency in many ways and felling worthlessness.
 Neglect or rejection: being emotionally detached from the children.
 Pampering: overindulge their children by persistently gratifying every wish they have
without requiring them to make any effort to reciprocate.
How to develop constructive life style?
Individuals are likely to learn the importance of equality and cooperation between people, and to
develop goals in accord with social interest. “Honesty is the best policy” and “do unto others as
you would have them do unto you”. Healthy person could change his or her fictional finalisms or
guiding self-ideals if circumstances demanded it i.e. healthy person lives by principles, but is
realistic enough to modify them under exceptional circumstances.
Types of constructive life styles
Adler employed a simple classification scheme to help people understand the nature of
destructive and constructive lifestyles more fully.
The ruling type lacks social interest and courage. Their striving for personal superiority is so
intense that they typically exploit and harm others; they need to control others in order to feel
powerful and significant. As children, ruling types want to exclude stronger children and play
only with weaker children, so that they can dominate. When they become adults, they want to be
conquerors; they want to lord it over their spouses. As parents, they order their children to obey
“because I said so!” As leaders of teenage gangs, they are arrogant and vain; they like to
threaten their followers: They may also try to control people through the use of money, in the
belief that everyone has a price (Mosak, 1977). Adler cited juvenile delinquents, suicidal
individuals, and drug addicts as prime examples of the ruling type.

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The getting types are relatively passive and make little effort to solve their own problems.
Instead, they rely on others to take care of them. Children of many affluent, permissive parents
are given whatever they demand; growing up in such an environment, they have little need to do
things for themselves, and little awareness of their own abilities to be productive or to give to
others. Lacking confidence in themselves, they attempt to surround themselves with people who
are willing to accede to their requests. Getting types frequently use charm to persuade others to
help them (Mosak, 1977).
The avoiding type lacks the confidence necessary for solving crises. Instead of struggling with
their problems, they typically try to sidestep them, thereby avoiding defeat. Such individuals are
often self-absorbed; they are inclined to daydream and create fantasies in which they are always
superior (Adler, 1930).
The socially useful type grow up in families where the members are helpful and supportive of
each other, treat each other with respect and consideration, and are disinclined to handle stress
and problems through conflict and aggression (Leak &Williams, 1991). Instead they have the
courage to face their problems directly as a means of solving them. As adults, their orientation to
family members is based on respect, affection, and friendship and not on manipulation and game
playing (Leak & Gardner). Socially useful people are psychologically healthy. They face life
confidently and are prepared to cooperate with others, contribute to the welfare of others, and
build a better community. They see a life goal of “making a lot of money” as unimportant. In
short, they act in accordance with social interest (Crandall, 1980; Leak, Millard, Perry, &
Williams, 1985).
2) Carl Jung’s Analytic Psychology (1875–1961)
Carl Jung was a student of Freud’s, but the two parted ways as Jung began to develop his own
ideas. Like Freud, Jung called the conscious part of the personality the ego. His theory may be
the most unusual theory in the entire body of work on personality. Although it provides
numerous insights into personality functioning, it is very difficult to understand. It is complex,
esoteric, and, in many respects, obscure. Part of the problem is that Jung read widely in a number
of different disciplines and drew upon materials from psychology, psychiatry, literature, physics,
chemistry, biology, archaeology, philosophy, theology, mythology, history, anthropology,
alchemy, and astrology in his attempts to understand human functioning. Still another difficulty
lies in Jung’s own failure to write clearly.

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Concepts and Principles of Jungian Theory
Jung referred to the total personality as the psyche. He conceived of it as a nonphysical space
that has its own special reality. Through the psyche, psychic energy flows continuously in
various directions. Most importantly, psychic energy is considered an outcome of the conflict
between forces within the personality. Without conflict there is no energy and no life. Love and
hatred of a person can exist within a psyche, creating tension and new energy that seeks
expression in behavior. Thus, he conceived of the psyche as a general entity that operates
according to the principle of opposites.
According to the principle of opposites the various structures of the psyche are continually
opposed to one another. Psychic energy is real and used interchangeably with libido. To him,
libido is a general life process energy, of which sexual urges are only one aspect. Psychic energy
is considered an outcome of the conflict between forces within the personality. Libido also
operates according to the principles of equivalence and entropy.
The principle of equivalence states that “for a given quantity of energy expended or consumed in
bringing about a certain condition, an equal quantity of the same or another form of energy will
appear elsewhere”. In other words, an increase in some aspect of psychic functioning is met by a
compensatory decrease in functioning in another part of the psyche, and a decrease in some
aspect of psychic functioning is met by a compensatory increase in functioning in another area of
the psyche. An increase in concern with occupational success might mean an equivalent loss of
concern with one’s spiritual life, and vice versa. Jung’s position is similar in this respect to
Freud’s notion of displacement.
The principle of entropy refers to the process within the psyche whereby elements of unequal
strength seek psychological equilibrium. If energy is concentrated in the ego, for example,
tension will be generated in the psyche to move energy from the conscious to the unconscious in
order to create a balance. Consider the example of an outgoing student who acts as if life consists
only of beer parties and endless social activities. Suddenly, he becomes bored and restless and
begins to reflect on the meaning and direction of his life. He begins to explore inner experiences
that were previously unconscious. As a result of these contemplations, he may reduce his social
activities and increase the time he devotes to his studies, thereby becoming a more serious
student, though still not a social isolate. The critical point is that any one-sided development of

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the personality creates conflict, tension, and strain, whereas a more even distribution produces a
more fully mature person.
Archetypes are themes (symbols/images) that have existed in all cultures throughout history; it is
the tendency or predisposition to respond to certain experiences in specific ways. E.g. men and
women in every culture have inherited a tendency to respond to ambiguous and threatening
situations with some form of an all-powerful being that we call God. God is a universal symbol;
such symbols, though real, can never be completely understood (Jung, 1958). Archetypes are,
essentially, thought-forms or ideas that give rise to visions projected onto current experiences.
For example, one of the primary archetypes is the mother–child relationship, which is
characterized by the mother’s protection of the child. Dissolution of this bond must ultimately
occur if the person is to attain adulthood. Jung suggested that the bond is broken in many
primitive cultures when young men undergo rituals of rebirth (Jung, 1961).
What kind of archetypes are there? There are different kinds, persona is the first that refers
mask we wear in order to function adequately in our relationships with other people. This mask
may take as many forms as the roles we play in our daily routines. It also aids in controlling evil
forces in the collective unconscious. Presumably, the persona is an archetype because it is a
universal manifestation of our attempt to deal appropriately with other people. It is “a
compromise between the demands of the environment and the necessities of the individual’s
inner constitution”.
The shadow is another archetype, indicates the dark, evil, hidden side of our natures. The
shadow represents the evil, unadapted, unconscious, and inferior part of our psyches. It has two
main aspects—one associated with the personal unconscious, the other with the collective
unconscious. In personal unconscious, the shadow consists of all those experiences that a person
rejects on moral and/or aesthetic grounds. In collective unconscious, the shadow consists of
universal personifications of evil within our psyches. Jung believed that all men and women have
elements of the opposite sex within them. Each man has a feminine side, and each woman has
unconscious masculine qualities. The feminine archetype in man is called the anima; the
masculine archetype in woman is labeled as animus. Like all archetypes, the anima and animus
can function in either constructive or destructive ways.

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The self is the “destiny within us” involves a process that Jung called the “way of individuation”.
The self is the final goal of our striving. The movement toward self-realization is a very difficult
process, and one that can never be fully attained. After all, the self is an archetype, and
archetypes can never be fully understood or realized.
What is the difference between the ego and the self? The self refers to the total psyche or entire
personality. It consists of consciousness and unconsciousness, whereas the ego is only part of the
total psyche and consists of consciousness. The ego can illuminate the entire personality,
allowing the self to become conscious and thus to be realized. E.g., if you have an artistic talent
of which your ego is not conscious, nothing will happen to it. If your ego, however, notices your
artistic talent, you can now work to develop and realize it. Thus, the ego can help identify the
hidden, unconscious potentials of the person and work to facilitate their realization. With help
from the ego, conflicts are more likely to be resolved, and greater balance within personality is
likely to be attained. With the attainment of balance, a new center or midpoint—the self—
evolves within the personality.
How healthy personality develops?
The aim of individual development is self-realization, the integration of all aspects of the psyche.
In such a state, there is an increased understanding and acceptance of one’s unique nature. This
balanced state involves the evolution of a new center (the self) to replace the old one (the ego).
The ego is not useless or obsolete in the final system; it exists, but in balance with the other
aspects of the psyche.
Not all archetypes are equally developed within the psyche. Those that are well formed exert a
strong influence on personality functioning; those that are not well developed exert only minimal
influence. Other major archetypes in the Jungian system include the persona, shadow, anima and
animus, self, and introversion/extraversion. Although introversion and extraversion are
considered by many theorists not to be archetypes, Jung believed that they are innate
dispositions, albeit ones often molded by experience (Jung, 1923).
Jungian Theory of Psychological Types
Jung proposed that people, in their attempt to evolve toward selfhood, people, adopt different
ways of relating to experience. They adopt different attitudes toward life and utilize different
psychological processes or functions to make sense out of their experiences. The two
fundamental attitudes in Jung’s typology are extraversion and introversion. Extraversion refers

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to “an outgoing, candid, and accommodating nature that adapts easily to a given situation,
quickly forms attachments, etc.” Introversion signifies “a hesitant, reflective, retiring nature that
keeps itself to itself shrink from objects, is always slightly on the defensive, etc.”
Jung points out that people are not purely introverted or extraverted; rather, each person has both
introverted and extraverted aspects. Moreover, both attitudes involve complex variations,
including dominant characteristics (conscious) and inferior characteristics (unconscious).
Alongside the basic attitudes of introversion and extraversion, Jung postulated four functions, or
ways in which people relate to the world: sensing, thinking, feeling, and intuiting. Sensing is the
initial, concrete experiencing of phenomena without the use of reason (thinking) or evaluation
(feeling). Thinking proceeds from this point to help us understand events through the use of
reason and logic. It gives us the meaning of events that are sensed. Feeling gives us an
evaluation of events by judging whether they are good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable.
Finally, in the mode of intuiting we rely on hunches whenever we have to deal with strange
situations in which we have no established facts. Jung called thinking and feeling the rational
functions because they involve making judgments about experiences. Sensation and intuition he
labeled the irrational functions because they involve passively recording experiences without
evaluating or interpreting them.
Out of the two basic attitudes and four functions, Jung fashioned an eightfold classification
theory of psychological types.
1) The extraverted thinking type is characterized by a need to make all his life-activities
dependent on intellectual conclusions, this kind of man [lives by an] intellectual formula.
By this formula are good and evil measured and beauty and ugliness determined. If the
formula is wide enough, this type may play a very useful role in social life, either as a
reformer. But the more rigid the formula, the more does he develop into a complainer, a
crafty reasoner, and a self righteous critic.
2) The introverted thinking type, “like his extraverted counterpart, is strongly influenced by
ideas, though his ideas have their origin not in objective data but in his subjective
foundation. He will follow his ideas like the extravert, but in the reverse direction: “inwards
and not outwards”. The introverted thinker appears cold, aloof, and inconsiderate of others.
In addition, he or she tends to be inept socially and inarticulate in attempts to communicate
ideas.

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3) Extraverted feeling type as one who lives according to “objective situations and general
values”. The feelings and behavior of such individuals are controlled by social norms—that
is, by the expectations of others. As a consequence, their feelings change from situation to
situation and from person to person. Jung believed that women were the best examples of
this type. A prime example would be a college woman who breaks her engagement because
her parents object to the man. Her feelings toward the young man are based on her parents’
judgments. If they like him, fine; if they do not, she feels compelled to reject him. In such
people, thinking is largely repressed. These women are good companions and excellent
mothers.
4) The introverted feeling type: According to Jung, women are also the prime examples of this
type. “They are mostly silent, inaccessible, and hard to understand: often they hide behind a
childish or banal mask, and their temperament is inclined to melancholy. They neither
shines nor reveals themselves” (Jung, 1923). Although they appear unfeeling toward other
people, in reality they are capable of an intense emotion, originating in the collective
unconscious that can erupt in religious or poetic form.
5) The extraverted sensing type: Jung visualized men as the prime examples of the extraverted
sensing type. This type is primarily reality oriented and typically shuns thinking and
contemplation. Experiencing sensations becomes almost an end in itself. Each experience
serves as a guide to new experience. Such people are usually outgoing and jolly and have a
considerable capacity for enjoyment, some of which revolves around good food. In addition,
they are often refined aesthetes, concerned with matters of good taste in painting, sculpture,
and literature, as well as food and physical appearance. Such an individual who becomes
over in love with of an object—for example, food or physical appearance—develops into a
“crude pleasure-seeker or immoral”
6) The introverted sensing type is an irrational type guided by the “intensity of the subjective
sensation—excited by the objective stimulus” (Jung, 1923). These people seem to overreact
to outside stimuli. They may take harmless comments from others and interpret them in
imaginative or bizarre ways. They may also appear rational and in complete control of their
actions because they are unrelated to objects in the environment, including other people.
Such types may also treat the objective world (external reality) as mere appearance, or even
as a joke. Libido from primordial images affects their perception of events. Positive

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manifestations of libido are found in creative persons; negative manifestations are seen in
psychotics.
7) The extraverted intuitive type: capacity to exploit external opportunities. In Jung’s words,
they have a “keen nose for anything new and in the making” (Jung, 1923). Politicians,
merchants, contractors, and speculators are examples of this type; women are more likely to
have such an orientation than are men (Jung, 1923). On the positive side, these people are
the initiators and promoters of promising enterprises, and often inspire others to great
accomplishments. But there are also serious dangers for people with this orientation.
Although they may cheer up and encourage others, they do little for themselves. And
because they are impatient and always seeking new possibilities, they often do not see their
actions through to completion.
8) The introverted intuitive type: An intensification of intuition in the introverted intuitive type
often results in estrangement from external reality. Such people may be considered
unknowable even by close friends. On the positive side, they may become great visionaries
and mystics; on the negative side, they may develop into artistic cranks who advocate
distinctive language and visions. Such people cannot be understood easily, and their ability
to communicate effectively is further limited because their judgment functions (thinking and
feeling) are relatively repressed.
What is Neurosis and Psychosis?
Progress toward self-realization is not automatic. If the person grows up in an unhealthy and
threatening environment, where the parents use harsh and unreasonable punishment, growth is
likely to be stifled. Repressed evil forces within the psyche may also erupt without warning to
produce personality dysfunction. Under these conditions, the outcome may be neurosis or
psychosis.
In Jung’s view, neurosis and psychosis differ primarily in the severity of their consequences.
Both result from one-sided development, in which repressed forces create problems in
functioning. In all eight psychological types discussed earlier, intense repression of one of the
four functions would probably result in a form of neurosis. For example, when thinking is
repressed in the introverted feeling type, Jung argued, the thinking function may eventually
project itself onto objects, thus creating problems for the person. Because the thinking function is

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archaic and undifferentiated, the person’s judgment about the object or objects is bound to be
gross and inaccurate. Such a person is unable to reason accurately about the intentions of others.
3) Karen Horney (1885–1952)
Karen Horney remained faithful to most of Freud’s theory, but she resisted his more mechanistic,
biological, and instinctive ideas. For example, as a woman, Horney rejected Freud’s claim that
“anatomy is destiny.” This view, woven into Freudian psychology, held that males are dominant
or superior to females. Horney was among the first to challenge the obvious male bias in Freud’s
thinking (Eckardt, 2005). Horney also disagreed with Freud about the causes of neurosis. Freud
held that neurotic (anxiety-ridden) individuals are struggling with forbidden id drives that they
fear they cannot control. Karen Horney developed a theory based on two concepts: Basic
Anxiety - anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older
children and adults. Neurotic Personalities – maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships,
especially parent child relationship-based on hostility or rejection.
Horney’s view was that a core of basic anxiety occurs when people feel isolated and helpless in
a hostile world. These feelings, she believed, are rooted in childhood. Trouble occurs when an
individual tries to control basic anxiety by exaggerating a single mode of interacting with others.
Karen Horney has listed ten neurotic needs or ten abnormal trends in people. They are:
1. The neurotic need for affection and approval.
2. The neurotic need for a partner who will run one’s life.
3. The neurotic need to live one’s life within narrow limits.
4. The neurotic need for power.
5. The neurotic need to exploit others.
6. The neurotic need for social recognition.
7. The neurotic need for personal admiration.
8. The neurotic need for ambition and personal achievement.
9. The neurotic need for self sufficiency and independence.
10. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability.
All normal people experience all the above ten needs but a normal satisfies one need at a time
and then moves on to others. The neurotic person hangs on to one need even when it is not
fulfilled, he still is fixated over it and invests all his energy in it and ignores all his other needs.

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What do you mean by “mode of interacting”? According to Horney, each of us can move toward
others (by depending on them for love, support, or friendship), we can move away from others
(by withdrawing, acting like a “loner,” or being “strong” and independent), or we can move
against others (by attacking, competing with, or seeking power over them). Horney believed that
emotional health reflects a balance in moving toward, away from, and against others. In her
view, emotional problems tend to lock people into overuse of one of the three modes an insight
that remains valuable today. Let’s describe the modes of interaction in detail.
1-Moving Towards People
In this pattern of adjustment, individual moves towards people in order to satisfy his needs for
affection and approval, for a dominant partner to control one’s life and to live one’s life within
narrow limits. This is a type of person who is complaint type, who says that if I give in, I shall
not be hurt. This type of person needs to be liked, wanted, desired, loved, welcomed, approved,
appreciated, to be helped, to be protected, to be taken care of and to be guided. This type of
person is friendly, most of the time and represses his aggression.
2-Moving Against People
In this adjustment mode, the neurotic need for power for exploitation of others is for prestige and
for personal achievements are to be fulfilled, when an individual moves against people. This is a
hostile type of a person who thinks that if he has power, no one can hurt him.
3-Moving Away from People
In this adjustment mode, the neurotic need for self sufficiency, perfection, independence and
UN-assail ability are classified. This person is a detached type, who says that if I withdraw,
nothing can hurt me. These three adjustment patterns are basically are incompatible, for example,
one cannot move against, towards and away from people at the same time. The normal person
has greater flexibility he uses one adjustment mode to another as conditions and situations
demand. The neurotic person cannot easily move from one adjustment mode to another, rather he
is less flexible and ineffective in moving from one adjustment mode to another.
4) Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
He was born in 1900 in Frankfurt, Germany. His father was a business man and, according to
Erich, rather moody. His mother was frequently depressed. In other words, like quite a few of the
people we've looked at, his childhood wasn't very happy. Like Jung, Erich came from a very
religious family, in his case orthodox Jews. Fromm himself later became what he called an

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atheistic mystic. He studied sociology, psychology and philosophy at the University of
Heidelberg where he earned his Ph.D. degree at the age of 22. After completing his training at
the psychoanalytic institute, he and Frieda Fromm-Reichmann helped to found the Frankfurt
psychoanalytic institute. In 1934, Fromm moved to the United States and began a psychoanalytic
practice in New York, where he also resumed his friendship with Karen Horney, whom he had
known in Germany. Much of his later years were spent in Mexico and Switzerland. Finally, He
died in 1980.
Major Concepts Fromm’s Theory
Fromm believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and
left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world. But because humans have acquired
the ability to reason, they can think about their isolated condition-Fromm called this situation as
the human dilemma.
The Burden of Freedom
As the only animal possessing self-awareness, human beings are what Fromm called the "freaks
of the universe.” Historically, as people gained more political freedom, they began to experience
more isolation from others and from the world and to feel free from the security of a permanent
place in the world. As a result, freedom becomes a burden, and people experience basic anxiety,
or a feeling of being alone in the world.
Mechanisms of Escape
In order to reduce the frightening sense of isolation and aloneness, people may adopt one of three
mechanisms of escape:
(1) Authoritarianism, or the tendency to give up one's independence and to unite with a
powerful partner;
(2) Destructiveness, an escape mechanism aimed at doing away with other people or things;
(3) Conformity or surrendering of one's individuality in order to meet the wishes of others.
Positive Freedom
The human dilemma can only be solved through positive freedom, which is the spontaneous
activity of the whole, integrated personality, and which is achieved when a person becomes
reunited with others.
Human Needs

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According to Fromm, our human dilemma cannot be solved by satisfying our animal needs. It
can only be addressed by fulfilling our uniquely human needs, an accomplishment that moves us
toward a reunion with the natural world. Fromm identified five of these distinctively human or
existential needs.
a) Relatedness: First is relatedness, which can take the form of (1) submission, (2) power, and
(3) love. Love, or the ability to unite with another while retaining one's own individuality and
integrity, is the only relatedness need that can solve our basic human dilemma.
b) Transcendence: Being thrown into the world without their consent, humans have to
transcend their nature by destroying or creating people or things. Humans can destroy
through malignant aggression, or killing for reasons other than survival, but they can also
create and care about their creations.
c) Rootedness: Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at home again in the world.
Productively, rootedness enables us to grow beyond the security of our mother and establish
ties with the outside world. With the nonproductive strategy, we become fixated and afraid to
move beyond the security and safety of our mother or a mother substitute.
d) Sense of Identity: The fourth human need is for a sense of identity, or an awareness of
ourselves as a separate person. The drive for a sense of identity is expressed nonproductively
as conformity to a group and productively as individuality.
e) Frame of Orientation: By frame of orientation, Fromm meant a road map or consistent
philosophy by which we find our way through the world. This need is expressed
nonproductively as a striving for irrational goals and productively as movement toward
rational goals.
3.2. Trait Theories of Personality
What are traits? Traits are descriptors used to label personality have their origins in the ways we
describe personality in everyday language. In the early years of personality theory, many
theorists used the term types to describe differences between people.
Are some personality traits more basic or important than others?
The trait approach is currently the dominant method for studying personality. Psychologists seek
to describe personality with a small number of key traits or factors. How many words can you
think of to describe the personality of a close friend? Your list might be long, as we have noted,
traits are stable qualities that a person shows in most situations (Matthews, Deary, & Whiteman,

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2003). For example, if you are usually friendly, optimistic, and cautious, these qualities are traits
of your personality.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association,
personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the
environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts."
Theorists generally assume that a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among
individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are shy), and c) traits influence behavior.
The most common models of traits incorporate three to five broad dimensions or factors.
1. Gordon Allport’s Traits Theory (1897-1968)
Are there different types of traits?
Yes, psychologist Gordon Allport (1961) identified several kinds of traits. Common traits are
characteristics shared by most members of a culture. Common traits tell us how people from a
particular nation or culture are similar, or which traits a culture emphasizes. In America, for
example, competitiveness is a fairly common trait. Among the Hopi of Northern Arizona,
however, it is relatively rare. Of course, common traits don’t tell us much about individuals.
Although many people are competitive in American culture, various people you know may rate
high, medium, or low in this trait. Usually we are also interested in individual traits, which
describe a person’s unique qualities.
Allport also made distinctions between cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
Cardinal traits are so basic that all of a person’s activities can be traced to the trait. For instance,
compassion was an overriding trait of Mother Teresa’s personality. Likewise, Abraham
Lincoln’s personality was dominated by the cardinal trait of honesty. According to Allport, few
people have cardinal traits. Central traits are the basic building blocks of personality.
Surprisingly small number of central traits can capture the essence of a person. For instance, just
six traits would provide a good description of Mr. X’s personality: dominant, sociable, honest,
cheerful, intelligent, and optimistic. When college students were asked to describe someone they
knew well, they mentioned an average of seven central traits (Allport, 1961). Secondary traits
are more superficial personal qualities, such as food preferences, attitudes, political opinions,
musical tastes, and so forth.
2. Raymond B. Cattell’s Theory of Factor Analysis (1906–1998)

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How can you tell if a personality trait is central or secondary? Raymond B. Cattell (1906–1998)
tried to answer this question by directly studying the traits of a large number of people. Cattell
began by measuring visible features of personality, which he called surface traits. Soon, Cattell
noticed that these surface traits often appeared together in groups. In fact, some traits clustered
together so often that they seemed to represent a single more basic trait. Cattell called these
deeper characteristics, or dimensions, source traits (Cattell, 1965). They are the core of each
individual’s personality. Cattell identified 16 source traits. According to him, all 16 are needed to
fully describe a personality. Source traits are measured by a test called the Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire (often referred to as the 16 PF). Like many personality tests, the 16 PF can
be used to produce a trait profile, or graph of a person’s score on each trait. Trait profiles draw a
“picture” of individual personalities, which makes it easier to compare them.
Factor analysis
Cattell rightfully can be called a “psychometrist of personality,” because he placed such heavy
emphasis on the use of testing and statistical techniques. We have already seen how he used
factor analysis to derive personality traits. To apply the factor-analytic procedures, however,
investigators must first collect masses of data from large numbers of people. Cattell relied on
three major procedures to obtain such data: the L-data, Q-data, and T-data methods.
L-data, or life-record data, refers to the measurement of behavior in actual, everyday situations.
Such data might include records that show the number of automobile accidents the person has
had over the past 20 years, her marks in school, the number of civic organizations of which she is
or has been a member, and so forth. Because some L-data might be very difficult to obtain, the
investigator may be forced to take secondhand data, in the form of ratings by someone who
knows the person well. Thus, different aspects of the person’s behavior—such as her
dependability on the job, her level of dissatisfaction with the job, her friendliness to coworkers—
might be assessed by means of trait ratings (on 10-point scales, for example) by coworkers and
friends. The second source of information is called Q-data, or questionnaire data. Such
information is often gathered in an interview situation, in which respondents fill out paper-and-
pencil tests from which trait scores can be derived. The 16 PF is an excellent source of Q-data.
The third type of data, called T-data, is based on objective tests. Information is gathered by an
observer in a standard test situation and is then scored. Whereas Q-data are based on self-reports
that can be faked by the subject, T-data are essentially unfakeable. For example, if a person is

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asked on a questionnaire whether or not he ever cheats on examinations, he may report that he
never does so, even though he does. If he is asked to respond to a Rorschach test, however, the
inkblots are ambiguous and the subject does not know the dimensions on which his responses
will eventually be scored (Cattell, 1965).
Defining Personality
Cattell defined personality as “that which tells what [a person] will do when placed in a given
situation” (Cattell, 1965). Consistent with his mathematical analysis of personality, Cattell then
presented the definition as a formula:
This mean the behavioral response (R) of a person is a function (f) of the situation (S) confronted
and the individual’s personality (P). Cattell expanded his theorizing to include the ways in which
situations, in conjunction with personality traits, influence behavior (Cattell, 1980).
Traits, Consistency, and Situations
Does that mean that to predict how a person will act, it is better to focus on both personality
traits and external circumstances? Yes, it’s best to take both into account. Personality traits are
quite consistent. Also, they can predict such things as job performance, dangerous driving, or a
successful marriage (Funder, 2006). Yet, situations also greatly influence our behavior. For
instance, it would be unusual for you to dance at a movie or read a book at a football game.
Likewise, few people sleep in roller coasters or tell off-color jokes at funerals. However, your
personality traits may predict whether you choose to read a book, go to a movie, or attend a
football game in the first place. Typically, traits interact with situations to determine how we
will act (Mischel, 2004).
In a trait-situation interaction, external circumstances influence the expression of a personality
trait. For instance, imagine what would happen if you moved from a church to a classroom to a
party to a football game. As the setting changed, you would probably become louder and more
boisterous. This change would show situational effects on behavior. At the same time, your
personality traits would also be apparent: If you were quieter than average in church and class,
you would probably be quieter than average in the other settings, too.
3. Hans J. Eysenck’s Personality Typology (1916-1997)
R = f(S, P)

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A different model was proposed by Hans Eysenck, who believed that just three traits such as
extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism were sufficient to describe human personality.
Differences between Cattell and Eysenck emerged due to preferences for different forms of
factor analysis, with Cattell using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal, rotation to analyze the factors
that emerged when personality questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis.
Eysenck’s typology is hierarchically organized, and consists of types, traits, and habits. Types
are most abstract, followed by traits, and then habits. Specifically, each of the type concepts is
based on a set of observed inter-correlations among various traits. Each trait, in turn, is inferred
from inter-correlations among habitual responses. Habitual responses, in turn, are based on
specific observable responses. For example, extraversion is based on observed inter-correlations
among traits such as sociability, impulsivity, activity, liveliness, and excitability. Each of these
traits is inferred from inter-correlated habitual responses such as going to parties, liking to talk to
people, going to films on the spur of the moment, and so forth. These habits are themselves
inferred from observable specific responses—actual occasions when the person went to a party,
talked to people, and so forth.
To accomplish this goal, Eysenck suggested that we must integrate the two approaches by:
(1) Identifying the main dimensions of personality;
(2) Devising means of measuring them; and
(3) Linking them with experimental, quantitative procedures. Only in this way, Eysenck
believed, can we claim to be testing theories using a scientific perspective (Eysenck, 1997).
On the basis of numerous factor analyses of personality data gathered from different subject
populations all over the world, Eysenck derived two factors that could readily be labeled
introversion/extraversion and stability/neuroticism. Later, on the basis of other statistical
analyses, he postulated a third dimension, impulse control/psychoticism (Eysenck, 1982). These
three dimensions, according to Eysenck, are the major individual difference types most useful in
describing personality functioning.
4. Lewis Goldberg’s Big Five Factors Theory
Today, the Big Five Factors forms the basis to assessment of personality with questionnaires
such as the NEO-PI which consists 300 items, being used widely in occupational psychology
(Costa & McCrae, 1992). It was developed on the work of Cattell and others, Lewis Goldberg
proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed the "Big Five":

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i. Extraversion rates how introverted or extroverted each person is.
ii. Neuroticism refers to negative, upsetting emotions. People who are high in neuroticism
tend to be anxious, emotionally “sour,” irritable, and unhappy. It is the opposite of
emotional stability.
iii. Agreeableness refers to how friendly, nurturing, and caring a person is, as opposed to
cold, indifferent, self-centered, or spiteful.
iv. A person who is conscientious is self-disciplined, responsible, and achieving. People
lows on these factors are irresponsible, careless, and undependable.
v. Openness to experience is being open to new ideas and changes vs. traditional and
oriented toward routine. For ease of remembrance, this can be written as OCEAN.
5. William Sheldon’s Somatotype Theory
Sheldon (1954) categorized people into three groups according to body types and related these
physical differences to differences in personality. He looks at the physique or body type (soma)
for the explanation of human behavior. Endomorphic body types are plump and round with a
tendency to be relaxed and outgoing. Mesomorphic physiques are strong and muscular,
rectangular in shape and usually energetic and assertive in personality. The athlete, adventurer,
or professional soldier might best be endowed with this type of physique. Ectomorphic body
types are tall and thin and tend to have a fearful and restrained personality. Not only is it unlikely
that personality can be mapped to body type, but the idea that all people can be allocated to a
small number of categories is challenged by modern trait theories.
3.1. Humanistic Theory of Personality
How do humanistic theories differ from other perspectives?
Humanistic theories pay special attention to the fuller use of human potentials and they help
bring balance to our overall views of personality. Humanism focuses on human experience,
problems, potentials, and ideals. It is a reaction to the rigidity of traits, the pessimism of
psychoanalytic theory, and the mechanical nature of learning theory. At its core is a positive
image of what it means to be human.
Humanists reject the Freudian view of personality as a battleground for instincts and unconscious
forces. Instead, they view human nature as inherently good. (Human nature consists of the
traits, qualities, potentials, and behavior patterns most characteristic of the human species.)
Humanists also oppose the machinelike overtones of behaviorism. We are not, they say, merely a

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bundle of moldable responses. Rather, we are creative beings capable of free choice (an ability to
choose that is not determined by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces). In short, humanists
seek ways to encourage our potentials to flourish.
In humanistic psychology it is emphasized that people have free will and that they play an active
role in determining how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective
experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior. To a
humanist the person you are today is largely the product of all the choices you have made.
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the
"phenomenal field" theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Humanists also emphasize immediate
subjective experience (private perceptions of reality), rather than prior learning. They believe
that there are as many “real worlds” as there are people. To understand behavior, we must learn
how a person subjectively views the world what is “real” for her or him.
Who are the major humanistic theorists?
Many psychologists have added to the humanistic tradition. Of these, the best known are
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl Rogers (1902– 1987). Let’s begin with a more detailed
look at this facet of thinking.
1. Abraham Maslow’s Theory (1908–1970)
Abraham Maslow became interested in people who were living unusually effective lives. How
were they different? To find an answer, Maslow began by studying the lives of great men and
women from history, such as Albert Einstein, William James, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt,
Abraham Lincoln, John Muir, and Walt Whitman. From there he moved on to directly study
living artists, writers, poets, and other creative individuals. Along the way, Maslow’s thinking
changed radically. At first he studied only people of obvious creativity or high achievement.
However, it eventually became clear that a housewife, clerk, student, or someone like us could
live a rich, creative, and satisfying life. Maslow referred to the process of fully developing
personal potentials as self-actualization (Maslow, 1954). The heart of self-actualization is a
continuous search for personal fulfillment (Ewen, 2003; Reiss & Havercamp, 2005).
Maslow spent much of his time studying what he called "self-actualizing persons", those who are
"fulfilling themselves and doing the best that they are capable of doing". Maslow believes that all
who are interested in growth move towards self-actualizing (growth, happiness, satisfaction)
views. A self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or her potentials.

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In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers share many similarities. Whether famous or
unknown, well-schooled or uneducated, rich or poor, self-actualizers tend to fit the following
profile: Characteristics of self-actualizers according to Maslow include the following key
dimensions;
1. Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are able to judge situations correctly and
honestly. They are very sensitive to the fake and dishonest.
2. Comfortable acceptance of self, others, nature. Self-actualizers accept their own human
nature with all its flaws. The shortcomings of others and the contradictions of the human
condition are accepted with humor and tolerance.
3. Spontaneity. Maslow’s subjects extended their creativity into everyday activities.
Actualizers tend to be unusually alive, engaged, and spontaneous.
4. Task centering. Most of Maslow’s subjects had a mission to fulfill in life or some task or
problem outside of themselves to pursue. Humanitarians such as Albert Schweitzer and
Mother Teresa represent this quality.
5. Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external authorities or other people.
They tend to be resourceful and independent.
6. Continued freshness of appreciation. The self-actualizer seems to constantly renew
appreciation of life’s basic goods. A sunset or a flower will be experienced as intensely
time after time as it was at first. There is an “innocence of vision,” like that of an artist or
child.
7. Fellowship with humanity. Maslow’s subjects felt a deep identification with others and the
human situation in general.
8. Profound interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationships of self-actualizers
are marked by deep, loving bonds (Hanley & Abell, 2002).
9. Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying relationships with others, self-actualizing
persons value solitude and are comfortable being alone (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1996).
10. Non-hostile sense of humor. This refers to the wonderful capacity to laugh at oneself. It
also describes the kind of humor a man like Abraham Lincoln had. Lincoln probably ever
made a joke that hurt anybody. His wry comments were a gentle prodding of human
shortcomings.

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11. Peak experiences. All of Maslow’s subjects reported the frequent occurrence of peak
experiences (temporary moments of self-actualization). These occasions were marked by
feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling at one
with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before, filled with light, beautiful and
good, and so forth. In summary, self-actualizers feel safe, non-anxious, accepted, loved,
loving, and alive.
Maslow and Rogers emphasized a view of the person as an active, creative, experiencing human
being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions, relationships,
and encounters. They disagree with the dark, pessimistic outlook of those in the Freudian
psychoanalysis ranks, but rather view humanistic theories as positive and optimistic proposals
which stress the tendency of the human personality toward growth and self-actualization. This
progressing self will remain the center of its constantly changing world; worlds that will help
mold the self but not necessarily confine it. Rather, the self has opportunity for maturation based
on its encounters with this world. This understanding attempts to reduce the acceptance of
hopeless redundancy.
What steps can be taken to promote self-actualization? Maslow made few specific
recommendations about how to proceed. There is no magic formula for leading a more creative
life. Self-actualization is primarily a process, not a goal or an end point. As such, it requires hard
work, patience, and commitment. Nevertheless, some helpful suggestions can be gleaned from
his writings (Maslow, 1954, 1967, 1971). Here are some ways to begin:
i. Be willing to change. Begin by asking yourself, “Am I living in a way that is deeply
satisfying to me and that truly expresses me?” If not, be prepared to make changes in your
life. Indeed, ask yourself this question often and accept the need for continual change.
ii. Take responsibility. You can become an architect of self by acting as if you are personally
responsible for every aspect of your life. Shouldering responsibility in this way helps end
the habit of blaming others for your own shortcomings.
iii. Examine your motives. Self-discovery involves an element of risk. If your behavior is
restricted by a desire for safety or security, it may be time to test some limits. Try to make
each life decision a choice for growth, not a response to fear or anxiety.
iv. Experience honestly and directly. Wishful thinking is another barrier to personal growth.
Self-actualizers trust themselves enough to accept all kinds of information without

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distorting it to fit their fears and desires. Try to see yourself as others do. Be willing to
admit, “I was wrong,” or, “I failed because I was irresponsible.”
v. Make use of positive experiences. Maslow considered peak experiences temporary
moments of self-actualization. Therefore, you might actively repeat activities that have
caused feelings of awe, amazement, exaltation, renewal, reverence, humility, fulfillment, or
joy.
vi. Be prepared to be different. Maslow felt that everyone has a potential for “greatness,” but
most fear becoming what they might. As part of personal growth, be prepared to trust your
own impulses and feelings; don’t automatically judge yourself by the standards of others.
Accept your uniqueness.
vii. Get involved. With few exceptions, self-actualizers tend to have a mission or “calling” in
life. For these people, “work” is not done just to fill deficiency needs, but to satisfy higher
yearnings for truth, beauty, community, and meaning. Get personally involved and
committed. Turn your attention to problems outside yourself.
viii. Assess your progress. There is no final point at which one becomes self-actualized. It’s
important to gauge your progress frequently and to renew your efforts. If you feel bored at
school, at a job, or in a relationship, consider it a challenge. Have you been taking
responsibility for your own personal growth? Almost any activity can be used as a chance
for self-enhancement if it is approached creatively.
2. Carl Rogers’ Self Theory (1902– 1987)
Carl Rogers, another well-known humanist, also emphasized the human capacity for inner peace
and happiness. The fully functioning person, he said, lives in harmony with his or her deepest
feelings and impulses. Such people are open to their experiences and they trust their inner urges
and intuitions (Rogers, 1961). Rogers believed that this attitude is most likely to occur when a
person receives ample amounts of love and acceptance from others.
4.1. Personality Assessment
How do psychologists measure personality? Measuring personality can help predict how people
will behave at work, at school, and in therapy. To capture a personality as unique characteristic
of an individual, they are expected to know how personality is “measured”. Psychologists use
interviews, observation, questionnaires, and projective tests to assess personality (Burger, 2008).
Each method has strengths and limitations. For this reason, they are often used in combination.

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Formal personality measures are refinements of more casual ways of judging a person. At one
time or another, you have probably “sized up” a potential date, friend, or roommate by engaging
in conversation (interview). Perhaps you have asked a friend, “When I am delayed I get angry.
Do you?” (Questionnaire). Maybe you watch your professors when they are angry or
embarrassed to learn what they are “really” like when they’re caught off-guard (observation). Or
possibly you have noticed that when you say, “I think people feel . . . ,” you may be expressing
your own feelings (projection).
Personality measurement and assessment procedures are useful in understanding the person.
They are broadly categorized as objective as well as projective tests. Objective tests include:
• Interviews
• Observation
• Rating scales
• Personality tests
4.1.1. Objective Personality Tests
1. Interviews
The interview is the most commonly used procedure in psychological assessment. Interviews
provide an opportunity to ask people for their own descriptions of their problems. Interviews also
allow clinicians to observe important features of a person’s appearance and nonverbal behavior.
In an interview, direct questioning is used to learn about a person’s life history, personality traits,
or current mental state (Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2002). In an unstructured
interview, conversation is informal and topics are taken up freely as they arise. In a structured
interview, information is gathered by asking a planned series of questions.
How are interviews used? Interviews are used to identify personality disturbances; to select
people for jobs, college, or special programs; and to study the dynamics of personality.
Interviews also provide information for counseling or therapy. For instance, a counselor might
ask a depressed person, “Have you ever contemplated suicide? What were the circumstances?”
The counselor might then follow by asking, “How did you feel about it?” or, “How is what you
are now feeling different from what you felt then?”

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In addition to providing information, interviews make it possible to observe a person’s tone of
voice, hand gestures, posture, and facial expressions. Such “body language” cues are important
because they may radically alter the message sent, as when a person claims to be “completely
calm” but trembles uncontrollably.
Computerized Interviews
If you were distressed and went to a psychologist or psychiatrist, what is the first thing she or he
might do? Typically, a diagnostic interview is used to find out how a person is feeling and what
complaints or symptoms he or she has. In many cases, such interviews are based on a specific
series of questions. Because the questions are always the same, some researchers have begun to
wonder, “Why not let a computer ask them?” The results of computerized interviews have been
promising. In one study, people were interviewed by both a computer and a psychiatrist. Eighty-
five percent of these people thought the computer did an acceptable interview (Dignon, 1996).
Another study found that a computerized interview was highly accurate at identifying psychiatric
disorders and symptoms. It also closely agreed with diagnoses made by psychiatrists (Marion,
Shayka, & Marcus, 1996). Thus, it may soon become common for people to “Tell it to the
computer,” at least in the first stages of seeking help (Peters, Clark, & Carroll, 1998).
Limitations of Interview
Interviews give rapid insight into personality, but they have limitations.
 For one thing, interviewers can be swayed by preconceptions. A person identified as a
“housewife,” “college student,” or “high school athlete,” may be misjudged because of an
interviewer’s personal biases.
 Second, an interviewer’s own personality, or even gender, may influence a client’s behavior.
When this occurs, it can accentuate or distort the person’s apparent traits (Pollner, 1998).
 A third problem is that people sometimes try to deceive interviewers. For example, a person
accused of a crime might try to avoid punishment by pretending to be mentally disabled.
 A fourth problem is the halo effect, which is the tendency to generalize a favorable (or
unfavorable) impression to an entire personality (Lance, LaPointe, & Stewart, 1994).
Because of the halo effect, a person who is likable or physically attractive may be rated more
mature, intelligent, or mentally healthy than she or he actually is. The halo effect is
something to keep in mind at job interviews. First impressions do make a difference (Lance,
LaPointe, & Stewart, 1994).

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Even with their limitations, interviews are a respected method of assessment. In many cases,
interviews are the first step in evaluating personality and an essential prelude to therapy.
Nevertheless, interviews are usually not enough and must be supplemented by other measures
and tests (Meyer et al., 2001).
2. Direct Observation and Rating Scales
Observational skills play an important part in most assessment procedures. Sometimes the things
that we observe confirm the person’s self-report, and at other times the person’s overt behavior
appears to be at odds with what he or she says. Observational procedures may be either informal
or formal. Informal observations are primarily qualitative. The clinician observes the person’s
behavior and the environment in which it occurs without attempting to record the frequency or
intensity of specific responses. Although observations are often conducted in the natural
environment, there are times when it is useful to observe the person’s behavior in a situation that
the psychologist can arrange and control.
Wouldn’t observation be subject to the same problems of misperception as an interview? Yes.
Misperceptions can be a difficulty, which is why rating scales are sometimes used. A rating scale
is a list of personality traits or aspects of behavior that can be used to evaluate a person. Rating
scales limit the chance that some traits will be overlooked while others are exaggerated (Synhorst
et al., 2005). Perhaps they should be a standard procedure for choosing a roommate, spouse, or
lover!
3. The Mental Status Examination
The mental status examination involves systematic observation of an individual’s behavior. This
type of observation occurs when one individual interacts with another. Mental status examination
can be structured and detailed. It covers five categories:
 Appearance and behavior
 Thought Process
 Mood and affect.
 Intellectual Function
 Perception of person, place and time.
The mental status examination tells us how people think, feel and behave and how these actions
might contribute to explain their problems. So actually, we are doing behavioral assessment of

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people. This behavioral assessment is done by using direct observation of an individual’s
thought, feelings and behavior in situations or context where the individual is having problems.
4. Rating Scales
A rating scale is a procedure in which the observer is asked to make judgments that place the
person somewhere along a dimension. Ratings can also be made on the basis of information
collected during an interview. Rating scales provide abstract descriptions of a person’s behavior
rather than a specific record of exactly what the person has done. These are assessment tools,
which are used before the treatment to assess changes in patient’s behavior after the treatment.
Brief psychiatric rating scales are usually used and completed by hospital staff to assess an
individual on different constructs related with physical or psychological illness.
5. Behavioral Coding Systems
Rather than making judgments about where the person falls on a particular dimension, behavioral
coding systems focus on the frequency of specific behavioral events. For example, a
psychologist working with hospitalized mental patients might note the frequency of a patient’s
aggression, self-care, speech, and unusual behaviors. Some adult clients are able to make records
and keep track of their own behavior—a procedure is known as self-monitoring. Behavioral
assessments can also be used to probe thought processes. In one study, for example, couples
were assessed while talking with each other about their sexuality. Couples with sexual
difficulties were less likely to be receptive to discussing their sexuality and more likely to blame
each other than were couples with no sexual difficulties (Kelly, Strassberg, & Turner, 2006).
6. Personality Questionnaires
Personality questionnaires are paper-and-pencil tests that reveal personality characteristics.
Questionnaires are more objective than interviews or observation. (An objective test gives the
same score when different people correct it.) Questions, administration, and scoring are all
standardized so that scores are unaffected by any biases an examiner may have. However, this is
not enough to ensure accuracy. A good test must also be reliable and valid. A test is reliable if it
yields close to the same score each time it is given to the same person. A test has validity if it
measures what it claims to measure. Unfortunately, many personality tests you will encounter,
such as those in magazines or on the Internet, have little or no validity.

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THEME 2:
COURSE NAME:
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATIONAL AND ASSESSMENT
1. Test
Test is one of the commonly used methods of making measurements in education. Connotes the
presentation of a set of questions to be answered.
Designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge. It is also an instrument or
systematic procedures for measuring sample of behavior. You have been taking tests ever since
you have started schooling to determine your academic performance. Tests are also used in work
places to select individuals for a certain job vacancy. Thus test in educational context is meant to
the presentation of a standard set of questions to be answered by students. It is one instrument
that is used for collecting information about students’ behaviors or performances. Please note
that there are many other ways of collecting information about students’ educational
performances other than tests, such as observations, assignments, project works, portfolios, etc.
2. Measurement
Quantifying of how much does learner learned. we can measure more characteristics in ways
other than by giving tests.
It is a broader concept than tests and can include checklists, rating scales, tests or any other
device that allows us to obtain information in a quantitative form
In education measurement is the process by which the attributes of a person are measured and
described in numbers. It is a quantitative description of the behavior or performance of students.
As educators we frequently measure human attributes such as attitudes, academic achievement,
aptitudes, interests, personality and so forth. Measurement permits more objective description
concerning traits and facilitates comparisons. Hence, to measure we have to use certain
instruments so that we can conclude that a certain student is better in a certain subject than
another student
3. Assessment
is a process by which evidence of student learning is obtained through a variety of tools such as
testing, interpreting and placing information in context.
It is the basis for decision making (evaluation) and can be quantitative or qualitative in nature
depending on the type of assessment used.

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4. Evaluation
A process is concerned with making judgments on the worth or value of a performance. It
includes a series of steps such as establishing objective, classifying objective, defining objective,
selecting indicators, and comparing data with objectives. Answer the question "how good,
adequate, or desirable" is it?
Evaluation is the process of judging the quality of student learning on the basis of established
performance standards and assigning a value to represent the worthiness or quality of that
learning or performance.
Evaluation = Quantitative description of students’ behavior (measurement) + qualitative
description of students’ behavior (non-measurement) + value judgment
1.2 Importance and Purposes of Assessment (Test, Measurments, Evaluation …..)
One of the first things to consider when planning for assessment is its purpose. Who will use the
results? How will they use them? As prospective teachers, you also need to have a clear idea as
to what the purposes assessment serves. So let’s discuss on the following question:
Classroom assessment involves students and teachers in the continuous monitoring of students'
learning. It provides the staff with feedback about their effectiveness as teachers, and it gives
students a measure of their progress as learners. Through close observation of students in the
process of learning and the collection of frequent feedback on students' learning, teachers can
learn much about how students learn and, more specifically, how students respond to particular
teaching approaches. Classroom assessment helps individual teachers obtain useful feedback on
what, how much, and how well their students are learning. The staff can then use this
information to refocus their teaching to help students make their learning more efficient and
more effective. Thus, based on the reasons for assessment described above, it can be summarized
that assessment in education focuses on:
helping LEARNING, and;
Improving TEACHING.
With regards to the learner, assessment is aimed at providing information that will help us make
decisions concerning remediation, enrichment, selection, exceptionality, progress and
certification. With regard to teaching, assessment provides information about the attainment of
objectives, the effectiveness of teaching methods and learning materials.
 .Overall, assessment serves the following main purposes.

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 Assessment is used to inform and guide teaching and learning:
 Assessment is used to help students set learning goals:
 Assessment is used to assign report card grades:
 Assessment is used to motivate students:
Evaluation plays an important role in the educational process in general and in schools in
particular. Generally speaking, the main purpose of classroom teaching is to change student
behavior in desired directions. That is to improve the knowledge, behavior, and attitudes of
students. When viewed in this light, evaluation becomes an integral part of teaching-learning
process. The “desired directions” are the educational objectives established by the school, and
the teachers’ evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which these objectives are
being achieved.
Evaluation provides information that serves as a basis for a variety of educational decisions like
 instructional management decisions,
 selection decisions,
 placement decisions,
 counseling and guidance decisions,
 classification decision, and
 credentialing and certification decisions.
We will discuss these decision types in the following section.
1. Instructional Management Decisions
Instructional management decisions include
 planning instructional activities (deciding what to teach to students),
 placing students into learning sequences,
 monitoring students’ progress,
 diagnosing students’ learning difficulties,
 motivating students for learning,
 providing students and parents with feedback about achievements,
 evaluating teaching effectiveness, and
 assigning grades to students.
2. Selection Decisions

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An institution or organization decides that some persons are acceptable while others are not for
certain jobs or vacancies; those not acceptable are rejected and no longer are the concern of the
institution, or organization. This rejection and the elimination of those rejected from immediate
institutional concern feature is central to a selection decision (Cronbach and Gleser, 1965, cited
in Nitko, 1996). An educational institution often uses assessments to provide part of the
information on which to base selection decision. For example, college admissions are often
selection decisions: some candidates, who fulfill the selection requirements, are admitted but
those who do not fulfill the criteria are not; those not admitted are no longer the college’s
concern.
When an institution uses an assessment procedure for selection, it is important for it to show that
the candidate’s results on these assessments reflect a relationship to success in the program or
job for which the institution is selecting persons. If the data do not show that those assessment
results can distinguish effectively between those candidates likely to succeed, the assessments
procedures should be improved or eliminated. Because the data they provide are not valid.
Hence, it may be illegal to continue to use assessment results that bear no relationship to success
on the job.
3. Placement decision
Placement decisions differ from selection is that in selection decisions rejection is possible and
the institution is not concerned about what happens to those rejected, whereas in placement
decisions persons are assigned to different levels of the same general type of instruction,
education or work, and no one is rejected (Cronbach, 1990, Cronbach and Gleser, 1965, cited in
Nitko 1996). Suppose that a school places students according to their ability level: Section A for
gifted (high achieving students), Section B for average students, and Section C for slow learners.
Slow learners, who cannot be placed (put) in the gifted students section, must be placed at other
educational level.
Selection decisions are decisions made on who will be accepted or rejected by an institution.
Placement decisions are decisions made after applicants are selected. The purpose is to assign them to
different levels or types of categories.

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4. Classification Decision
These are decisions that involve the assignment of persons to one of several categories, jobs, or
programs that are not necessarily thought of as levels of work instruction. Like placement,
classification decisions assume that the individual has been selected. Unlike placement decisions,
classification involves “horizontal” grouping in different curricula or jobs.
Classification decisions are decisions made to place individuals in an optimal program to
increase the probability of success.
For example, legislation in the area of educating persons with disabilities has given a legal status
to many labels for classifying children with disabilities (i.e., blind, deaf, hard of hearing, speech
disorders, etc.,) into one (or more) of a few designated categories. These categories are
unordered (that is, blindness is not higher or lower than deafness).
5. Counseling and Guidance Decisions
Classifications are different from selection and placement: classification refers to cases where
the categories are essentially unordered; placement refers to cases where the categories represent
levels of education, and selection refers to the case where students are accepted or rejected.
Evaluation also serves as a means to make counseling and guidance decisions. Students need to
make decisions about their careers. Tests are frequently used to assist in exploring and choosing
careers and directing them to prepare for the careers they select. However, it should be noted that
a single assessment result is not used for making guidance and counseling decisions. Rather, a
series of assessments is administered, including an interview, interest inventory, various aptitude
tests, a personalityquestionnaire, and an achievement battery.
6. Credentialing and Certification Decisions
Credentialing and certification decisions are concerned with assuring that a student has attained
certain standards of learning. Student certification decisions (decisions to give on not to give
certificates) may focus on whether a student has attained minimum competence or whether a
student has attained a high standard performance.
7. Educational Diagnostic and Remedial Decisions
These decisions are made to identify the strengths and weaknesses of students. Before teachers
and counselors can recommend remedial help, they must know in which specific areas an
individual is having difficulty. Sometimes the instruction a teacher or school pre-arranged is not

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effective for an individual student: The student may need special remedial help or a special
prescription, relying on alternative methods or materials. That is, when a student has a problem
in Mathematics, a teacher may administer a test to identify his weaknesses and to make remedial
actions. Diagnostic and remedial decisions are made to determine a person’s strengths and
weaknesses in order to improve performance or well-being.
Principles of Assessment
Assessment principles consist of statements highlighting what are considered as critical elements
of a system designed to assess student progress. These principles are expressed in terms of
elements for a fair (reliable and valid) assessment system. Thus, each principle introduces an
issue that must be addressed when evaluating a student assessment system. Assessment
principles guide the collection of meaningful information that will help inform instructional
decisions, promote student engagement, and improve student learning.
1. Assessment should be relevant. Assessment needs to provide information about students’
knowledge, skills and understandings of the learning outcomes specified in the syllabus.
2. Assessment should be appropriate. Assessment needs to provide information about the
particular kind of learning in which we are interested. This means that we need to use a
variety of assessment methods because not all methods are capable of providing information
about all kinds of learning. For example, some kinds of learning are best assessed by
observing students; some by having students complete projects or make products and others
by having students complete paper and pen tasks. Conclusions about student achievement in
an area of learning are valid only when the assessment method we use is appropriate and
measures what it is supposed to measure.
3. Assessment should be fair. Assessment needs to provide opportunities for every student to
demonstrate what they know, understand and can do. Assessment must be based on a belief
that all learners are on a path of development and that every learner is capable of making
progress. Students bring a diversity of cultural knowledge, experience, language proficiency
and background, and ability to the classroom. They should not be advantaged or
disadvantaged by such differences that are not relevant to the knowledge, skills and
understandings that the assessment is intended to address. Students have the right to know
what is assessed, how it is assessed and the worth of the assessment. Assessment will be fair
or equitable only if it is free from bias or favoritism.

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4. Assessment should be accurate. Assessment needs to provide evidence that accurately
reflects an individual student’s knowledge, skills and understandings. That is, assessments
need to be reliable or dependable in that they consistently measure a student’s knowledge,
skills and understandings. Assessment also needs to be objective so that if a second person
assesses a student’s work, they will come to the same conclusion as the first person.
Assessment will be fair to all students if it is based on reliable, accurate and defensible
measures.
5. Assessment should provide useful information. The focus of assessment is to establish
where students are in their learning. This information can be used for both summative
purposes, such as the awarding of a grade, and formative purposes to feed directly into the
teaching and learning cycle.
6. Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and learning cycle. Assessment needs
to be an ongoing, integral part of the teaching and learning cycle. It must allow teachers and
students themselves to monitor learning. From the teacher perspective, it provides the
evidence to guide the next steps in teaching and learning. From the student perspective, it
provides the opportunity to reflect on and review progress, and can provide the motivation
and direction for further learning.
7. Assessment should draw on a wide range of evidence. Assessment needs to draw on a
wide range of evidence. A complete picture of student achievement in an area of learning
depends on evidence that is sampled from the full range of knowledge, skills and
understandings that make up the area of learning. An assessment program that consistently
addresses only some outcomes will provide incomplete feedback to the teacher and student,
and can potentially distort teaching and learning.
8. Assessment should be manageable. Assessment needs to be efficient, manageable and
convenient. It needs to be incorporated easily into usual classroom activities and it needs to
be capable of providing information that justifies the time spent.
TYPES OF EVALUATION
There are four types of evaluation in education. They are
1. Preliminary evaluations,
2. Formative evaluation,
3. Summative evaluations, and

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4. Diagnostic evaluations
1. PRELIMINARY EVALUATION
Preliminary evaluations occur during the first days of school and provide a base for expectation
thought of the school year. They are obtained through a teacher’s spontaneous informal
observations and oral questions and are concerned with student’s skills, attitudes, and physical
characteristics. These evaluations happen naturally. They are essential to guiding our interactions
with others and with students (Oosterhof, 1994). Their functions are related to formative
evaluation. The purpose is to determine the entry behavior of students, i.e., to know the
knowledge students have about the subjects they are going learn.
2. FORMATIVE EVALUATION
Formative evaluation occurs during instruction by letting the teacher or evaluator know if
students are meeting instructional objectives, if the program is taking place according to the
schedule, and if the program might be improved. They establish whether students have achieved
sufficient mastery of skills. Formative evaluations are also concerned with students’ attitudes.
The purpose is to determine what adjustments to instruction should be made.
Formative evaluations are based primarily on continuous informal assessments such as listening
to what students say, using oral questions to probe comprehension, and watching student’s facial
expressions and other behaviors. Formative evaluations also are based on formally developed
assessment such as quizzes, seatwork, and homework. They help students learn more efficiently,
and improve the teaching learning process by overcoming students and teachers’ weaknesses.
3. SUMMATIVE EVALUATIONS
Summative evaluations occur at the end of instruction, such as at the end of a unit, chapter, or the
end of the course. They are used to
 certify student achievement and assign end-of-term grades or marks,
 promotestudents from one grade level to the next,
 group students into different categories,
 determine whether teaching procedures should be changed before the next school year.
4. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
Diagnostic evaluations occur before or, more typically, during instruction. Diagnostic
evaluations are concerned with skills and other characteristics that are prerequisite to the current
instruction or that enable the achievement of instructional objectives. During instruction,

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diagnostic evaluations are used to establish underlying causes for a student failing to learn a skill.
When used before instruction diagnostic evaluations try to anticipate conditions that will
negatively affect learning. Diagnostic evaluations are based mostly on informal assessments,
although formal measures including standardized tests sometimes are used. Strictly speaking,
these evaluation types are formative evaluation.
CLASSROOM (TEACHER-MADE) TESTS
3.1. PLANNING STAGE
Tests are one of the most important and commonly used assessment instruments used in
education. The development of valid, reliable and usable questions involves proper planning.
The plan entails designing a framework that can guide the test developers in the items
development process. This is necessary because classroom test is a key factor in the evaluation of
learning outcomes. The validity, reliability and usability of such test depend on the care with
which the test are planned and prepared. Planning helps to ensure that the test covers the pre-
specified instructional objectives and the subject matter (content) under consideration. Hence,
planning classroom test involves identifying the instructional objectives earlier stated and the
subject matter (content) covered during the teaching/learning process. This leads to the
preparation of table of specification (the test blue print) for the test while bearing in mind the
type of test that would be relevant for the purpose of testing. To plan a classroom test that will be
both practical and effective in providing evidence of mastery of the instructional objectives and
content covered requires relevant considerations. Hence the following serves as guide in
planning a classroom test.
i. Determine the purpose of the test;
ii. Describe the instructional objectives and content to be measured.
iii. Determine the relative emphasis to be given to each learning outcome;
iv. Select the most appropriate item formats (essay or objective);
v. Develop the test blue print to guide the test construction;
vi. Prepare test items that is relevant to the learning outcomes specified in the test plan;
vii. Decide on the pattern of scoring and the interpretation of result;
viii. Decide on the length and duration of the test, and
ix. Assemble the items into a test, prepare direction and administer the test.

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The instructional objectives of the course are critically considered while developing the test
items. This is because the instructional objectives are the intended behavioral changes or
intended learning outcomes of instructional programs which students are expected to possess at
the end of the instructional process. The objectives are also given relative weight in respect to the
level of importance and emphasis given to them. Educational objectives and the content of a
course are the focus on which test development is based.
WRITING different TEST ITEMS
1 WRITING SUPPLY TYPE ITEMS
In this part of the unit, we will see two types of supply type items that are commonly used to
measure students’ academic performances. They are short answer type and completion type.
The short answer item and the completion item both are supply type test items that can be
answered by a word, phrase, number or symbol. They are essentially the same, differing only in
the method of presenting the problem. The short answer item uses a direct question, whereas the
completion item consists of an incomplete statement.
USES OF SUPPLY TYPE ITEMS
Both the short answer test item and completion item are suitable for measuring a wide variety of
relatively simple learning outcomes. Some of its common uses are for measuring:
 Knowledge of terminology
Example
1. The family of those of animals that feed on the flesh of other animals is classified as
_________. (carnivorous).
2. What is the common name of following chemical substances?
1.NaCl ______________ (Salt)
 Knowledge of specific facts.
Example
1. The battle of Awa took place in the year ___________. (1888)
Knowledge of principles
Example. If the temperature of a gas is held constant while the pressure applied to it is increased,
what will happen to its volume? (It will decrease)
 Knowledge of method or procedure

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Example. What device is used to detect whether an electric charge is positive or negative?
(Electroscope)
 Simple interpretations of data
Example. If an airplane flying northeast made a 180-degree turn, what direction would it be
heading? (Southwest).
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SHORT ANSWER AND COMPLETION
ITEMS
Advantages
1. Construction is relatively easy
2. Guessing is eliminated or minimized
3. Item sampling is relatively high
Limitations
1. They typically measure rote memorization or simple learning outcomes
2.They are difficult to score
3. They are susceptible to bluffing
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING SHORT ANSWER AND COMPLETION
ITEMS
1. Word the item so that the required answer is both brief and specific.
First of all the answer to an item should be a word, phrase, number or symbol. This can be easily
conveyed to the students through the directions at the beginning of the test and by proper
phrasing of the question. The question should be clear so that students can provide a specific
answer. Consider the following examples.
Example
An animal that eats the flesh of other animals is _________. (This is a poor item)
We can rewrite this item in the following way, and see the difference.
An animal that eats the flesh of other animals is classified as _________. (better)
2. Do not take statements directly from textbooks to use as a basis for short answer items.
Example
1. Chlorine is _________. (Poor)
2. Chlorine belongs to a group of elements that combine with metals to form salts. It is
therefore called _________. (Better) Ans. Halogen

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3. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement.
It is better to use short answer type items than completion type items. There are two advantages
to the direct question form. First, it is more natural to the students, as this is the usual method of
phrasing questions in daily classroom discussions. Second, the direct question is usually better
structured and free of much of the ambiguity that creeps into items based on incomplete
statements. The phrasing of a question requires us to decide what answer we want to know.
Poor: Emperor Menilik became a king of Ethiopia in ______ (Year)
Better: When did Emperor Menilik become a king of Ethiopia? (Year)
Best: In what year did Emperor Menilik become a king of Ethiopia? (Year)
In the first item it is possible to put answers like: Shewa, Ankober, etc., but this ambiguity does
not exist in the later two questions.
4. If the answer is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate the type of answer wanted.
Poor If oranges weigh 100 grams each, how much will a dozen oranges weigh?
Here the answer may be provided as 1200 grams or 1.2 kg. or 1 kg and 200 gm. All are correct.
Better If oranges weigh 100 gm. each, how much will a dozen oranges weigh? _____ kg.
_____gm.
5. Blanks for answers should be equal in length and in a column to the right of the question.
6. When completion items are used, do not include too many blanks.
Example
Poor ___________ was established in __________.
Better Addis Ababa was established in the year ___________.
7. Put the blank space at the end of the item, if possible.
Example
Poor _____ is a measure of the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Better A measure of the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure is
called_______.
8. Avoid providing irrelevant clues
Poor If a triangle has two equal sides then the triangle is an_______________.
Better If a triangle has two equal sides then the triangle is a/ an______________.
(isosceles triangle)
9. Omit important words only

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Poor The first man to ____________the moon is Uri Gagarin.
TRUE – FALSE ITEMS
The most common use of the true-false item is in measuring the ability to identify the
correctness of statements of facts, definition of terms, and statements of principles. However,
they can also become measures of understanding.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF TRUE FALSE ITEMS
Advantages
1. They are Efficient
2. Item Sampling
3. Ease of Scoring
Limitations
1. Difficulty of determining the correctness of the answer
A student may be able to recognize a false statement as incorrect but still may not know what is
correct.
Example
T F Negatively charged particles of electricity are called neutrons.
When students answer this item as false, it doesn’t indicate whether they know what negatively
charged particles of electricity are called; all the answer tells us is that they know that they are
not called neutrons. To overcome such difficulties, some teachers prefer to have the student
change all false statements to true. When this is required, the part of the statement that is
permissible to change should be indicated. Look at the following examples.
Example: Read each of the following statements. If a statement is true, circle the T. If the
statement is false circle the F and change the underlined word to make the statement
true. Place the new word in the blank space after the F.
T ________ 1. Particles of negatively charged electricity are called Neutrons.
Answer: Electrons
F ________ 2. Mechanical energy is turned into electrical energy by Means of the
generator.
T ________ 3. An electric condenser is used to generate electricity.
Answer: Store
F
T
F
F

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In the above example the key words that need to be corrected if they make the statement
incorrect are underlined. This is so because unless otherwise students will correct any part of the
statement which may be different from what we want to test.
2. They are susceptible to guessing.
3. Emphasis on rote memorization
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING TRUE FALSE ITEMS
1. Avoid trivial statements.
The item should test an important idea. In an attempt to obtain statements that are unequivocally
true or false, we sometimes turn to specific statements of facts that fit this criterion beautifully
but have little significance from a learning stand point.
Example 1
EPRDF controlled Addis Ababa on the 19th
of Ginbot 1983 E.C. (F)
This item expects the student to remember that the EPRDF did not control Addis Ababa until
Ginbot 20. Such items cause students to direct their attention toward memorizing details at the
expense of more general knowledge and understanding.
2. Avoid tricky statements.
Some classroom teachers try to make a true statement false by making some insignificant
changes like misspelling names of persons. This should be avoided because the purpose of
testing is not measuring to what extent students can be fooled. The purpose rather is to see to
what extent students are achieving important outcomes of a given course or subject.
3. Avoid the use of negative statements, especially double negatives.
Students tend to overlook negative words such as no or not, and double negatives contribute to
the statement’s ambiguity.
Example
None of the steps in the experiment was unnecessary (poor item)
All of the steps in the experiment were necessary. (better item)
When a negative word must be used, it should be CAPITALIZED, underlined or put in italics or
in bold so that students do not overlook it.
Example
Poor Sigmund Freud was not the first person to identify the subject matter of psychology.
Better Sigmund Freud was NOT the first person to identify the subject matte of psychology.

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Best Sigmund Freud was the first person to identify the subject matter of psychology.
4. Avoid long complex sentences.
It is not good to use long sentences because they are difficult to be understood. A test item
should indicate whether a student has achieved the knowledge and understanding being
measured. Long complex sentences tend also to measure the extraneous factor of reading
comprehension. It, therefore, should be avoided in tests designed to measure achievement.
Example
Despite the theoretical and experimental difficulties of determining the exact PH value of a
solution, it is possible to determine whether a solution is acid by the red color formed on
litmus paper when it is inserted in to the solution. (poor)
Litmus paper turns red in an acid solution. (better)
It is frequently possible to shorten and simplify a statement by eliminating nonfunctional
material and restating the main idea.
5. Avoid including two ideas in one statement, unless cause-effect relationships are being
measured.
6. Avoid use of ambiguous words.
For example look at the following true false items.
T F 1) Large numbers of endemic animals are found in Awash National
Park
T F 2) Blood clotting takes place in a few minutes.
The above two true-false items cannot be unequivocally answered either true or false. This is
because the terms large and a few are not definite. To what extent should the number of the
animals be to be qualified as large and how fast the blood should be to be qualified as taking a
few minutes are not well defined. The same is true with the use of words like some, few, a lot
of, etc. Thus, it is suggested that instead of using these words it is preferable to indicate numbers
in items.
7. Avoid the use of specific determiners.
A specific determiner is a word or phrase that provides unintended clue to the correct answer. A
specific determiner helps the unprepared student to respond correctly. To see what specific
determiners are like, look the following true-false items.
T F 1. All large cities are connected by railways.

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T F 2. No school system is supported entirely by local funds.
T F 4. It is impossible to run a mile in less than 3:30
T F 5. Revolutions have always led to socially desirable goals.
In the above list of true false items generalizations indicated by absolute terms like always, all,
and never are likely to be keyed false.
8. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length.
9. The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal
MATCHING EXERCISES
Matching exercise is used to measure factual information, i.e., knowledge of facts, based on
simple associations. Examples of relationships considered important (by teachers) include
between persons and achievements; dates and historical events; terms and definitions; authors
and titles of books; machines and uses; plants/animals and classifications and parts and
functions.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MATCHING EXERCISE
Advantages
1. It is efficient
2. It reduces the effect of guessing
3. Ease of construction and scoring
Limitations
1. It is limited to measuring simple learning outcomes
2. It is highly susceptible to the presence of irrelevant clues
3. Difficulty of obtaining homogenous materials
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING MATCHING EXERCISES
1. Use only homogeneous material in a single matching exercise
This is the most important rule of constructing matching exercise and yet the one most
commonly violated. One reason for this is that homogeneity is a matter of degree and what is
homogeneous to one group may be heterogeneous to another. For example let’s see the
following exercise.
Example 1.
Column A Column B

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1. The king who introduced railroad service to
Ethiopia.
A. 1974
B. Adwa
2. The Commander-in-chief of Army during Atse
Tewodros’s time.
C. Atse Menilik
D. Gebrye
3. Year Ethiopian revolution took place. E. Italy
4. The place Ethio-Italian war took place.
5. The first country that made diplomatic
relationship with Ethiopia.
Although this is a matching exercise, it does not contain a homogeneous material. Some items
deal with names of people, and other items deal with historical events. To obtain homogenous
material, it is necessary to have only inventors and their inventions in one matching exercise,
explorers and their discoveries in another and kings or presidents and their achievements in
another. If matching exercises are not kept homogeneous, the items are likely to test only the
simplest associations and to provide many commonsensical clues to the correct answer. Look the
following matching exercise.
2. Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the student that
responses may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
Directions: In Column A are the titles of fictions. In Column B are the names of the authors.
Match the names of the authors under Column B with the corresponding fictions
written by the authors under column A.
Column A Column B
__________ 1. s!úY Ng## A. FQR XSk m”BR
__________ 2. hÄ!S ›l¥yh# B. åé¥Y
__________ 3. bxl# GR¥ C. ët§† s§Y
__________ 4. ¥ä WDnH D. smmN
What is the major problem of preparing a matching exercise like this?
3. Place the shorter responses in Column B, i.e., on the right
4. Use limited number of the items within each set

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5. Arrange the list or responses in logical order: place words in alphabetical order and
numbers in sequence.
6. Provide complete directions
7. Place all the items in one matching exercise on the same page.
WRITING MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
The multiple choices item is the most flexible objective item types. It has great versatility in
measuring objectives from the rote knowledge level to the most complex level except for
synthesis.
USES OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
The multiple choices item is the most versatile type of test item available. It can measure a
variety of learning outcomes from simple to complex and it is adaptable to most types of subject
matter content. Multiple Choice items can be employed for measuring common learning
outcomes in the areas of knowledge, understanding, and application.
A. Measuring Knowledge Outcomes
Learning outcomes in the knowledge area are so prominent in all school subjects, and multiple
choice items can measure such a variety of these outcomes. Let us look at some of the more
typical uses with this respect to measuring knowledge objectives.
i. Knowledge of terminology
Here students can be requested to show their knowledge of a particular term by selecting a word
that has the same meaning as the given term or by choosing a definition of the term. Special uses
of the term can also be measured by having students identify the meaning of the term when used
in context.
Examples
1. Which one of the following words has the same meaning as the word egress?
A. Depress
B. Enter
C. Exit
D. Regress
2. Which one of the following statements best defines the word egress?
A. An expression of disapproval
B. An act of leaving an enclosed peace

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C. Proceeding to a higher level
D. Proceeding to a lower level
3. What is meant by the word egress in the following sentence: “The astronauts hope they can
now make a safe egress?
A. Separation from rocket
B. Re-entry to the earth's atmosphere
C. Landing on the water
D. Escape from the space capsule.
ii. Knowledge of specific facts
Multiple choice items designed to measure specific facts can take many different forms, but
questions of the ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’ and ‘where’ varieties are most common.
Examples
1. Who was the king of Ethiopia that people commonly say was ahead of his time?
A. Tewodros
B. Menilik
C. Yohannes
D. Haileslassie
2. When did the battle of Adwa take place?
A. 1896 E.C.
B. 1888 E.C
C 1890 E.C
E. 1892 E.C
iii. Knowledge of principles
The items can be constructed to measure knowledge of principles as easily as those designed to
measure facts.
Example
The principle of capillary action helps explain how fluids
A. enter solutions of lower concentration
B. escape through small openings
C. pass through semi-permeable membranes
D. rise in fine tables

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iv. Knowledge of methods and procedures.
This includes such diverse areas as: knowledge of laboratory procedures; knowledge of methods
underlying communication, computational and performance skills, knowledge of methods used
in problem solving, knowledge of governmental procedures, etc.
Example
Alternating electric current is changed to direct current by means of a
A. condenser
B. rectifier
C. generator
D. transformer
B. Measuring outcomes at the understanding and application levels
Although it is difficult to go beyond the knowledge level with most of the other types of
objective items, the multiple choices item is especially adaptable to the measurement of more
complex learning outcomes. But here we have to know that such items will measure learning
outcomes beyond factual knowledge only if the applications and interpretations are new to the
students. To measure understanding and application, an element of novelty must be included in
the test item.
i. Ability to identify application of facts and principles
A common method of determining whether students’ learning has gone beyond the mere
memorization of a fact or principle is to ask them to identify its correct application in a situation
that is new to the student. Application items measure understanding but they also include the
ability to transfer learning to situations that have not been previously studied.
Example
Which of the following would result in the greatest reduction of calories if it were eliminated
from the daily diet?
a) 1 tablespoon of butter
b) 1 tablespoon of granulated sugar
c) 1 slice of white, enriched bread
d) 1 boiled egg
ii. Ability to interpret cause and effect relationships

126. 126
Understanding can frequently be measured by asking students to interpret various relationships
among facts.
Example
An increased quantity of carbon dioxide is produced when fuel is burned in a limited supply of
oxygen because
a) carbon reacts with carbon monoxide
b) carbon reacts with carbon dioxide
c) carbon monoxide is an effective reducing agent
d) greater oxidation takes place
iii. Ability to justify methods and procedures
Here the student is asked to select the best of several possible explanations of a method or
procedure.
Example
Why do farmers rotate their crops?
a) To conserve the soil
b) To make marketing easier
c) To provide far strip cropping
d) It removes the brownish yellow
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
Advantages
1. It is flexible
It is one of the most widely applicable test items for measuring achievement. It can effectively
measure various types of knowledge and complex learning outcomes.
2. It is free from the common weaknesses of the other type items
For example the ambiguity and vagueness that frequently are present in the short answer item are
avoided because the alternatives better structure the situation
3. It avoids the problem of spelling errors by students
In multiple choice items students are required to select one answer from the given list of
alternatives. This avoids the problem of deciding how to score misspelled answers because
students are not supposed to supply responses.
4. Students should know the answer

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One advantage of multiple choice items over True-False item is that students cannot receive
credit for simply knowing that a statement is incorrect: they must also know what is correct.
5. Multiple choice items have a greater reliability per item
When compared to true-false items, multiple choice items have a greater reliability per item
because the number of alternatives is increased from two to four or five. As a result of this the
opportunity for guessing the correct answer is reduced, and the reliability is correspondingly
increased.
6. The need for homogeneous material is minimized or avoided
An advantage of the multiple choice item over the matching exercise is that the need for
homogenous material is minimized or avoided. In many content areas, it is difficult to obtain
enough homogeneous material to prepare effective matching exercises. But this problem is
avoided with multiple choice items because each item measures a single idea.
7. Using a number of plausible alternatives makes the results useful in diagnosing students'
learning errors
This means the kind of incorrect alternatives students select provides information on students'
misunderstandings.
Limitations
1. It is limited to the measurement of verbal material
2. It is unsuitable to measure synthesis and evaluation levels of the cognitive domain
3. Difficulty of getting plausible distracters
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
1. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem.
In other words, students should have tentative answers after reading the stem only. Often the
stems of test items placed in multiple-choice form are incomplete statements that make little
sense until all of the alternatives have been read. A properly constructed multiple choice item
presents a definite problem in the stem that is meaningful without the alternatives.
2. The item stem should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of
irrelevant material
This will increase the probability of a clearly stated problem in the stem and will reduce the
reading time required. It is possible to increase the conciseness of an item by removing irrelevant
materials and those words repeated in the alternatives.

128. 128
Example
3. Construct stems and options that are stated positively
Example 1
Poor Which one of the following cities is not found South of Addis Ababa?
a. Shashemene
b. Awasa
c. Bahir Dar
d. Nazareth
Better Which one of the following cities is found north of Addis Ababa?
a. Shashemene
b. Awasa
c. Bahir Dar
d. Nazareth
4. All alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item
Poor An electric transformer can be used
A. for storing electricity.
B. to increase the voltage of alternating current.
C. it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
D. Alternating current is changed to direct current.
Better An electric transformer can be used to
A. store electricity
B. increase the voltage of alternating current.
C. convert electrical energy in to mechanical energy
D. change alternating current
In the poor example above, alternatives C and D are not grammatically consistent with the stem.
So, they will be easily eliminated by students resulting only in two plausible alternatives. Similar
difficulties arise from a lack of attention to verb tense, to the proper use of the articles ‘a’ or ‘an’,
and to other common sources of grammatical inconsistency.
5. An item should contain only one correct or clearly best answer
Example
Poor: Most fatalities are due to

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A. acts of God
B. automobile accidents
C. home accidents
D. jobs
E. old age
Better: Most accidental deaths occur in which of the following places?
A. Automobiles
B. Homes
C. Jobs (excluding auto and home accidents)
D. Schools
In the poor example, can old age be considered a fatality? Are parents at a job when at home?
Are home accidents acts of God? To avoid pitfalls (difficulties) each option should be examined
to make sure it is either the most defensible answer or clearly wrong. Being able to justify the
reasons for incorrect options is as important as being able to defend the correct one.
6. Use novel materials in formulating problems that measure understanding or ability to
apply principles. But beware of too much novelty
The construction of multiple choice items that measure understanding requires a careful choice
of situations and skilful phrasing. The situations must be new to the students but not too far
removed from the examples used in class. If the test items contain problem situations that are
identical with those used in class, the test is not going to be test of understanding or application.
It rather becomes a test of memorized facts.
Example
If you wish to determine the angle measure of a certain plot of land to be 900
where you have a
rope but not a tri-square or other measuring devise, which one of the following principles you
may use?
A. Pythagoras theorem.
B. Einstein’s relativity theory.
C. Archimedes principle
D. Newton’s third law
7. All distracters should be plausible

130. 130
Example
Poor The concept of inferiority complex was contributed by
A. Adler.
B. Freud.
C. Marx.
D. Lincoln.
Better The concept of inferiority complex was contributed by
A. Adler.
B. Freud.
C. Jung.
D. Horney.
8. Avoid unintentional clues to the correct answer.
9. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions an approximately
equal number of times but in random order.
10. Use sparingly “none of the above” and “all of the above” as alternatives
The phrases “none of the above” or “all of the above” are sometimes added as the last
alternatives in multiple choice items. This is done to force the student to consider all of the
alternatives carefully and to increase the difficulty of the items. All too frequently, however,
those special alternatives are used inappropriately. In fact, there are certain situations in which
their use is appropriate.
When “all of the above” is used, some students will note that the first alternative is correct and
select it without reading further. Other students will note that at least two of the alternatives are
correct and thereby know that “all of the above” must be the answer.
THE ESSAY TESTS
5.1. THE NATURE AND TYPES OF ESSAY ITEMS essay tests allow for freedom of
response. Students are free to select, relate, and present ideas in their own words. But the
freedom is a matter of degree. In some instances that freedom is delimited to specific size.
In other cases, no restriction is put. So, based on the extent of freedom essay tests can be
classified into restricted essay tests and extended response essay tests.
1. Restricted Response Essay Questions

131. 131
These questions usually limit both the content and the form of the response. The content is
usually restricted by the scope of the topic to be discussed. Limitations on the form of the
response are generally indicated in the question.
Example
a. Why is multiple choice items considered the most versatile type? Answer in a brief paragraph.
b. Describe two situations that demonstrate the application of the Newton's third law of motion.
Do not use those examples discussed in class.
Although delimiting students’ responses to essay questions makes it possible to measure more
specific learning outcomes, these same restrictions make them less valuable as a measure of
those learning outcomes emphasizing integration, organization, and originality. This is because
for higher order learning outcomes, greater freedom of response is needed.
2. Extended Response Essay Questions
In this type of test no restriction in either form or content are placed. Students can provide
answers by organizing their ideas the way they like. Moreover, it is the student himself/herself
that determines the size of the answer. However, in spite of the fact that this freedom allows for
the measurement of higher order skills, scoring difficulties come into play. The following are
examples of extended response essay tests.
Example
a. Describe the influence of textbooks on sex stereotyping.
b. Write your own evaluation of the value of the New Pre-service Teacher Education System
Overhaul (TESO) in preparation of qualified or well trained secondary school teachers.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF ESSAY TEST
Advantages
1. They can measure complex learning objectives
Essay type items measure complex learning outcomes that cannot be measured by other
objective type items. They also can measure divergent thinking. Essay tests allow great freedom
in responding, the opportunity for obtaining unusual responses is increased. Extended response
questions emphasize on the integration and application of thinking and problem solving skills.
2. They allow free response
Essay tests give students the freedom to respond within broad limits. They essay test allows
students to express their ideas. They are the most direct measurement of writing skills.

132. 132
3. They eliminate guessing
Because essay achievement tests provide no options for students to select from, guessing is
eliminated. The student must supply rather than select the proper response.
4. They easy to construct
5. They have a desirable effect on the learners study habits.
Essay items encourage students to study hard because they know that they are required to write
rather than select a single answer. To write an answer to a given item, a student has to be
prepared well.
Limitations
1. Scoring is Unreliable
Essay responses are difficult to score objectively because the student has greater freedom of
expression. Also, long, complex essays are more difficult to score than shorter, more limited
ones.
Different scorers assign different scores for the same response to an essay test. Even the same
teacher might score the same test paper at different times. It requires an extensive amount of time
to read and grade.
2. They are time consuming
Essay items are time consuming for both the teacher and student. Students often spend much
time answering only one or two extended essay questions. Teachers also devote many hours to
reading lengthy responses.
3. They cannot measure a large amount of content or objectives.
It provides limited sampling of content. So few questions can be included in a given test that
some areas are measured thoroughly, but many others are neglected. As a result of this they are
inefficient measures of factual information.
4. They are subject to bluffing
Although essay tests eliminate guessing, they do not prevent bluffing. Poorly prepared students
often attempt to get a passing grade by answering something, even if the responses are unrelated
to the questions asked.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION
1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be measured
satisfactorily with objective items.

133. 133
That is, if it is possible to test a certain learning outcome using objective test items essay test
should not be used. This is so because, other things being equal, objective measures have the
advantage of efficiency and reliability. You have to use essay test only when objective test items
cannot measure the behavior of interest.
2. Construct questions that will call forth the behavior specified in the learning outcomes
Like objective items, essay questions should measure the achievement of clearly defined
instructional objectives. Because they are easy to construct it may happen that essay tests might
be constructed without giving attention to the specific learning outcomes they are intended to
measure. Hence, great care must be taken when constructing essay tests. If the ability to apply
principles is being measured, for example, the questions should be phrased in such a manner that
they call forth that particular behavior.
3. Phrase the question so that the student’s task is clearly indicated.
Like the case in objective test items, essay tests should be developed in such a way that they are
not ambiguous (i.e. they should be clear). If they are ambiguously stated, they will be problems
both to the students and to the teacher. Students will have to guess what was in the teacher’s
mind when he/she constructed the item. Because students will come with variety of responses for
they may see the question in different ways, the teacher will have hard time of scoring. Look at
the following pair of essay questions.
4. Indicate an approximate time limit for each question.
Each question is written we should estimate the approximate time needed for a satisfactory
response. We have also to take into account slower students when we determine the time. It is
better to use fewer questions and give more generous time limits than to put some students at a
disadvantage.
Students often waste time unnecessarily on some questions and leave others unattempted because
of shortage of time. Therefore, to minimize this problem the time limits allotted to each question
should be indicated to the students. This will help students adjust their pace to each question of
the test. The students should also be told approximately how much time to spend on each part of
the test either orally or on the test paper itself.
5. Avoid the use of Optional Questions.
Teachers commonly give students more essay test items that they are supposed to answer. For
example, a teacher may construct five essay questions and direct students to pick any three of

134. 134
them and write their answer. Hence, students will be in a position to select those questions they
know most. If student answer different questions, it is clear that they are taking different tests,
and the common basis for evaluating their achievement is lost. Then ultimately, it will be
possible to say each student is demonstrating achievement of different learning outcomes.
SCORING ESSAY ITEMS
One of the most serious problems with essay items is unreliability in scoring. There are some
ways through which this unreliability could be minimized. The following are list of suggestions.
1. Prepare an outline of the expected answer in advance.
The outline you prepare should contain the major points to be included, the characteristics of the
answers (e.g., organization) to be evaluated and the amount of credit to be allotted. In case of
restricted response items, you can have a list of acceptable responses. For example, if students
are given an aim statement form Ethiopian Training and Education Policy and are required to
derive three goal statements of their own, as your scoring guide you can prepare three acceptable
goal statements. In case of extended response essay tests you can have an outline of major points
to be emphasized in students’ responses. The outline may include
 accuracy of factual information,
 relevance of examples,
 coherence of paragraphs, etc.
In addition to this you have to determine and make them the weights given to each of the
components known to students.
Preparing a scoring key provides a common yardstick for evaluating students’ answers and
increases the consistency of our standards for each question throughout the scoring. If prepared
during the test construction, such scoring key also helps us phrase questions that clearly specify
the types of answers expected.
2. Use the scoring method that is most appropriate.
There are two common methods of scoring essay questions: analytical method and holistic
method.
Analytical scoring method
In the analytic method, each answer is compared with the ideal answer in the scoring key, and a
given number of points are assigned according to the adequacy of the answer. It enables the
teacher to focus on one characteristic of a response at a time. Examples for analytic scoring

135. 135
rubrics may include organization, word choice, content, etc. In analytic scoring thus specific
feedback can be given to the testee (student).
Holistic scoring method
In this method, a single overall score is given taking into account the entire response. Because no
detailed criteria are needed, scoring papers in this method is rapid. However, this has its own
shortcomings. Unless supplemented with comments teachers write on test papers, holistic scores
alone provide less specific guidance to the student.
Restricted response essay questions can usually be satisfactorily scored by the analytic method.
The restricted scope and the limited number of characteristics included in a single response make
it possible to define degrees of quality precisely enough to assign point values. The extended
response question, however, usually requires the holistic method.
3. Decide how to handle factors that are irrelevant to the learning outcomes being measured.
Several factors influence our evaluation of answers that are not directly pertinent to the purpose of the
measurement. Prominent among these are:
 legibility of hand writing,
 spelling,
 sentence structure, and
 punctuation,
We should make an effort to keep such factors from influencing our judgment when evaluating the
content of the answers.
4. Evaluate the responses of all students to one question before going to the next one.
One factor that contributes to unreliable scoring of essay questions is a shifting of standards from
one student’s answer to the next. A paper with average answers may appear to be of much higher
quality when it follows a failing paper than when it follows a near perfect one. One way to
minimize this is to score all answers to the first question, reorder the papers, and score all
answers to the second question, and so on until all the questions have been scored. A more
uniform standard can be maintained with this procedure because it is easier to remember the
basis for judging each answer, and answers of various degrees of quality can be more easily
compared. It also helps to counteract another type of error. When we evaluate all of the answers
to a single student, the first few answers may create a general impression of the student’s
achievement that affects our judgment of the remaining answers. Thus if the first answers are of
high quality, we tend to overrate the following answers; if they are of low quality, we tend to

136. 136
underrate them. We call this condition a carry over effect —where our impression of the answer
for one item affects the answer for the next item.
Carry over effect is the tendency of the scorer to rate the following items based on the
impression he/she formed from the previously rated item. If a student did well on the first item,
the teacher will give high scores for the next items though the answers may be poor, or vice
versa.
When possible evaluate the answers without looking at the students’ names. The general
impression we form about each student during our teaching is also a source of bias in evaluating
essay questions. This is called halo effect. This is a tendency on part of the scorers to allow their
general impressions of a person to influence their evaluation of specific behaviors. If a teacher
expects that the student is clever, is not uncommon for a teacher to give a high score to a poorly
written answer by rationalizing that “the student is really capable, even though he/she didn’t
express it clearly”.
Halo effect is a tendency on part of the scorers to allow their general impressions of a person to
influence their evaluation of specific behaviors.
ITEM ANALYSIS
Item analysis is the process of examining students’ responses to each item to determine the
quality of test items. In item analysis, the specific activities done are determining difficulty level
and discrimination power of test items and judging how effectively distracters are functioning in
case of multiple choice items.
The purpose of item analysis is to select the best items from the poor ones. It is preferable from
educational measurement and evaluation viewpoint to use test items that are judged good even if
they were used before. Thus, here comes the role of item analysis. In item analysis we will
determine which items can be used directly which with revision and which should be discarded.
Apart from the above purpose, item analysis has the following purposes in classrooms.
1. Item analysis data provide a basis for efficient class discussion of test results
One of the tasks in item analysis is counting the number of times an alternative is chosen by
students as a correct answer. This gives chance for both teachers and students to discuss on
misinformation and misunderstandings. Item analysis also helps teachers to identify technical
defects. They also suggest needed change on scoring keys or scoring rubric in essays for instance

137. 137
in a case in which high achieving students most frequently chose an alternative you think is a
distracter.
2. Item Analysis data provide a basis for remedial work
Although discussion of test results can provide chance to clarify specific problems, item analysis
suggests general areas of students weaknesses that need more attention. If for example students’
score is less than expected, this may suggest that you need to revisit critical concepts or topics.
3. Item analysis data provide a basis for the general improvement of classroom instruction.
Item analysis data provide information that can assist in determining the appropriateness of
learning outcomes and course contents defined for some group of learners. Students’ scores may
lead one to the extent of revising curricula.
4. Item analysis procedures provide a basis for increased skill in test construction
In item analysis, you will identify existence of ambiguity, unintended clues, ineffective
distracters, etc. All this information is useful in revising the items for future use. Mostly teacher
who make item analysis are better than those who do not make in terms of constructing good test
items. This is because the former type of teachers will get the chance to learn from their own
errors.
PROCEDURES OF ITEM ANALYSIS FOR OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS
Item analysis is carried out based on the following procedures.
1. First, arrange the scored test papers in order from the highest score to the lowest score.
2. Divide the ordered papers in two halves. Put those highest scores in one group and those with
the lowest sores in another. Take the top 27% from high achieving students, and the bottom
27% from low achieving students. For example, if the number of your testees is 80 and you
want to make an item analysis, first you will consider the top 27% and the bottom 27% of
the students, i.e.
So using this formula we will have to use 22 papers from the upper group and another 22 papers
from the lower group, which is a total of 44 student papers.
3. If the number of students is small like 40 or 50, there is no need to take the upper and the
lower 27%: you can simply divide it into two halves and take 20 of the upper papers and 20
of the lower papers. For each item count the number or examinees in the upper group and
6
.
21
100
27
80 


138. 138
in the lower group that choose each response alternative (in the completion, short answer,
and true-false questions count the number of students who answered the question correctly)
and record the counts separately for the upper group and the lower group. Add the counts
of the lower and the upper group for the correct answer, and divide the sum by the total
number of upper and lower group students and multiply the value by 100%. This will
provide index of item difficulty (P). The formula is
T= Total number of upper and lower group students
P= Item difficulty Index
RU = number of upper group students who got the item right
RL = number of lower group students who got the item right
4. Subtract the counts of the lower group from the counts of the upper group and divide the
result by half of the total number of upper and lower group students. This will provide index
of item discrimination (D).
5. Evaluate how distracters are functioning. The purpose of distracters is distracting the
unprepared student from getting the correct answer. Thus in good items there should be more
students from lower than from the upper who choose them. If more students from the upper
than from the lower group happen to mark distracters as correct answers, the item will have
poor discrimination power and even negative one.
Example: Let us assume that a 10-multiple choice items test was administered to 40 students.
The teacher wanted to conduct item analysis. The results of students for the first item
where the correct answer is B are presented below.
Item Number 1
Alternatives
A B* C D Omit
100
T
R
R
P L
u



)
T
(
2
1
R
R
D L
u 


139. 139
Upper Group (20) 1 19 0 0 0
Lower Group (20) 5 9 0 6 0
For the above item, the difficulty level (P) is given as
= 70%
and the discrimination power of the item (D) is given as
= 0.5
As regards the distracters, alternatives A and D were functioning as intended because they
attracted larger number of students from the lower group than from the upper one. In contrast,
alternative C did not function as intended because it attracted no student. Therefore, this
alternative needs improvement for future use or the item should have had three alternatives only.
6.4.1. INTERPRETING ITEM DIFFICULTY AND ITEM DISCRIMINATION IN
OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS
Though there is no clear cut guideline to interpret items based on their level of difficulty and
discrimination there are rule of thumbs. The following guidelines are suggested to determine the
difficulty levels of different formats of test.
Item Format Ideal Difficulty Level
Completion and short answer 50
5 response multiple choice 70
4 response multiple choice 74
3 response multiple choice 77
True false 85
As regards item discrimination index, Ebel & Frisbie (1991) suggested the following rule of
thumb.
100
40
8
20



P
)
40
(
2
1
9
19
D



140. 140
Index of D Interpretation
0.40 and up Very good item
0.30 to 0.39 Reasonably good but possibly subject to improvement
0.20 to 0.29 Marginal that needs improvement
Below 0.20 Poor items
COURSE NAME:
COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Who are school psychologists? School Psychologists arte those who:
 Highly-qualified professionals with a graduate degree
 Work in schools and related settings
 Provide comprehensive psychological and educational services to diverse students
 Promote children’s learning, positive behaviour, and development
 Support students’ social, emotional, and mental health
 All school psychologists must receive graduate-level training to qualify as a school
psychologist
 Work at schools and related settings – related settings may include special education
centres (e.g., early childhood centres for children with disabilities), departments of
education, clinical settings with an education focus, or even independent practice or
hospitals in some states.
 Provide comprehensive services – describe what some of those services might look like
1.1.1 When do children NEED a School Psychologist? Learners need the support of
School Psychologists while encountering:
 Learning difficulties
 Behaviours and attention concerns
 Problems with peers (isolation, bullying)
 Depression and other mental health issues
 Coping with crisis & trauma (natural disasters, war, school violence, abuse, rape)
 Poverty, violence, homelessness, foster youth, loss, grief
 Family issues (divorce, death, substance abuse, military deployment)

141. 141
Note: School psychologists also work in roles promoting social, emotional, mental and
behavioural health – not always responding to students in significant need or in crisis.
1.1.2 Where do School Psychologists work?
According to Walcott, Charvat, McNamara, & Hyson (2015), 86% of school Psychologists work
at public schools, 10% at Colleges and Universities, 8% in Private Schools, 7% Private Practice,
6.7 % in faith based Schools, 1.6 % Department of Education, 1.5% Clinics and Hospitals.
School psychology has historically had limited representation from culturally and linguistically
diverse backgrounds. It’s a well need within the field to recruit a more diverse workforce to meet
the needs of the increasingly diverse students and families in our schools and communities. The
demographics of the field are not representative of the increasingly diverse students enrolled in
public schools.
1.1.3 How to Become a School Psychologist?
Preparation for graduate school Graduate school coursework Internship
A)Preparation for Graduate School-A bachelor’s degree with a major in: Psychology, Child
Development, Sociology, Education or related field, and Volunteer or work experience with
children and youth.
B) Graduate school coursework- Develops knowledge and skills in Foundations of Services
Needed in Schools.
C) Graduate School Field Experiences
Practicum Experiences-Supervised experiences in schools, clinics, or related settings
throughout your graduate program allow you to apply specific skills and techniques learned in
courses.
Internship- Culminating experience, Provides intensive and supervised preparation for first job.
1.2 Characteristics of Effective School Counsellor
A number of counsellor personality characteristics have been hypothesized as variables
important to counselling effectiveness. Stefflre et al (5) indicated the importance of isolating
characteristics of effective counsellors for shaping a curriculum to move counsellors toward
desired behaviour. They found that chosen counsellors obtained higher scores on the Edward
Personal Preference Schedule on deference and order and lower scores on abasement and
aggression. Strupp (6) indicated that personal integrity, humanity, dedication and patience are
probably the most important personal characteristics in counselling, but it is difficult to measure

142. 142
these qualities with available psychological instruments. Canon (1) on the other hand indicated
that among the most promising dimensions relevant to counselling effectiveness were autonomy,
alienation, withdrawal and guardedness.
1.3 Roles of School Counsellors
Professional school counsellors play a vital role in a comprehensive crisis leadership team (Kerr,
2009) and are key figures in a school building who provide leadership to the school through
advocacy and collaboration. They work to maximize student achievement and also to “promote
equity and access to opportunities and rigorous educational experiences for all students” as well
as helping to facilitate “a safe learning environment and working to safeguard the human rights
of all members of the school community” (American School Counsellor Association, 2008).
School counsellors frequently accomplish these goals by providing preventative and substantive
programs that are imbedded in a comprehensive school counselling program. Given their unique
role, school counsellors can be helpful in school crises by using individual counselling, group
counselling, and classroom guidance activities and by collaborating with key stakeholders.
Individual counselling can be helpful to those who are directly affected by crises (e.g., by
working with a student on expressing feelings after his or her house caught on fire). Providing
group counselling to those who have been exposed to crises (e.g., by establishing a support group
for students who have divorced parents) could ease the pain of the initial impact of the crisis and
create a support network among the group members. School counsellors could also provide
classroom guidance activities such as these:
 Preventative programs via classroom guidance activities on crisis, suicide, and handling
stress, communication skills, expressing frustration, and the like, which are seen as ways to
prevent crises from occurring.
 Classroom guidance activities in the aftermath of a crisis (e.g., providing students with
resources after the town has been devastated by a flood). Lastly, connecting with the
community and collaborating with key stakeholders are a vital role for school counsellors in
the wake of a crisis. Such connective efforts could include the following:
 Collaborating with teachers, staff, principals, superintendents, and other school personnel on
preventing and responding to crisis (e.g., by providing school staff with materials and
training on recognizing suicidal behaviour).

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 Working with families and individuals in the Parent Teacher Organization on ways to
prevent, respond to, intervene in, and manage crisis. This will help parents provide
supportive care that is congruent with what their children are learning in school.
The need for school psychological services has emerged strongly in recent years. The increased
occurrence of learning difficulties and low academic performance [1], children’s behavioural
problems [2], mental health problems, and new social conditions due to the COVID-19 pandemic
[3–5] have led to an understanding of the need to tackle the problems directly and the need to
turn to the science of psychology for help. Schools represent the most common entry point for
young people to access mental health support, as it has been observed that they are twenty-one
times more likely to visit a school-based psychological support service than a community-based
mental health care clinic, and students are more likely to ask for help, if available, at school [6].
In this light, school psychological services offer a security framework in which young people
learn that seeking help and support, when needed, is normal and accepted, and thus they can
receive continuous support, e.g., through academic interventions, mental health services, etc. [7].
In essence, school psychology constitutes the link between the theory and research of education
and counselling intervention at school. It seems, from the research literature, that school
psychologists are, in general, practitioners whose major professional interests are focused on
children, their families, and the school process [8]. The basic education and training of school
psychologists (SP) prepares them to be able to provide a range of tasks and services, such as
assessments, counselling, crisis management, prevention, mental health program implementation
and program evaluation, with special emphasis on the developmental stages of children and
young people in schools, families, and other systems [9]. This rapid development of the field can
be observed in the growth in the number of professionals and the organizational and institutional
developments, while the importance of professional regulation has been highlighted through
certification and accreditation. Nationwide, there is a growing recognition of the need for more
school psychologists, which is largely related to mental health, well-being, and crisis
management. As it has been shown from previous research [14], the real roles of the
psychologist differ significantly from prefecture to prefecture and/or between regions within the
country.
Regarding the tasks that a psychologist undertakes at school, the National Association of School
Psychology in the USA [14] reported that these professionals help students to succeed

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academically, socially, behaviourally, and emotionally. For that reason, they collaborate with
teachers, parents, and other professionals in order to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning
environments that strengthen the connections between home, school, and the community for all
students. A school psychologist, through theories and empirical data, plans, manages and/or
participates in a system of school psychological services to promote the educational development
and mental health of children and young people of school age [15]. Simultaneously, the modern
fields of the professional activities of the school psychologist are intended to promote the
implementation of children’s rights. These include child welfare as the global recognition of the
meaning and the value of children’s rights has particularly affected school psychology [16]. It
has been suggested that there are five key functions within a school psychologist’s role, namely,
psychological evaluation, intervention, consultation, research, and training, which should be
conducted at three levels, namely organizational, group, and individual, across different settings
[17]. Similarly, it has been emphasized that school psychologists undertake a range of activities
such as assessments, administering counselling to students, teachers and parents, and
consultations and interventions in crisis situations [18].
1.3.1 Preferred Roles of the School Psychologists
In recent years, the literature has shown discrepancies between the perceptions of teachers and
psychologists about the role of the latter in the education system. More specifically, teachers
seem to attach great value to the traditional role of evaluating students with learning difficulties
and, at the same time, highlight the demand for more supportive services from the school
psychologists [22]. On the other hand, school psychologists have emphasized a shift from the
traditional role of work at an individual level towards a wider role based on dialectical
counselling, school-based education, prevention programs, and participation in policymaking
[23].
Some researchers have suggested that the following activities and situations could/ should be
included in or considered as ideal professional roles for school psychologists: individual
counselling with educators, crisis management, parenting work groups, and the prevention of
mental health problems [21, 24]. In an overview of the desired roles [10, 11], it appeared that the
(school) psychologists in the participating countries gave priority to the counselling of students,
teachers and parents, and prevention. The field of prevention includes prevention programs for
major issues, such as school violence, school dropout rates, and employee stress.

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In another study, the preferred roles of school psychologists included: (i) the design and
implementation of curricula, with a particular emphasis on learning disabilities; (ii) the
promotion of students’ well-being and mental resilience through prevention and life skills
training programs; and (iii) the promotion of school–family cooperation and the implementation
of educational programs for parents and teachers, collaboratively or separately [25]. School
psychologists involved in Magi and Kikas’ research [26] emphasized the importance of
counselling in systems, but in practice one can rarely see this in schools.
Considering the fact that, at present, teachers have daily interactions with the students/and they
are the professionals who actually refer students when needed to the schools’ psychological
support services, they are, probably, the most critical members in the students’ educational
environment [27]. Some studies and clinical reports have revealed that students’ disorders and
the externalization of problems can increase teachers’ anxiety and “confusion”, thereby reducing
their professional competence [28]. In a qualitative study [29] it was found that school
psychologists may have an indirect role in enabling teachers’ resilience by mitigating the school-
related challenges faced by teachers. The need for counselling support for teachers was also
recognized by another study [30], where approximately half of the participants reported that the
school psychologists provided them with support/consultation approximately once a week. In
general, this type of support includes, for instance, the following activities: (i) general
counselling, (ii) teachers’ development workshops, (iii) job stress management and (iv)
addressing personal issues.
In recent years, and in addition to what was earlier stated in the research studies, state education
services and educational policy makers have recognized the need for school psychologists to
support a diverse number of students culturally and linguistically. This comes as an emergent
need of the rapidly increasing numbers of many diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in
the public school system, both in the USA and in many European countries, and this trend is
expected to continue [31]. A similar picture is presented by the Greek school community, which
faces many challenges related to the growing heterogeneity of the student population. This
highlights the need for the reorientation of the role of the school psychologist from traditional
psycho-educational services and its extension to a more systemic way of working [13].
1.3.2 The Emerging Role of the School Psychologist in the COVID-19 Era

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The novel coronavirus (COVID-19), which unexpectedly invaded our lives in March of 2020,
affected nearly one billion students and learners worldwide [32]. The majority of countries
suspended the operation of schools at all levels, leaving around sixty-five percent (65%) of the
total student population in home education, switching from traditional school to online teaching.
In the new social reality conditions, with their multidimensional impact (economic, political,
environmental, social, cultural, legal, ethical) the role of school psychologists became even more
prominent. One year after the outbreak of the pandemic, school psychologists remain unsure of
how best to provide psychological services in this context. The traditional task of the school
psychologists to conduct assessments seems impossible using online work platforms. Due to
legal difficulties, in most countries it was proposed to suspend all special education assessments
until the schools re-opened [33]. Due to the willingness and adaptability of professionals to
provide immediate access to services for the completion of this vital task through the use of tele-
health platforms, even with the ethical issues raised, the online mode of assessment quickly
became a typical mechanism for service delivery [34, 35]. However, a better understanding of
tele-psychology at different developmental ages as well as in the school environment is needed,
as the way tele-psychology works in relation to children and adolescents in schools is very
relevant [36].
Children were not indifferent to the dramatic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, as when faced
with unexpected and unknown events they typically exhibited various reactions, such as fear,
uncertainty, and physical and social isolation and may have missed school for a prolonged period
[3]. The literature shows that children during the quarantine period experienced anger, confusion,
post-traumatic stress symptoms, family violence, among other things, as a result of the changes
in the daily routine [4,37]. Similar reactions to varying degrees of tension were experienced by
adults. Additional challenges for children during the COVID-19 pandemic include disruption to
academic learning, family financial concerns, greater childhood adverse experiences, grief, and
increased time looking at a screen [38].
1.4 General Principles of Counselling
1. Principle of Acceptance-Accept the client with his physical, psychological, social, economic
and cultural conditions.
2. Principle of Communication-Communication should be verbal as well as non-verbal and
should be skilful.

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3. Principle of Empathy-Empathy is ability to identify with a person.
4. Principle of Respect for the individual -Respecting an individual’s feelings must be integral
parts of counselling process.
5. Principle of non-Judge-Mental attitudes – does not criticize or comment negatively
regarding client’s complaints.
6. Principle of Empathy-Empathy is ability to identify with a person.
7. Principle of Respect for the individual-Respecting an individual’s feelings must be an
integral part of counselling process.
8. Principle of non- emotional involvement-Not getting emotionally involved with the clients
and avoid getting carried away with his feelings.
These are only some of the more important principles which a counsellor should keep in mind. A
counsellor must be trained and acquire many skills of communication, human relation, sensitivity
before he/she takes up this delicate job. One wrong can cause more harm than good to the client.
The counsellor therefore has to be very curious while offering counselling services.
1.5 Challenges for a School Psychologist
The challenges before the school psychologist are broadly of two types. On the one hand, a
school psychologist has to offer mental health care, the need for which is on the increase, which
is credible, cost-effective, and which addresses the social issues. At the same time, a school
psychologist has to take up the challenge of global problems, such as the issue of sustainable
development, so that he can expand the scope of psychology. If psychologists are not able to
provide a sound research base on which the school psychologist take pragmatic decisions his
professional competence is at stake. Today, globalization would require ever more stringent and
elaborate ethical and moral codes to regulate interactions between living and non-living world so
that cooperation, help and altruism prosper. Therefore a new look on human nature, away from
rationality, where emotions have significant role to play, seems imperative.
Education continues to undergo considerable changes including socio-political, economical,
industrial, occupational and technological changes. These changes are providing substantial
development for children and young people. A rapidly changing world and labour force; violence
in homes, schools and communities; divorce; substance abuse and sexual experimentation are
just a few examples of these challenges. These challenges are not abstract, they are real and
having extensive impact on the personal/social career and academic development of the children

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and young people (Gysbers, 1999; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000). Scholars in the field urge that
guidance and counselling programmes are effective tools in assisting children and young people,
along with their parents, to respond to these and similar challenges. It is believed that when
school counsellors have time, resources and the structure of a comprehensive programme to
work in, good things happen, that is, guidance counselling interventions improve academic
achievement, students take more demanding courses, students develop and use career plans and
schools have more positive climates (Day, 2014).
The global concerns related to Guidance and Counselling services in schools have resulted in a
number of studies being carried out internationally regarding the benefits of Career Guidance
and Counselling services. It is observed that Guidance and Counselling services help students to
overcome social, psychological, cultural and educational problems that arise from the rapid
economic and cultural changes (Harris, 2013). It can be concluded that the experiences of other
countries is paramount important as a comparative study of the practice and challenges of
guidance and counselling service in the context of secondary schools in Ethiopia. That is, the
challenges observed in other countries and the solution obtained for such problems may
contribute to this study. Although the concept of Guidance and Counselling is relatively new in
African educational systems, it has been embraced by different Scholars. Most African countries
recognise the essential role of organised Guidance and Counselling Programme. However, there
are limited research studies conducted to assess the effectiveness of the programme being
implemented to improve the students ‘decision-making processes that lead to improve future
benefits (Biswalo, 1996). In addition to human resources, the provisions of material resources or
facilities and support services determine the extent to which the Guidance and Counselling
Programme achieve its intended goals.
The purposes of guidance and counselling programmes for school children are many folds.
Empirical evidence showed that guidance and counselling programmes had significant influence
to improve or strengthening social skills (Verduyn, Lord & Forrest, 1990). Similarly, Whiston,
Sexton & Lasoff (198) identified that guidance and counselling help students to make wise
decision on career development. To alleviate discipline problems Baker & Gerler, 2001;
Braddock, 2001 states that the purpose of guidance and counselling in schools is helpful to
improve academic achievement, foster positive study attitudes and habits and increase
acquisitions and application of conflict resolution skills. In addition, Bark (2003) states that

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guidance and counselling assistance should be made available by qualified and trained teachers.
Similarly, Abid (2006) suggested that guidance and counselling service promotes an individual’s
lifestyle of any age to help him to manage his own life activities, develop his own points of view,
make his own decisions and carry on his own burden and decrease school dropouts and
developing positive study habits and study skills.
According to the finding of Muhammad (2010), students and teachers indicated a strong demand
for secondary schools guidance and counselling programmes that raised self-awareness,
including understanding and appreciation of self, understanding the emotional and physical
dangers of HIV/AIDS and self-education, dating and related issues, time management, coping
with peers pressure, decision making, handling crisis and managing life events, interpersonal
skills, conflict resolution, peer counselling, career exploration, school adjustment, investigating
world of work, job seeking and helping skills.
1.5 Collaborating With School Psychologists
Due to the diverse needs of young children at risk for or with developmental delays/ disabilities
and their families, an interdisciplinary and collaborative team is required in schools to deliver
family-centred, individualized early intervention/early childhood special education (EI/ECSE)
services (Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children [DEC], 2017).
DEC (2014) recommended practices point out that by nature, the intervention service team
should always include multiple adults. This team typically consists of the family and
professionals from various disciplines working together to plan and implement supports that are
relevant to child and family needs. For example, families may work with an ECSE teacher and a
speech–language pathologist to provide multiple learning opportunities across daily routines, and
activities for their children to practice using words to request items they need. Another key
personnel within early childhood (EC) settings is the school psychologist. EC practitioners
(including EI/ECSE specialists) are highly encouraged to utilize DECrecommended practices as
guidelines to collaborate with school psychologists and other team members to develop positive
family–professional partnerships, empower families by building their capacities, and help
children meaningfully participate in daily routines and activities in natural environments.
Positive dynamics and quality interactions among team members can improve the fidelity,
effectiveness, and sustainability of intervention programs and supports (DEC, 2014).

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In this article, we outline ways in which school psychologists can collaborate with EC personnel
to improve the developmental, social–emotional, and academic outcomes for preschool-age
children. Traditional Role of EC School Psychologists Ms. Singh works as a preschool school
psychologist in a public school district. She is part of a collaborative problem-solving team that
includes the school principal, an ECSE teacher, a general education teacher, and a speech–
language pathologist. This team meets on the second Friday of each month to review and discuss
referrals that have been received. Teachers and families are invited to attend the team meeting
that is specific to their student/child. This week, Ms. Singh receives a referral from a preschool
teacher, Ms. González, to evaluate Katie, a 4-year-old child in her preschool classroom, for
ECSE services. Katie’s referral indicates that she demonstrates behavioural challenges in both
the home and classroom settings, especially during transitions between activities. She has a
difficult time leaving what she is doing and will cry, scream, and throw objects. At the beginning
of the school year, the tantrums occurred infrequently.
Recently, the tantrums have been happening several times throughout the day, and it has become
increasingly challenging for Ms. González and Katie’s parents to calm Katie and transitions her
to a new activity. Because of these concerns, Ms. Singh obtains permission from Katie’s parents
to observe her behaviours in the classroom during transitions between different routines and
activities. After gathering data on Katie’s behaviours, Ms. Singh holds a meeting with Ms.
González and Katie’s parents to share observation notes, gain additional information about the
behaviours, as well as develop a plan to address their concerns. The team agrees that completing
a developmental screening tool is an appropriate first step. Results indicate that Katie has needs
in the social–emotional area. Katie’s parents agree to refer Katie for further evaluation and seek
additional supports. School psychology is one of the multiple related disciplines that provides
EI/ECSE services as defined in the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the
DEC’s (2017) position statement on personnel standards in ECSE.
1.7 Helpful Strategies to the School Counsellor
Summary of Intervention Strategies: Priority and Focus Schools Prepared with the support of
Cross & Joftus September 2014
1.7.1 Priority Schools: Seven Turnaround Principles Intervention Strategies

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Priority schools are required to implement all seven Turnaround Principles using intervention
strategies that are sufficient to achieve change and demonstrate progress. One or more
interventions must be selected from each of the seven principles described below.
Principle 1: Provide Strong School Leadership
Ensure that leaders are effective. Possible intervention strategies:
a. Evaluate, in-depth, the performance of the current leadership.
b. Implement changes in leadership, where appropriate.
c. Focus on instructional leadership including the collection of data and feedback mechanisms
for continually improving instruction.
d. Partner with a reward School or obtain a leadership mentor to analyse existing leadership
models and develop a revised leadership plan.
e. Provide flexibility in the areas of scheduling, budget, staffing and curriculum.
Principle 2: Effective Use of Staffing Practices & Instruction
Ensure that all teachers are effective and able to improve instruction. Possible intervention
strategies:
a. Review and retain effective staffs that have the ability to be effective in a turnaround effort.
b. Develop a recruitment plan that screens out ineffective teachers from transferring into these
schools.
c. Ensure that all administrators in the school have the skills to effectively evaluate instruction
and give quality feedback to teachers.
d. Develop an overall recruitment and retention plan for the principal and leadership team.
e. Provide additional instruction time for all teachers focused on effective instruction.
f. Partner with outside master educators to conduct observations as part of a comprehensive
evaluation process that supports reliable observations.
g. Other promising strategies that meet this turnaround principle and are sufficient to achieve
change and demonstrate progress, such as:
• Provide professional development for school staff on the collection, analysis, and use of
instructional data.
• Require professional development in the use of research- based instructional practices.
• Embed data decision making model and problem solving into teacher training and a
collaboration team.

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Work collaboratively in Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) to support and lift each
student to proficiency, college and career readiness, and graduation.
• Use a walk-through system that gives teachers the feedback they need to continuously improve
practice.
Principle 3: Effective Use of Time
Redesign the school day, week, or year to include additional time for student learning and
teacher collaboration. Possible intervention strategies:
a. Increase instructional time for students who need more time to meet the rigorous goals of the
CCSS.
b. Provide additional time focused on learning strategies for effectively working with students
with disabilities or ELLs.
c. Provide additional time focused on teachers developing and using common assessment data to
inform and differentiate instruction.
d. Focus on effective use of instructional time, including effective transitions and teacher
collaborations.
e. Other promising strategies that meet this turnaround principle and are sufficient to achieve
change and demonstrate progress, such as:
• Incorporate time for teacher common planning and collaboration
• Incorporate time for planning and implementation of co-teaching
• Provide the resources teachers need to engage students in meaningful, appropriately levelled
learning during the traditional school day. These resources may include smaller classes, engaging
model curricula, and models of successful programs that relate learning to real-life situations.
• Support the adoption and implementation of comprehensive school-wide positive behaviour
support and behaviour management programs to minimize the amount of instructional time that
is disrupted when school employees need to address behaviour management issues.
• Provide sufficient funds for before- and after-school learning experiences, staffed by fully-
certified and well-compensated teachers, to targeted students who need them most.
• Ensure that all teachers have sufficient planning time to develop engaging, differentiated
instruction for all students in all classes.
Principle 4: Curriculum, Assessment & Intervention System

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Strengthen the school’s instructional program based on student needs and ensure that the
instructional program is research-based, rigorous, and aligned with State academic content
standards. Possible intervention strategies:
a. Implement CCSS and aligned model curriculum and unit assessments
b. Implement research-based interventions for all students two or more grade levels behind in
ELA or mathematics
c. Other promising strategies that meet this turnaround principle and demonstrate progress, such
as:
• Review the LEA curriculum and instruction by conducting a curriculum audit.
• Develop or expand the instructional coaching program to monitor and support implementation
of evidence-based instructional practices.
• Design and implement instructional plans that are congruent with the Common Core Standards
and relevant to students’ lives.
• Improve and diversify teaching methods, which may include:
 Encouraging a variety of teaching techniques and provide training to support their effective
application.
 Choosing materials based on students’ interests and developmental needs.
 Offering interdisciplinary and applied projects as well as service learning to connect
academics to real life.
Principle 5: Effective Use of Data
Use data to inform instruction for continuous improvement. Possible intervention strategies:
a. Use data to inform instruction including, where appropriate, the placement of a full-time data
specialist in the school focused on implementing a system for teachers to develop and use
common assessment data funded by school-level Title I funds.
b. Provide time for collaboration on the use of data to inform instruction.
c. Use formative assessment design and data analysis to improve and differentiate instruction.
d. Build the principal’s capacity to collect and analyse data for improving instruction and the
skills necessary to develop a schedule and system for increasing teacher ownership of data
analysis for improving instruction.
e. Develop or expand data collection systems to allow for customized, real-time data analysis.

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f. Other promising strategies that meet this turnaround principle and demonstrate progress, such
as:
• Provide professional development to ensure all staff can analyse collected data and interpret
and report results to families so they may understand the meaning and use of data.
• Promote qualitative data to understand teacher, student, and family perception of instruction.
Principle 6: School Culture & Climate
Establish a safe school environment. Possible intervention strategies:
a. Place, where appropriate, a climate and culture specialist in the school to work with the
leadership, staff, and families to develop or adopt a plan for creating a climate conducive to
learning and a culture of high expectations.
b. Address other non-academic factors that impact student achievement, such as students’ social,
emotional, and health needs by way of additional counselling, access to additional ancillary
services, or other supports.
c. Build capacity for all staff and leadership to implement a comprehensive plan for creating a
climate conducive to learning and a culture of high expectations.
d. Use relevant data to inform appropriate actions for continually improving the climate and
culture of the school.
e. Other promising strategies that meet this turnaround principle and demonstrate progress, such
as:
• Use qualitative data to determine the perception of teachers, students and parents about the
school safety, climate or culture.
• Create more opportunities for student-student and student-teacher interaction through:
 Small learning communities, as lower student-teacher ratios promote interaction
 Block scheduling, with longer classes that foster greater interaction
 Looping, in which a teacher is with the same class for more than one year
 Class meetings, where students share their thoughts daily or weekly
 Staff members who are assigned as mentors or advisors to individual students or groups
 Cooperative learning projects, which studies show eliminate cliques and widen friendship
networks
• Develop high expectations and support for learning.
 Eliminate tracking, which communicates low expectations

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 Hold students accountable for work completion
 Provide “second-try” opportunities, based on feedback, for students to improve their
assignments
 Provide support for attaining academic goals, such as tutoring, study-skill sessions and
summer or Saturday catch-up opportunities.
 Engage students in their future; students who had frequent conversations about their
futures had on average higher educational expectations for themselves and higher rates of
postsecondary education participation.
Principle 7: Effective Family & Community Engagement
Provide on-going mechanisms for family and community engagement. Possible intervention
strategies:
a. Develop or expand functions of family and community engagement staff to focus engagement
on academics.
b. Build capacity for family and community engagement staff designed to increase their skill
level in developing academically focused engagement opportunities for families and the
community.
c. Build capacity around the development and implementation of effective, academically-focused
family and community engagement, particularly for students with disabilities and ELLs and their
families.
d. Other promising strategies that meet turnaround principle and demonstrate progress, such as:
• Promote and support parent groups
• Coordinate with local social and health agencies to help meet student and family needs.
• Support early childhood education programs that provide young children with early learning
experiences.
• Create a welcoming school climate.
 Provide workshops and materials for parents on typical development and appropriate parent
and school expectations for various age groups.
 Print suggestions for parents on home conditions that support learning at each grade level.
 Partner with local agencies to provide regular parenting workshops on nutrition, family
recreation or communication.

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 Have school personnel make home visits at transition points such as preschool and
elementary, middle and high school to help families and students understand what to
expect.
• Strengthen families’ knowledge and skills to support and extend their children’s learning at
home and in the community.
 Provide training and materials for parents on how to improve children’s study skills or
learning in various academic subjects.
 Make regular homework assignments that require students to discuss with their families
what they are learning in class.
 Provide a directory of community resources and activities that link to student learning
skills and talents, including summer programs for students.
 Offer workshops to inform families of the high expectations and standards children are
expected to meet in each grade level. Provide ways for families to support the expectations
and learning at home.
 Engage families in opportunities to work with their children in setting their annual
academic, college and career goals.
 Engage families in school planning, leadership and meaningful volunteer opportunities.
 Create roles for parents on all decision-making and advisory committees, properly training
them for the areas in which they will serve (e.g., curriculum, budget or school safety).
 Provide equal representation for parents on school governing bodies.
 Conduct a survey of parents to identify volunteer interests, talents and availability,
matching these resources to school programs and staff-support needs.
 Create volunteer recognition activities such as events, certificates and thank-you cards.
 Establish a parent telephone tree to provide school information and encourage interaction
among parents.
 Structure a network that links every family with a designated parent representative
• Connect students and families to community resources that strengthen and support students’
learning and well-being.
 Through school-community partnerships, facilitate families’ access to community-based
programs (e.g., health care and human services) to ensure that families have resources to be
involved in their children’s education.

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 Establish school-business partnerships to provide students mentoring, internships and
onsite, experiential learning opportunities.
 Connect students and families to service-learning projects in the community.
 Invite community partners to share resources at annual open houses or parent-teacher
conferences.
Focus Schools: Differentiated Interventions for Subgroups
Focus schools that are identified as not meeting the needs of students based on subgroup
performance will be required to implement intervention strategies similar to those research-based
interventions as priority schools, but which are explicitly focused on the subgroups that placed
the school in focus status.
Intervention Strategies for Schools Not Meeting the Needs of Students with Disabilities
Focus schools that are identified as not meeting the needs of students with disabilities must
include one or more of the following targeted intervention strategies:
a. Align the curriculum to the CCSS.
b. Increase collaboration among teachers.
c. Improve use of data for differentiating instruction.
d. Build capacity for all teachers, particularly for special education teachers to better understand
the rigor of the CCSS.
e. Other promising strategies that differentiate interventions and are sufficient to achieve change
and demonstrate progress.
Intervention Strategies for Schools Not Meeting the Needs of English Language Learners
Focus schools identified as not meeting the needs of ELLs must include one or more of the
following targeted intervention strategies that:
a. Include research-based strategies for teaching academic English.
b. Improve the use of native language support.
c. Scaffold learning to meet the rigorous requirements of the CCSS.
d. Build capacity for all teachers to learn strategies for meeting the content learning needs of
ELLs and to better understand the rigorous requirements of the CCSS.
e. Other promising strategies that differentiate interventions and are sufficient to achieve change
and demonstrate progress.
Intervention Strategies for Schools Not Meeting the Needs of Other Subgroups

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To address the needs of other subgroups of students, the LEA must include one or more of the
following intervention strategies:
a. Build capacity for school leaders focused on instructional leadership including the collection
of data and feedback mechanisms for continually improving instruction.
b. Provide time for collaboration on the use of data to inform instruction.
c. Use formative assessment design and data analysis to improve and differentiate instruction.
d. Address other non-academic factors that impact student achievement, such as students’ social,
emotional, and health needs by way of additional counselling, access to additional ancillary
services, or other supports.
e. Build capacity for all staff on the effective support of students with disabilities and ELLs and
their families.
f. Build capacity for all staff on the development and implementation of effective, academically
focused family and community engagement.
g. Extend learning time before, during, and after school that is aligned to CCSS.
h. Other promising strategies that address the areas of deficiency that placed the school in focus
status and are sufficient to achieve change and demonstrate progress.
The Building State Capacity and Productivity Centre at www.BSCP Center.org have produced
the Summary of states’ strategies and consequences for ESEA focus schools. LEAs may find this
resource helpful for strategy selection. Strategies include• Extended time (day, week, year) for
students with designated intervention strategies
• Partnerships with community – 21st Century Community Learning Centre-like (academic
enrichment)
• Strategies to address social, emotional and heath needs
• Job-embedded Professional Development
• Assignment of Leadership Coach to support administrator evaluation/improvement
• Assignment of Development Coach to support educator evaluation/improvement
• Targeted and refocused use of Data Coaches in LEA and school leadership Professional
Learning Communities (PLC)
• Develop and initiate a comprehensive parent engagement plan
• Use of external provider(s) matched to identified school needs
Additional Research Organizations to support Special Populations

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• National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition
• National Centre on Universal Design for Learning
• Centre for Applied Special Technology
• National Centre on Accessible Instructional Materials
• Centre for Implementing Technology in Education
• Centre on Instruction What Works Clearinghouse: Institute of Education Services
• National Centre on Response to Intervention
• National Dissemination Centre for Children with Disabilities
Chapter Two: Crisis in the School and Next stapes
2.1 Definition to Crisis and related terms
Caplan (1964) initially defined a crisis as occurring when individuals are confronted with
problems that cannot be solved. These irresolvable issues result in an increase in tension, signs of
anxiety, a subsequent state of emotional unrest, and an inability to function for extended periods.
James and Gilliland (2005) define crises as events or situations perceived as intolerably difficult
that exceed an individual’s available resources and coping mechanisms. Similarly, Roberts
(2000) defines a crisis as “a period of psychological disequilibrium, experienced as a result of a
hazardous event or situation that constitutes a significant problem that cannot be remedied by
using familiar coping strategies”. The Chinese translation of the word “crisis” consists of two
separate characters, which paradoxically mean danger and opportunity (Greene, Lee, Trask, &
Rheinscheld, 2000). “A crisis,” as defined “is an upset in a steady state, a critical turning point
leading to better or worse, a disruption or breakdown in a person’s or family’s normal or usual
pattern of functioning. The upset, or disequilibrium, is usually acute in the sense that it is of
recent origin.”
School crises bring chaos that undermines the safety and stability of the school and may make it
difficult to protect students and staff (Allen et al., 2002). Furthermore, crises put individuals in a
state of “psychological disequilibrium” with feelings of anxiety, helplessness, and confusion.
When crises do occur, impairment in problem solving abilities and academic growth has the
potential to occur (Stevens & Ellerbrock, 1995). A crisis constitutes circumstances or situations,
which cannot be resolved by one’s customary problem-solving resources. A crisis is different
from a problem or an emergency. While a problem may create stress and be difficult to solve, the

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family or individual is capable of finding a solution. Consequently, a problem that can be
resolved by an individual or a family is not a crisis.
Stress
The terms stress and crisis often have been used interchangeably in the literature, thus creating a
bit of confusion. Boss (1988, 2002), has attempted to distinguish between the two concept,
stating that stress is a continuous variable (i.e., stress may be measured by degree), whereas
crisis is a dichotomous variable (i.e., there either is or is not a crisis). Stress is defined as
pressure or tension on an individual or family system. It is a response to demands brought about
by a stressor event and represents a change in the equilibrium or steady state of an individual or
family system (Boss, 1988, 2002; McKenry &Price, 2005; Selye, 1978). The degree of stress
experienced hinges on perceptions of, and meanings attributed to, the stressor event. While
anything with the potential to change some aspect of the individual or family (e.g., boundaries,
roles, and beliefs) might produce stress, increased stress levels do not necessarily always lead to
crises. Often, stress can be managed, and the family or individual can arrive at a new steady
state.
2. Trauma
Traumatic events are one type of stressor event. Traumatic events are powerful and
overwhelming, and they threaten perceptions of safety and security. Some may be single
incidents of relatively short-term duration, whereas others may occur over longer periods,
resulting in prolonged exposure to the threatening stressor (Collins & Collins, 2005). According
to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–IV–TR; American
Psychiatric Association, 2000), a traumatic event involves “actual or threatened death or serious
injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others” (p. 218). Traumatic events may be
human-caused accidents or catastrophes.
3. Coping
All actions taken in an effort to manage stress, regardless of whether they are successful, are
referred to as coping. Coping involves cognitive and behavioral components and is considered a
process, not an outcome. Coping requires an assessment of the stressor event and its potential for
harm as well as an assessment of the possible outcome of any response strategy chosen. Coping
responses may be problem focused or emotion focused and may employ direct action behaviors
that are used in relation to the physical or social environment or intra psychic tactics that allow

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for the reduction of emotional arousal. Specific coping behaviors are chosen either to deal
directly with the problem associated with stress (e.g., fight or flight) or to control emotions, in
some cases by covering them up. Coping strategies are neither adaptive nor maladaptive, as
adaptation is considered an outcome variable. Instead, coping behaviors should be considered in
relation to the specific purpose for which they were chosen. Following the experience of a
traumatic stress event, for example, some individuals may choose to increase their alcohol
consumption. While this behavior does little to address the needs brought about by the stressor, it
may be effective (albeit unhealthy) in keeping unwanted emotions at bay (Boss, 1988; Lazarus,
1966, 1976; McKenry & Price, 2005; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978).
4. Adaptation
Adaptation is an outcome of stress or crisis. It is the degree to which functioning has changed
over an extended period and may be measured by the fit between the individual or family system
and the environment. According to McCubbin & Patterson (1982), some families benefit from
the challenges of adversity. Successfully dealing with adversity results in an outcome that is
better than one that might have been reached without the adversity.
These families have changed to the point where they have the resources to meet the demands of
stressors while continuing to grow. Quite often, changes have occurred in functional behaviors
such as rules, roles, boundaries, and interpersonal communication patterns, resulting in families
being better equipped to meet the challenges of future stressors. Conversely, for some families an
imbalance continues between stress demands and the capability to meet those demands. Many
families may adopt unhealthy and unproductive responses to stress. Unhealthy coping behaviors,
such as addictions or domestic violence, result in additional stress.
Furthermore, it is often the case that coping behaviors that appear to be healthy contribute to
stress. A parent, for example, might take a second job in order to increase the family’s financial
resources. Working extra hours, however, removes that parent from the home and may contribute
to strained family relationships and a decrease in other non-tangible resources.
5. Resiliency
How well an individual or family system bounces back from adversity is considered resiliency.
Based on physiological strengths, psychological resourcefulness, and interpersonal skills
(Cowan, Cowan, & Schultz, 1996), resiliency is that group of coping strengths that allows some
people to benefit from having successfully dealt with stress. In addition to being considered an

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outcome of stress and crisis, resilience may be considered protective in that hardy individuals
and families seem to be less vulnerable to stress. People who are resilient tend to be protected by
their attribution, response, and cognitive styles as well as by their social and problem-solving
skills (Boss, 2002). Very often, these protective factors have been acquired through the
successful resolution of a crisis.
2.1.2 Stages and types of School Crisis
The major types of Crisis are:
A. Developmental crises: These are the transitions between the stages of life that we all go
through. These major times of transition are often marked by "rites of passage" at clearly defined
moments (e.g., those surrounding being born, becoming adult, getting married, becoming an
elder, or dying). They are crises because they can be periods of severe and prolonged stress, as
described by Tyhurst, another pioneer in this field, particularly if there is insufficient guidance
and support to prevent getting stuck while in transit. In small-scale cultures, there is a sense of
continuity and retained value in transitioning from before birth to beyond death (e.g., becoming
an ancestral resource). In Western societies, rites of passage between these stages have become
blurred, the extended kinship networks they depend upon for clear expression have become
scattered, the cultural value ascribed to such transitions varies with occupational and economic
status, and events surrounding birth and death tend to be experienced as clinical termini.
B. Situational crises: Sometimes called "accidental crises", these are more culture- and situation-
specific (e.g., loss of job, income, home, accident or burglary, or loss through separation or
divorce).
C. Complex crises: These are not part of our everyday experience or shared accumulated
knowledge, so people have greater difficulty coping. They include:
1. Severe trauma, such as violent personal assault, natural or man-made disaster, often directly
involving and affecting both individuals and their immediate and extended support network,
observers and helpers.
2. Crises associated with severe mental illness, which can increase both the number of crises a
person experiences and sensitivity to a crisis. Reciprocally, the stress of crises can precipitate
episodes of mental illness in those who are already vulnerable. Post-traumatic stress syndromes
similar to those resulting from a disaster have been reported in some individuals after emergency
treatment of acute episodes of mental illness.

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Developmental, situational and complex crises may overlap, and one may lead to the other (e.g.,
a train driver distracted by being in crisis may make an error, causing a disaster).
Stages of A Crisis
The following graph shows Summary of the main stages, from the pre-crisis steady state, to
crisis disequilibrium, to re-establishment of a new steady state, hopefully at an equal or higher
level of organization. It is often reported that a crisis state lasts several weeks, usually subsiding
within one to two months, if successful resolution occurs.
2.1.3 Preparedness for crisis Prevention and Intervention in the School Setting
Planning focuses on delineating, establishing, and maintaining procedures and equipment and
assigning responsibilities for (1) communication, (2) direction and coordination, and (3) health
and safety during each of the four phases specified in the accompanying Figure.
It encompasses every major detail related to who, what, where, when, and how.
Planning For Crises
Every school needs a plan for school-based crisis intervention. It is important to anticipate the
specifics of what may happen and how to react. Once the need for a plan is recognized, it
underscores the need to identify who will be responsible for planning responses to crisis events.

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Once identified, planners of school-based crisis intervention can work out criteria, procedures,
and logistics regarding such general matters as:
 Who will assume what roles and functions in responding to a crisis?
 What types of events the school defines as a crisis warranting a school-based response
 What defines a particular event as a crisis?
 How will different facets of crisis response be handled (who, what, where)
 How to assess and triage medical and psychological trauma
 How to identify students and staff in need of aftermath intervention
 What types of responses will be made with respect to students, staff, parents, district,
community, and media
 What special provisions will be implemented to address language and cultural considerations
 Which school personnel will make the responses
 What in-service staff development and training are needed?
 How will everyone be informed about emergency and crisis procedures
As part of the general plan, it is essential to address contingencies.
What will be done if someone is not at school to carry out their crisis response duties?
What if a location is not accessible for carrying on a planned activity?
It should be stressed that school crises often are community crises. Therefore, the school's plan
should be coordinated with community crisis response personnel and, where feasible, plans and
resources should be seamlessly woven together. The same is true with respect to neighbouring
schools. A blending of planning and implementation resources assures a wider range of expertise
and can increase cost-efficacy.
Crisis Management Defined
Definition - Crisis Management is that part of a school division’s approach to school safety
which focuses more narrowly on a time-limited, problem-focused intervention to identify,
confront and resolve the crisis, restore equilibrium, and support appropriate adaptive responses.
According to Business Dictionary .com, the definition of "crisis management" is the "set of
procedures applied in handling, containment, and resolution of an emergency in planned and
coordinated steps." This often requires a manager who specializes in crisis management or a
high-level executive if the crisis pertains to an organization wide issue. Either way, the person in

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charge must possess shrewd crisis decision-making abilities in order to lessen the effects of the
crisis.
Crisis Team
The Crisis Team is trained in intervention and post intervention procedures. Team members
include the principal, counsellor, teachers, school nurse and school social worker – assign the
appropriate staff.
The Team has responsibility to:
a. Develop and implement procedures for prevention, intervention and post intervention at all
grade levels.
b. Establish a systematic approach to identifying, referring and assessing students at risk of
suicide or other behaviour that would endanger themselves or others.
c. Disseminate information to students, staff and community on referral procedures.
d. Provide training for teachers and staff. Conduct drills.
e. Assist the Principal in controlling emergencies.
Many researchers in the field have suggested that it is essential for educators to have established
crisis prevention and preparedness protocols and plans (Brock &Poland, 2002; Brock, Sandoval,
& Lewis, 2001; Capewell, 2000; Dwyer & Jimerson, 2002; Jimerson & Huff, 2002; Nickerson &
Heath, 2008; Osher, Dwyer, & Jimerson, 2006). Although large-scale disasters such as fatal
school shootings are rare, many other crises that have the potential to significantly affect schools
and their surrounding communities occur with relative frequency (e.g., accidental deaths and acts
or threats of violence). For instance, during the 2005–2006 academic year in the United States,
78% of schools experienced one or more violent crimes, 17% experienced one or more other
serious violent incidents, approximately 6% of students ages 12 to 18 reported that they avoided
school activities or one or more places in school because they thought someone might attack or
harm them, and students ages 12 to 18 were victims of about 1.5 million nonfatal crimes of
violence or theft at school (Dinkes, Cataldi, & Lin-Kelly, 2007). Furthermore, crises are
associated with a range of student reactions that have the potential to negatively affect their
behavior, adjustment, and education. Given these observations, it is clear that there are important
reasons for crisis prevention efforts.
Although crisis prevention is necessary, it is not sufficient. Even the best of prevention programs
will not be able to stop all crisis events from occurring. Thus, crisis preparedness planning is also

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required. Such planning helps to ensure that all crisis response and recovery needs are met and
available resources are effectively deployed. Foremost, crisis preparedness is important because
crises typically result in an overwhelming requirement to attend immediately to multiple
demands that are outside of normal routines. Without a crisis preparedness plan, important crisis
response and recovery activities and needs may be overlooked.
The need for crisis preparedness is reinforced by the results of research, which suggested that it
is not a matter of if a school will face a crisis, it is a matter of when. In a survey of 228 school
psychologists, 93% reported that their schools had experienced and responded to serious crises
(Adamson & Peacock, 2007). It is safe to say that all schools need crisis teams and plans.
Without plans in place, schools facing a crisis can neglect important tasks during and following a
crisis event, which can lead to unnecessary chaos, trauma, and panic.
Attempts to intervene in crises must begin with assessment. At a minimum, crisis counsellors
need to assess clients for disturbances in their equilibrium or mobility by evaluating their
functioning in the areas of affect, behaviour, and cognition. Through appropriate assessment,
responders are able to gauge the severity of the crisis, the extent to which clients have been
immobilized, available resources, lethality, and the effectiveness of the crisis workers’ own
efforts (James, 2008).
Crisis Intervention Guidelines
Every crisis is different, but all crises require immediate intervention to interrupt and reduce
crisis reactions and restore affected individuals to pre-crisis functioning. Crisis interventions
provide victims with emotional first aid targeted to the particular circumstances of the crisis
(Rosenbluh, 1981). Several guiding principles are involved in crisis intervention; some key
principles are outlined below (Shapiro & Koocher, 1996).
 Making an accurate assessment is the most critical aspect of a crisis response because it
guides the intervention. A wrong decision in response to a crisis can be potentially lethal.
Although situations may be similar, each person is unique; therefore, care must be exercised
to avoid over generalizing.
 The ability to think quickly and creatively is crucial. People under crisis sometimes develop
tunnel vision or are unable to see options and possibilities. The crisis responder must
maintain an open mind in order to help explore options and solve problems in an

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empowering manner with those affected. People in crisis be already feel out of control; when
opportunities to restore control present themselves, they should be grasped quickly.
 The responder must be able to stay calm and collected. Crisis work is not suitable for
everyone. It requires the ability to maintain empathy while simultaneously avoiding
subjective involvement in the crisis.
 Crisis intervention is always short term and involves establishing specific goals regarding
specific behaviours that can be achieved within a short time frame. For example, in response
to a suicidal client, a therapist may increase the frequency of therapy sessions until the
client’s ideation subsides. Management, rather than resolution, is the objective of crisis
interventions.
 Crisis intervention is not process oriented. It is action-oriented and situation focused
(Aguilera, 1998; Pollin, 1995). Crisis interventions prepare clients to manage the squeal of a
specific event. Therapists’ help clients recognize an event’s impact and anticipate its
emotional and behavioural consequences. Furthermore, clients learn to identify coping skills,
resources, and support available to them. They learn to formulate a safety plan in an effort to
cope with the current and anticipated challenges the event presents.
 A crisis is characterized by loss of control and safety. This loss makes it in office on the
helper to focus on restoring power and control in the client’s internal and external
environment (Yassen & Harvey, 1998).
 The goal is not to ask exploratory questions, but rather to focus on the present (“here and
now”). The crisis responder merely acts as an emotional support at a time when self-direction
may be impossible (Greenstone & Leviton, 2002). Therapists do not attempt to change
clients, but serve as catalysts for clients’ discovery of their own resources, which they can
then use to accomplish their goals (Saleebey, 1997).
 Since crisis intervention is the first intervention that a client may encounter after a calamity,
the goal is always to re-establish immediate coping skills, provide support, and restore pre-
crisis functioning.
 Crisis intervention requires responders to posses’ familiarity with the work setting. The
ability to direct people to local shelters and other safe places and to offer help in locating
loved ones is crucial in this work.

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 Viewing the clients holistically, rather than isolating the individual’s emotional and cognitive
functioning, will provide insight into the resources and support available to the victim.
 A solid training in crisis intervention (with a focus on identifying suicidal and homicidal
ideation) as well as experience in counselling is indispensable. Finally, although crises are
universal and affect people from all cultures, culture mediates how individuals and
communities’ express crisis reactions and how they ask for and accept help (Dykeman,
2005). Since culture defines individuals’ pathways to healthy adjustment and how they
reconstruct their lives after a crisis, the crisis responder has to be multi culturally competent.
COURSE NAME:
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION MODULE
INTRODUCTION
What is Research in psychology and Education?
In the simplest of terms, the research definition is a process of seeking out knowledge. This
knowledge can be new, or it can support an already known fact. The purpose of research is to
inform and is based on collected and analyzed data. This exploration occurs systematically,
where it is either tested or investigated to add to a body of knowledge. Research is intended to
support a purpose and occurs across many disciplines such as psychological (mind and
behavior), scientific (chemical reactions), educational (human development), medical (drugs and
drug trials), animalistic (animal behavior), humanistic (social), and technological
(software/security).
Psychological research refers to the studies that are conducted to help us understand people. It is
used to describe, explain, measure, and categorize mental processes and behaviors. If not for
research in psychology, we would not know and understand the patterns and behaviors of the
general population, subsets of society (schools, religion, family, etc.), or psychological disorders.
When conducting psychological research, three characteristics will remain the same.
Psychological research will always be grounded in a theoretical framework, be objectively
measured, and have an effective sample size.
Psychological research attempts to understand why people and animals behave as they do.
Psychologists usually define behavior as overt activities, such as eating, recalling stories, and so
on.
1. Nature and Features of Research

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Objective
Research should have objectives and it must answer what we are going to achieve through this
research and all the objectives should be based on the questions specifically not in a descriptive
way.
Setting up objectives requires the formulation of a proper hypothesis, otherwise, there may be a
lack of congruence between the research questions and the hypothesis.
Control
Research should be based on the selective hypothesis not outside the topic and research
objective. We should be following the required format of research for a better paper or research
presentation. A researcher should have control over the research topics.
Generalizability
Generalizability is the measure of how useful the outcomes of a study are for a wider group of
people or situations. A study has good generalizability if the results are broadly applicable to
various kinds of people.
Research should be done without Personal Biases
Biasedness on the research reflects it as bad research and an incomplete version of the
documentation. You have to be free from biasedness and should follow the planned steps as well.
A researcher should follow the methodology and not use personal perception to change the data
and manipulate the results.
Systematic
Research is done on the basis of planning not just on random research, reading, and writing
techniques. It does have a methodology it does and it should follow the systematic rules and
steps for completing the research. Research should follow the steps serially to make it fruitful
and better.
Reproducible
A researcher should be able to get approximately the same results by using an identical
methodology if the investigation is conducted on a population having characteristics similar to
the earlier study.
Problem needs to be solved
Research should solve the problem of the hypothesis. It should identify the problems and
investigates every aspect in depth.

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Logical
For the research, it’s a tough job to give the proper and logical basis and informational sources.
Research does not only present the result on the basis of interpretation but proves those results
using various logics.
Replicable
Multiple researches on the same topic could enhance the reliability of the research and its results.
It validates the accuracy and the reliability of the theory or the hypothesis.
Components of Research
There will always be a research problem or question, which can be a statement or inquiry of an
issue or area of concern that describes why the research is to be conducted. This research
problem or questions must be tested or explored and should not be too broad or vague. This
problem will help to form the objectives of the research. It describes what the research intends to
find out or achieve. The research objectives essentially drive the direction of the study. From
these objectives, the researcher forms a hypothesis. The hypothesis is the assumption or
prediction that is tested by the research. The rest of the research is conducted to either support or
debunk the hypothesis.
Another main component of research includes research techniques. It deals with how the
information is gathered based on the research method (qualitative or quantitative), and it involves
experiments, surveys, observations, sets.
Variables may also be established during this point of the research process, depending on the
type of research that is being conducted. Variables are any characteristics or items that can take
on a value or be measured in some way. Variables are either independent (can be changed),
dependent (what is observed to the response of the independent variable), or controlled (always
stay the same). Research sampling includes a representation of a larger group. The sample
includes people, items, or documents.
The samples are crucial because they are large and relevant enough to serve as a generalization
for the group that is being studied. Data analysis, conducted from the samples, finds the meaning
of it relative to the research objectives. It is here that a researcher will look for the patterns,
connections, or relationships, which are related to the hypothesis. Lastly, the conclusion is
formed that intends to show the outcome of the data studied and why the research matters.
2. The Purposes of Scientific Research in Psychology and Education

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Research is may be conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate
understanding of human behavior, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical
problem(is referred as basic research). And, applied research is conducted primarily to address
some practical problem.
Quizzes
Research on sex differences in talkativeness could eventually have an effect on how marriage
therapy is practiced_________________
Research on the effect of cell phone use on driving could produce new insights into basic
processes of perception, attention, and action________
The purpose of research is also can be seen to study based on collected and analyzed data. It
explores, describes, or shows causation.
Descriptive Purpose
Descriptive research explains the characteristics of what is being studied. It is mostly used in
psychology, education, or other behavioral sciences.
Understand characteristics: This type of research is also called behavioral research that
investigates and acknowledges an individual and their social behavior through evaluating and
interpreting the behavior patterns of the studied subject.
Understand behavior: Here, we bring about psychological research again. Remember, this type
of research is used to describe, explain, measure, and categorize an individual's mental process
and behavior.
Simply describing the behavior of humans and other animals helps psychologists understand the
motivations behind it. Such descriptions also serve as behavioral benchmarks that help
psychologists gauge what is considered normal and abnormal.1
Psychology researchers use a range of research methods to help describe behavior
including naturalistic observation, case studies, correlational studies, surveys, and self-report
inventories.
Explaining Purpose
Explaining behavior is probably what comes to mind for most people when they think about the
goals of psychology. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to
development, personality, social behavior, and mental health problems?

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Predicting Purpose
Third goal of research is to predict how we think and act. Once psychologists understand what
happens and why, they can formulate predictions about when, why, and how it might happen
again.
Successfully predicting behavior is also one of the best ways to know if we understand the
underlying causes of our actions.
Prediction also allows psychologists to make guesses about human behavior without necessarily
understanding the mechanisms underlying the phenomena.`
Eg If researchers notice that scores on a particular aptitude test predict high school dropout rates,
they can extrapolate that information to estimate how many students might drop out of school
each year.
In the previous example looking at consumer behavior, psychologists might use the information
they collected to predict what consumers will purchase next. Businesses and marketers often
employ consumer psychologists to make such predictions so that they can create products with
maximum appeal to the targeted buyers
Changing Behavior
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to change, influence, and/or control
behavior to make constructive, lasting changes in people's lives.
From treating mental illness to enhancing human well-being, changing human behavior is a
major focus of psychology.
In the previous example, researchers might use what they know about the link between aptitude
test scores and dropout rates to develop programs that help students stay in school.
Likewise, marketers and businesses often use the understanding gained from psychological
research to influence and persuade buyers to behave in certain ways. For example, they might
develop advertising campaigns designed to appeal to a certain audience. By tailoring their efforts
to a specific type of buyer, they're more likely to elicit responses than if they used a generic
message.
Testing your selves
When dealing with children, for example, you might ask questions such as:
"What are they doing?" (describing)
"Why are they doing that?" (explaining)

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"What would happen if I responded in this way?" (predicting)
"What can I do to get them to stop doing that?" (changing)
3. Characteristics of a good research problem
Stated clearly and concisely
Unless the problem can be stated clearly and concisely it is probably a poor problem or a non-
problem. The best way to test the problem statement is to write it into a concise sentence or
paragraph and to share it with others. If the problem cannot be stated in a clear paragraph it has
difficulties and will not endure as a suitable problem. Of course, it is not easy to express complex
issues in simplistic terms and it may take many weeks and countless drafts before the statement
is satisfactory. Good critics are essential. If your spouse or mother cannot understand it, it is
probably flaky.
Generates research questions
The problem should generate a number of more specific research questions. These turn the
problem into a question format and represent various aspects or components of the problem. The
research questions make the more general statement easier to address and provide a framework
for the research. Formulating these questions can be a challenge, particularly specifying them at
the right level of abstraction.
Grounded in theory
Good problems have theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks for their analysis. They relate the
specifics of what is being investigated to a more general background of theory which helps
interpret the results and link it to the field.
Related to academic fields of study
Good problems relate to academic fields which have adherents and boundaries. They typically
have journals to which adherents relate. Research problems which do not have clear links to one
or two such fields of study are generally in trouble. Without such a field it becomes impossible to
determine where, in the universe of knowledge, the problem lies.
Based in the research literature
Related to the former points, a well-stated problem will relate to a research literature. Tight
problems often relate to a well-defined body of literature, written by a select group of researchers
and published in a small number of journals. With some problems, it might at first be difficult to
establish the connections and literature base, but there should be a base somewhere.

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Potential significance
This is the important ‘so what’ question: Who cares once you solve the problem? Assume that
you have solved the problem and answered the questions and then ask yourself if you are any
further ahead. At the very least, the problem must have importance to the researcher, but ideally
it should also be of consequence to others.
Doable within the time frame & budget
There are logistic factors in terms of your ability actually to carry out the research. There is no
point pursuing a problem which is not feasible to research. Do not do a study of education in AA,
Bahrdar, Oromia or any other country, unless you have the means to go there and collect data ̶
which may require years to collect.
Data is available/ obtained
In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem. Historical persons may have
died, archival materials may be lost, or there may be restrictions on access to certain
environments. As noted, it is difficult to conduct research on a distant country unless you can go
there and collect local data. One under-used approach is to use an existing database. Some data
banks have been developed over many years and contain many opportunities for exploration of
new questions and issues.
These are some of the characteristics of a good research problem. Not all the characteristics will
be present in every good research problem. Most of these characteristics are useful in conducting
a good research study
4. Types of Research Design
Research designs create a framework for gathering and collecting information in a structured,
orderly way. Five of the most common psychology research designs include descriptive,
correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review and meta-analytic designs.
A. Descriptive Designs
Descriptive research in psychology is concerned with a measurement or observation of 'what is'
in a specific place, time, and people. It is a non-invasive approach because there is no
manipulation on the part of the researcher. The three common types of descriptive research
designs in psychology are observation, case studies and surveys.
Observational research is a detailed recording of behaviors that occur in a specific place and
time. Carefully watching and recording traffic patterns of shoppers within a shopping mall would

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be an observational study. The data collected is descriptive. It may be used to inform future
research, but it has no independent variable.
A case study is a detailed observation about a specific 'bounded system'. A case study can be
detailed information about one person, or a detailed report of a single company. Both 'cases' are
bounded identifiable single entities.
A survey is the most widely used descriptive study method. Asking people about attitudes,
customer satisfaction reviews, and political poles, are all considered survey research. The
advantage of this method is to gather a large quantity of data easily. There are numerous
drawbacks but because of the simplicity and ease, this method provides a good initial
measurement of a topic with a population of interest.
B. Correlational Designs
Correlational designs provide a measurement of the strength and direction of a relationship
between two variables. It provides a numerical value between 1 and -1 indicating a positive
relationship when one variable increases along with the other, such as weight and height. Or is
shows a negative correlation where one increases as the other decreases such as outside
temperature and heating bills. The number indicates the strength of this relationship with the
absolute value of 1 being a perfect correlation. Perfect correlations are rarely seen in actual data.
This is a valuable tool when identifying helpful relationships such as increased time exercising
decreases reported severity of depression. What this design does not address is the cause of any
relationship that may be present. Ice cream sales are positively correlated to violent crime. This
is not a causal relationship as ice cream sales increase in the summer months when people are
outside and so does violent crime. The variable being measured is Summer.
C. Experimental Research Design
It intends to derive concrete conclusions on causal relationships between research hypothesis’
variables that have been developed from correlational research designs.
In this design, key variables include ‘independent variables’ and ‘dependent variables’. The
independent variable is the causing variable and is usually manipulated by the individual
conducting the research.
Differently, the ‘dependent variable’ is influenced by manipulations in the experiment. The
experimental research design is used to establish causation. Note that despite it being one of the
most common types of research designs in psychology; its application is marred by numerous

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challenges. Such challenges include them being usually carried out in the laboratories and the
fact that it is impossible to manipulate some key social variables in an experiment.
5. Qualities of Good Research
1. Good research is anchored/attached/ on a sound research question.
A sound research question is one of the most important characteristics of good research
A good research question details exactly what a researcher wants to learn and defines a study’s
scope. By formulating a good research question, researchers can ensure that they stay on track
during the course of their study. In most cases, the research question influences the rest of the
steps a researcher takes during his or her study as well.
2. Good research follows a systematic, appropriate research methodology.
The overall quality and success of a research study are largely determined by the research
methodology it uses (Thattamparambil, 2020). Choosing an appropriate research
methodology helps ensure that researchers can collect relevant data and use the right data
analysis techniques.
A good research methodology is another quality of good research. It refers to the systematic
procedures or techniques a researcher uses to ensure that his study achieves valid, reliable
results. Research methodologies are often classified into qualitative research, quantitative
research, and mixed-methods research.
Qualitative research methodology involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as
language to interpret subjects’ beliefs, experiences, and behaviors (Pathak et al., 2013).
Qualitative research techniques include interviews, focus groups, and case studies.
Quantitative research methodologies involve the collection and analysis of numerical data to
discover patterns, test relationships, and make predictions (Bhandari, 2021a). In doing
quantitative research, surveys, experiments, and systematic observation can be used to collect
accurate data.
Mixed-methods research methodologies combine quantitative and qualitative methods.
According to Wisdom and Cresswell (2013), combining quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies “permits a more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate
quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis.”

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Researchers must consider a variety of factors in choosing the best methodology for their study.
In most cases, research questions and objectives play a significant role in defining the most
appropriate research methodology to use.
Good research acknowledges previous research on the topic.
While good research leads to the discovery of new knowledge, it also means studying previous
research on the topic. By studying scholarly articles and other works related to your subject of
interest, you get an idea of what has already been studied and how your study fits into existing
research. You can easily find related studies by going through your institution’s library
management system or other publicly available ones.
As one of the criteria of a good research, exploring previous research can also ensure that you’re
not duplicating existing work, which is commonly checked in physics and industrial engineering
careers. Related literature can also shed light on potential obstacles and issues researchers may
encounter during their studies.
4. Good research uses relevant, empirical data and proper data analysis methods.
One of the most important qualities of a good research study is that it deals with empirical data.
Empirical data is data that has been collected by researchers themselves through observation,
experience, or experimentation (Bradford, 2017). This is crucial in doing good research because
empirical data is considered objective, unbiased evidence.
Good research doesn’t stop with the collection of empirical data, the data collected must be
analyzed properly as well. The type of data collected largely determines the right data analysis
method to use.
Quantitative data, for instance, is usually analyzed through descriptive statistics or inferential
statistics (Humans of Data, 2018). These statistics can help researchers find figures to summarize
variables, find patterns, and make predictions. On the other hand, the analysis of qualitative data
involves identifying and interpreting patterns and themes in textual data. Common analysis
methods for qualitative data include content analysis, narrative analysis, and thematic analysis
(Warren, 2020).
Using these analysis methods, you can interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer your
research question.
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Criteria of good research include being representative. In research, representativeness refers to a
sample’s ability to represent a larger group. This means the characteristics of the subjects
(people) being studied closely match those of the study’s target population (Austin Research,
2014).
In most cases, representativeness can be achieved through population sampling (Economic
Research and Social Council, n.d.). By using proper methods to create a representative sample,
researchers can ensure that their findings can be generalized to the larger population represented.
The table below depicts the uses, advantages, and limitations of the most common sampling
methods used by researchers today
6. Good research is guided by logic.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of research is that the entire process is guided by logic.
Using logic, for instance, can help researchers determine what kind of data they need for
answering their research question. Being guided by logic throughout the research process also
helps researchers spot fallacies and inconsistencies in their claims and findings.
The logical processes of induction and deduction can also prove to be valuable in the research
process. Golesh et al. (2019) proposed that logic aids researchers by helping them arrive at valid
conclusions. According to the study, inductive reasoning can be used to discover patterns and
construct generalizations and theories. Meanwhile, deductive reasoning can help researchers
collect empirical data to confirm or refute theories or hypotheses.
Aside from these applications of logic, logical reasoning can also make more research more
meaningful, especially if the research is to be used in the context of decision-making (Mehran
University of Engineering and Technology, n.d.).
7. Good research has external validity.
Good research has external validity and reliability if its results or findings can be applied to the
real world (Glen, 2015). If your research findings can be generalized to other situations or
applied to a broader context, your study has high external validity.
There are two types of external validity for researchers to consider: population validity and
ecological validity (Bhandari, 2021b). Research with findings that can be generalized from the
sample to the larger population has a high population validity. Meanwhile, you can achieve
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Since generalizable knowledge is almost always the aim of scientific research, external validity
is an important component of good research as well.
8. Good research is replicable, reproducible, and transparent.
Replicability, reproducibility, and transparency are some of the most important characteristics of
research. The replicability of a research study is important because this allows other researchers
to test the study’s findings. Replicability can also improve the trustworthiness of a research’s
findings among readers (Understanding Health Research, 2020).
Good research is also reproducible. Though replicability and reproducibility are often used
interchangeably, research is reproducible if researchers achieve consistent results using the same
data and analysis methods (Miceli, 2019). The reproducibility and replicability of a research
study and its findings can confirm the study’s overall validity and credibility.
For research to be replicable or reproducible, it must also be transparent or available to other
researchers. Research must follow proper research paper formatting or be written or presented in
such a way that it provides comprehensive details on how data was collected and analyzed and
how conclusions were reached (Baskin, 2015). This is why most scholarly articles provide clear
descriptions of their corresponding research process.
9. Good research acknowledges its limitations and provides suggestions for future research.
In addition to information on data collection and analysis methods, good research also opens
doors for future research on the topic. For instance, researchers can provide details on
unexpected study findings or suggest techniques for exploring unaddressed aspects of your
research problem or research question (Business Research Methodology, n.d.).
In many cases, these suggestions for future research stem from the research’s limitations.
Researchers must acknowledge their study’s limitations and potential flaws and present these
along with the study’s findings and conclusion. Ross and Zaidi (2019) further explain that a
meaningful presentation of a research study’s limitations includes implications of these
limitations and potential alternative approaches.
10. Good research is ethical.
Understandably, good research is carried out according to research ethics. According to the
World Health Organization, research ethics provide academic research standards for conducting
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ensuring that researchers practice values, such as honesty, objectivity, integrity, and
accountability in their work (Resnik, 2020).
Some of the most common violations of research ethics include:
Falsification – This involves the manipulation or omission of data or findings.
Fabrication – This involves making up data or results and presenting these as accurate.
Plagiarism – This refers to the use of another person’s work without giving due credit.
While self-citation and self-referencing are common research methodology best practices among
scientists, recent studies show rising trends in excessive self-citation. A 2017 study on citation
metrics revealed that at least 250 scientists collected over 50% of their citations from themselves
or their co-authors. This figure is significantly higher than the median self-citation rate of 12.7%
(Ioannis et al., 2019).
5. Sampling Methods in Research: Types, Techniques, & Examples
A sample is a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as sample points,
sampling units, or observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research.
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.
The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.
A sample is a group of people who take part in the investigation. The people who take part are
referred to as “participants.”
Generalizability refers to the extent to which we can apply our research findings to the target
population we are interested in. This can only occur if the sample of participants is representative
of the population.
A biased sample is when certain groups are over or under-represented within the sample
selected. For instance, if only males are selected, or if the advert for volunteers is put into the
Guardian, only people who read the Guardian are selected. This limits how much the study’s
findings can be generalized to the whole population.
The Purpose of Sampling
In psychological research, we are interested in learning about large groups of people who all
have something in common. We call the group that we are interested in studying our “target
population.”In some types of research, the target population might be as broad as all humans.

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Still, in other types of research, the target population might be a smaller group, such as teenagers,
preschool children, or people who misuse drugs.
Studying every person in a target population is more or less impossible. Hence, psychologists
select a sample or sub-group of the population that is likely to be representative of the target
population we are interested in.
This is important because we want to generalize from the sample to the target population. The
more representative the sample, the more confident the researcher can be that the results can be
generalized to the target population.
One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from a target population is sampling
bias. Sampling bias refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of
the target population.
There are various sampling methods. The one chosen will depend on a number of factors (such
as time, money, etc.)
Simple Random Sampling
Simple Random sampling is a type of probability sampling where everyone in the entire target
population has an equal chance of being selected.
Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target population and then using
some raffle method to choose those to make up the sample. Random samples are the best method
of selecting your sample from the population of interest.
The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and eliminate
sampling bias.
The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e., time, effort, and money).
Stratified Sampling
During stratified sampling, the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up
the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative.
A list is made of each variable (e.g., IQ, gender, etc.) that might have an effect on the research.
For example, if we are interested in the money spent on books by undergraduates, then the main
subject studied may be an important variable.
For example, students studying English Literature may spend more money on books than
engineering students, so if we use a very large percentage of English students or engineering
students, then our results will not be accurate.

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We have to work out the relative percentage of each group at a university, e.g., Engineering
10%, Social Sciences 15%, English 20%, Sciences 25%, Languages 10%, Law 5%, and
Medicine 15%. The sample must then contain all these groups in the same proportion as in the
target population (university students).
Stratified random sampling is one of the probability sampling designs in which the total study
population is first classified into different subgroups based upon a characteristic that makes each
subgroup more homogeneous in terms of the classificatory variable. The sample is then selected
from each subgroup either by selecting an equal number of elements from each subgroup or
selecting elements from each subgroup equal to its proportion in the total population
Opportunity/purpose/ Sampling
Uses people from the target population available at the time and willing to participate. It is based
on convenience.
An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would
participate in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of students from those
coming out of the library.
This is a quick and easy way of choosing participants (advantage)
It may not provide a representative sample and could be biased (disadvantage).
Systematic Sampling
Chooses subjects in a systematic (i.e., orderly/logical) way from the target population, like every
nth participant on a list of names.
To take a systematic sample, you list all the members of the population and then decide upon a
sample you would like. By dividing the number of people in the population by the number of
people you want in your sample, you get a number we will call n.
If you take every nth name, you will get a systematic sample of the correct size. If, for example,
you wanted to sample 150 children from a school of 1,500, you would take every 10th name.
The advantage of this method is that it should provide a representative sample.
The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e., time, effort, and money).
Sample Size
The number of participants needed depends on several factors; the size of the target population is
important. If the target population is very large then you need a fairly large sample in order to be
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If the target population is much smaller, then the sample can be smaller but still be
representative. There must be enough participants to make the sample representative of the target
population.
Lastly, the sample must not be so large that the study takes too long or is too expensive!
7. Research Proposal
A psychology research proposal outlines a proposed study consisting of the objectives,
hypotheses, methods, and expected outcomes. This document serves as the blueprint for
conducting a successful experiment or data collection effort in the field of psychology.
Research proposals are often required by granting agencies or academic institutions. Taking the
time to create an effective proposal is essential for ensuring the success of any research project.
Key Elements of Research Proposals
The section you should include in a research proposal depend on the requirements set by your
professor or grant agency. But in general, research proposals will need to have the following key
elements:
Research Topic
This is the main focus of the research proposal. It should be explained clearly and concisely. This
section aims to: Identify the specific area of psychology that will be explored. Provide a brief
overview of existing knowledge on the subject. Outline the objectives and goals of the proposed
study.
Research Questions
A list of research questions should be included in the proposal to help guide the study’s
investigation. These can range from broad inquiries into a given topic to more specific queries
regarding certain aspects or areas related to the topic.
Literature Review
An effective literature review serves two essential purposes:
It provides an overview of the current understanding of the topic.
Demonstrates that the researcher has conducted adequate background research to develop an
informed hypothesis.
Hypothesis/Research Objectives

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The hypothesis forms the basis of the research project and outlines what the researcher expects to
find. It should also include any specific objectives associated with testing the hypothesis.
Methodology
This sections focuses on the methods used to conduct the study. It provides information on the
study’s sample size, participant demographics, research environment, data collection techniques,
and so on.
Data Analysis Plan
Once data has been collected, it must be analyzed to draw meaningful conclusions. Outlining a
data analysis plan helps ensure that all relevant aspects are considered during analysis.
Expected Results
You won’t be able to predict precisely how an experiment will play out. But you can still give
some insight into expected outcomes based on available evidence. This will allow readers to
evaluate the validity and practicality of the proposed research project.
Significance and Implications
Explaining the project’s significance gives readers a better idea of why it was conducted in the
first place. Detail the potential implications of the findings. This will help others consider the
study’s broader application beyond simply answering the research question.
The Best Data Collection Tools/instruments/
 Interview An interview is a personal conversation between two people that collects
information for research purposes. ...
 Questionnaire ...
 Data Reporting ...
 Existing Data ...
 Observation
What is data collection?
Data collection is the process of gathering data, its further measuring, processing, assessing and
analyzing for research purposes. It’s conducted with the help of established, validated techniques,
which make it possible to answer research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate final results. The
main goal of data collection is to get access to reliable sources of information that will provide data for
further analysis and make data-driven decisions possible.
Types of data collection

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There are two main types of collected data.
 Qualitative data, which deals with descriptive information that cannot be counted and is not
expressed through numerical values
 Quantitative data, which represents information that can be counted
 The chosen method of data collection depends on the subject matter and what information it is
necessary to assess.
Qualitative Data Collection Methods
Qualitative data collection methods come into the limelight when it is necessary to answer the question
“Why?” instead of “How many/much?” This type of data is less concrete and much more difficult to
measure than quantitative data, as it usually contains descriptions and opinions on a particular topic.
The methods that grant access to qualitative data include interviews, observations, product reviews,
answers to open-ended questions, and others.
Quantitative Data Collection Methods
Quantitative data is built on numbers, values, and quantities. It is much more concrete than qualitative
data and can be easily measured. This type of data can be gathered with the help of different algorithms
and data management platforms (DMP), which count such measurable parameters as the number of
users that have bought a particular product or left the cart page, how much time users spent on a
website, how far they scrolled, and many others. Quantitative data, being numeric, is a perfect basis for
analysis, as it is objective and reliable. Numbers don’t lie — they lead to insights for a better
understanding of your audience.
ImportanceofDataCollection
The modern world is gradually moving to the digital space, and we are surrounded by data. Those who
learn how to use it find themselves in a more favorable position than those who build their hypotheses
on some other notions. Besides, businesses invest even more resources to benefit from data collection
and analysis in the post-pandemic environment. COVID-19 emphasized that unexplored data improves
resilience in the digital era. The initiative will remain a priority for businesses that rethink both cultural
and technological aspects in 2022 and beyond. Understanding the importance of data collection is
beneficial because of the following reasons.
 Data-driven decisions are much more effective for corporate strategy development.
 Access to data allows us to identify problems at earlier stages.
 Data helps to prove hypotheses right or wrong before implementing them.

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 Arguments supported by data are much more accurate.
 Fast access to organized data helps to save time.
These are just the main advantages of effective data management. There are many more areas that can
be improved by data collection.
How to Collect Data
Data can be collected with the help of different methods. Each of them has its own peculiarities. But
data collectors follow five fundamental stages, no matter which method they choose.
Determine What Information To Collect
Any data collection process starts with understanding what type of data should be gathered, what topics
it covers, what sources are going to be used, and what volumes of information are necessary. The
answers to these questions are given on the basis of the goals that were set before. For example, it may
be necessary to collect data about what content is the most popular on a particular website among its
visitors of a particular age who made a particular action online during the last week.
Establish a Timeframe for the Process of Collecting Data
The second stage of data collection is setting its timeframe, as different research goals need different
periods of assessment. Customers’ financial behavior usually demands more time for data collection
and assessment, while some specific tasks may be more limited in time — especially in situations when
data becomes outdated quickly.
Determine Which Method of Data Collection Will Be Used
The data collection method is the core of the whole process. To make the right choice, you have to take
into consideration what you need to accomplish by the end of the research, what data will be collected
and assessed, and how long the timeframe will be. The number of parameters can be huge, which
makes their configuration really time-consuming.
Collecting the Relevant Data
When all the aspects of the data collection process are determined, you can start implementing the
strategy. DMP is quite a useful tool for storing and organizing the collected data. In order to succeed,
you have to have a clear understanding of what you are doing and follow the plan, while making
corrections whenever it is necessary.
Initiating Data Analysis and Drawing Conclusions
Once the data is collected, the stage of data analysis and organization begins. This is a crucial step, as it
turns raw information into useful and valuable insights — which businesses can use to enhance their

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operational processes, marketing strategies, and corporate decisions. There is a great number of web
analytics tools that can help you with this stage. The role of data has increased during the last decade
when businesses have been undergoing digital transformation. The pace of digitalization isn’t going to
slow down, which urges companies to keep track of recent digital landscape trends. Here are three key
trends to consider in the forthcoming year:
Supply Chains
The pandemic revealed numerous weaknesses of both national and international disrupted supply
chains. It resulted in supply delays and production slowdowns. As a result, supply chain analytics
becomes an essential element of any non-self-sufficient business process. The whole situation will
definitely lead to diversification of suppliers and the emergence of multilevel supply chains.
Data Value
Corporate management acknowledges the opportunities to commercialize data. Those who manage to
succeed are more likely to attract investors. What is more, corporate databases are becoming a valuable
digital asset that plays a very important role in M&A processes.
Companies not only sell data to generate income but also integrate it into their products and services,
use it internally to create value streams and externally to provide customers with more relevant
information.
Sustainability
Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues have been on the rise lately, and the trend is likely
to gain pace among the corporate leadership. Customers start to pay more attention not only to how
much money the company generates but also by what means it is earned: no greenhouse emissions,
waste-free production processes, and zero loss of feedstock are some factors for efficiency estimation.
SamplingMethodsinDataCollection
The company’s target audience may consist of a large number of customers representing different
groups. The task to address each of them seems impossible. Sampling helps to identify particular
subgroups of the audience that reflect all the main features of the whole group. The process may be
complex, but there are some statistical methods that ensure a subgroup represents the whole group in
the most accurate way possible.
These sampling methods include the following.
Random Sampling

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Random sampling is the process of picking respondents without any pattern or system. At first glance,
this method may seem unscientific, but it can be rather valuable, as it just gets rid of the elements that
can decrease the validity of the research. Still, randomness requires some system. For example, if we
take into consideration a popular city and start to pick people who walk on the main street on Saturday
afternoon, we will get a rather diverse cross-section of tourists. But the local population will not be
present, as they usually tend to avoid such areas, especially during the weekends. Computer
randomizers can be a solution to this problem.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is built on the basis of some rules designed to create regularity. For example,
observing every fifth customer will give the order to the process. Systematic sampling can be a rather
rigid method in some cases, as the data may be irrelevant, for example, when every fifth customer turns
out to be a teenager under 16 years old.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is considered to be the easiest method but, at the same time, is the least reliable.
It is applied to data collection from those who are the easiest to reach. An example can be a
questionnaire sent to the employees of one department instead of the whole company, which may be
effort-consuming. But there are some cases when this type of sampling may be effective — for
example, when it is necessary to get data on the first product impression where respondents and their
diversity is of no importance.
Clustered Sampling
Clustered sampling is aimed at subgroups and not at individuals. The clusters are usually defined
beforehand; for example, they can include areas or regions that participate in some research. Clustered
sampling can be of two types: single-stage (when all the representatives of the cluster are included) and
two-stage (when only particular representatives are chosen). The main advantage of this method is that
the cluster is already clearly defined, and you don’t have to define it yourself. The only problem may
occur if the cluster doesn’t represent the whole community accurately.
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is applied to subgroups of a population that have similar characteristics. For
example, the respondents may be divided by gender, age, education, and many other parameters. When
they are clearly determined, the risk of bias decreases. But when the characteristics are not so clear, the
collected data may not be very accurate. The main difference between cluster and stratified sampling is

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that only cluster sampling only includes certain clusters in the research process, while stratified
sampling considers only the individuals from each group on a random basis.
7. Data collection Instruments
What is Data Collection?
Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing specific information to proffer
solutions to relevant questions and evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all there is to a
particular subject matter. Data is collected to be further subjected to hypothesis testing which
seeks to explain a phenomenon.
Hypothesis testing eliminates assumptions while making a proposition from the basis of reason.
Types of Data Collection
Data collection in itself falls under two broad categories; Primary data collection and secondary
data collection.
Primary Data Collection
Primary data collection by definition is the gathering of raw data collected at the source. It is a
process of collecting the original data collected by a researcher for a specific research purpose. It
could be further analyzed into two segments; qualitative research and quantitative data collection
methods.
 Qualitative Research Method
The qualitative research methods of data collection do not involve the collection of data that
involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation; rather it is based
on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An example of
such a method is an open-ended questionnaire.
 Quantitative Method
Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to deduce.
An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive at figures to
be calculated mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and
median.
Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data collection, on the other hand, is referred to as the gathering of second-hand data
collected by an individual who is not the original user. It is the process of collecting data that

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already exists, be it already published books, journals, and/or online portals. In terms of ease, it
is much less expensive and easier to collect.
Your choice between Primary data collection and secondary data collection depends on the
nature, scope, and area of your research as well as its aims and objectives.
What is a Data Collection Tool?
Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper
questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.
It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in different
ways and for different purposes. The objective behind data collection is to capture quality
evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible answers to the
posed questions.
7 top data collection methods and tools for Academic, Opinion or Product Research
INTERVIEW
An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types
namely; Structured, Semi-structured, and unstructured with each having a slight variation from
the other.
 Structured Interviews – Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of
depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed and
efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
 Semi-structured Interviews – In this method, there subsist several key questions which cover
the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the researcher to
explore the subject matter.
 Unstructured Interviews – It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a
wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom it
gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-
consuming.
Pros
 In-depth information Freedom of flexibility Accurate data.
Cons

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 Time-consuming Expensive to collect.
What are the best Data Collection Tools for Interviews?
For collecting data through interviews, here are a few tools you can use to easily collect data.
 Audio Recorder
An audio recorder is used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can meet
the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data collection tools.
 Digital Camera
An advantage of a digital camera is that it can be used for transmitting those images to a monitor
screen when the need arises.
 Camcorder
A camcorder is used for collecting data through interviews. It provides a combination of both an
audio recorder and a video camera. The data
QUESTIONNAIRES
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions
and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.
For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn’t a survey, rather it forms a part of it. A
survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including a
questionnaire.
On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale, and
open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.
Pros
 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective. Easy to visualize and analyze.
 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data. Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic. Relatively inexpensive.
Cons
 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway . Questions might
be left unanswered.
 Questionnaires can’t produce qualitative data . Respondents may
have a hidden agenda.

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 Not all questions can be analyzed easily.
Paper Questionnaire
A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions and/or prompts
for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Mostly designed for statistical
analysis of the responses, they can also be used as a form of data collection.
EXISTING DATA
This is the introduction of new investigative questions in addition to/other than the ones
originally used when the data was initially gathered. It involves adding measurement to a study
or research. An example would be sourcing data from an archive.
Pros
 Accuracy is very high. Easily accessible information.
Cons
 Problems with evaluation. Difficulty in understanding.
What are the Best Data Collection Tools for Existing Data?
The concept of Existing data means that data is collected from existing sources to investigate
research questions other than those for which the data were originally gathered. Tools to collect
existing data include:
 Research Journals – Unlike newspapers and magazines, research journals are intended
for an academic or technical audience, not general readers. A journal is a scholarly
publication containing articles written by researchers, professors, and other experts.
 Surveys – A survey is a data collection tool for gathering information from a sample
population, with the intention of generalizing the results to a larger population. Surveys
have a variety of purposes and can be carried out in many ways depending on the
objectives to be achieved.
OBSERVATION
This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through
observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete observer,
an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or as a complete participant. This
method is a key base for formulating a hypothesis.
Pros
 Easy to administer. There subsists a greater accuracy with results.

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 It is a universally accepted practice. It is appropriate for certain situations.
 It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report.
Cons
 Some phenomena aren’t open to observation. It cannot be relied upon
 . It is expensive to administer. Bias may arise. Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.
What are the best Data Collection Tools for Observation?
Observation involves the active acquisition of information from a primary source. Observation
can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The
best tools for Observation are:
 Checklists – state-specific criteria, allow users to gather information and make
judgments about what they should know in relation to the outcomes. They offer
systematic ways of collecting data about specific behaviors, knowledge, and skills.
 Direct observation – This is an observational study method of collecting evaluative
information. The evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment without
altering that environment.
FOCUS GROUPS
The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical-based data, this data collection
method focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary category for data based
on the feelings and opinions of the respondents. This research involves asking open-ended
questions to a group of individuals usually ranging from 6-10 people, to provide feedback.
Pros
 Information obtained is usually very detailed. Cost-effective when compared to one-
on-one interviews.
 It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.
Cons
 Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject matter. Requires interviewer training
 Bias might still be evident. The researcher has very little control over the outcome.
 A few vocal voices can drown out the rest. Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.
8. What are Ethical Considerations in Research?
Ethical consideration is a collection of principles and values that should be followed while doing
research with human affairs. The ethical considerations make sure those no-one acts in such a

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way that is harmful to society or an individual. It refrains people and organizations from
indulging in vicious conduct.
Ethical considerations play an essential role, especially in research.
Your whole efforts of research may get wasted if you miss following any of the ethical
considerations. The following are the ethical issues that must be considered while performing the
research study.
1. The validity of the research
The first and most basic ethical issue that may arise in research is the invalidity of research
questions. Research is conducted to answer a particular research question. The research
conclusion must match with the research question asked in the beginning.
The failure to match research questions with the research conclusion will be considered a
violation of ethical consideration.
2. The research method used for the research
The research method is an essential part of every study. Many research methods can be used to
conduct research. The most appropriate research method is selected to conduct the study.
Choosing the right research method becomes essential when it comes to ethical considerations.
The following are the points that must be kept in mind when it comes to selecting a research
method for research purposes.
1. The method should completely fit with the purpose of the research.
2. The method should not have risks associated with the particular research method used.
All the risks related to the research method should be declared before using it for research
purposes.
3. Consent of participants
Most of the researches include participants. To abide by the ethical considerations, the researcher
needs to inform the participants about all the activities taking part in the research and make
informed consent from them before starting research work. The information that participants are
entitled to be aware of is as following:
 Purpose of the research project
 The expected outcome of the search
 The adverse effect of the research on the participants
 Who is funding the research project and how that funding will be used.

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The reason for taking informed consent from the participants is that they will be aware of what
they are getting themselves into. If they are aware of the research purpose, they can decide
whether they want to participate in the research.
In addition to this, participants are also entitled to ask for additional information if they have any
doubts or become anxious in the middle of the research. Once you clear all the participants’
doubts, you can ask them to sign a consent form.
The form will act as a sign of trust between the researcher and the participants.
4. Confidentiality
One of the most important ethical considerations is the confidentiality of the information
provided by the participant. The meaning of privacy is that any information related to
participants or provided by the participants can’t be made available or accessed by anyone other
than the researcher under no circumstances.
The information is only used only to protect the participants from the outside threat.
Moreover, confidentiality also ensures that participants’ identifying information is not mentioned
in the research reports or any other published documents. The participants are always referred to
as anonymous in the research reports.
In addition to this, the research is required to keep in mind that the information or output about
the participants is mentioned in such a way so that no one can identify it.
5. The risk to the participant
Previously, we learned that the participants should be informed about the study’s nature and risks
associated with it. However, if the risk is high for the participant than the benefit they gain from
it, then in such a case, the study should be abandoned.
The risk can be either physical or psychological. The study should be suspended in case the
participants are getting stressed, anxious, or in pain.
6. The anonymity of the participants
Keeping the anonymity of the participant is very crucial in the study process. The participants
should also not be known to the research team. The research team should never be aware of the
participants’ names and should refer to the participants by the “subject number” name.
Participants’ anonymity is very difficult to follow as most of the participants are known to the
researchers, and it is human nature to interact with one another when they work together.
7. A sampling of the participants

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Sampling is one of the initial tasks that a researcher must perform before starting the research
work. The researcher is needed to explain why he selected a specific group of participants for the
study purpose and why he has not included certain people.
All of this information should be clear and should be provided to the funders and participants if
they have any objections about your sampling style.
8. Accessibility to only relevant information
When participants sign on the consent form, they give consent to provide only relevant
information for the research purpose. That means the researchers can’t use them as guinea pigs to
gather information about any topic that interests them.
Legally, a researcher can’t ask any questions other than the questions related to the research
purpose. The participants have the right to walk out of the research if they feel any violation of
the accessibility of information.
Therefore, it is always suggested that the researchers use as simple as possible research methods
and explain everything in detail to the participants to avoid repercussions related to the violation
of ethical considerations.
9. Integrity and transparency
Another ethical issue that might arise in research is the issue of honesty and transparency. A
researcher needs to make sure that they maintain integrity and transparency in front of the ethical
committee.
A researcher is expected to share all the potential conflicts of interest that might affect their
research work.
Conclusion:
Ethical considerations are the principles that must be followed in conducting any type of
research. Ethical considerations make sure that no human rights are violated, and research being
conducted has no hidden agenda.
COURSE NAME:
STATISTICAL METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY I
1. What is measurement of variable?
Scales / levels/ of measurement
an unknown attribute that measures a particular entity and can take one or more values is called
measurement variable is. It is commonly used for scientific research purposes. Unlike in

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mathematics, measurement variables can not only take quantitative values but can also take
qualitative values in statistics
2. What are the examples of measurement of variables?
Examples of measurement of variables
Measurement variables are, as the name implies, things you can measure. An individual
observation of a measurement variable is always a number. Examples include length, weight,
sex, age etc
3. What are the types of measurement of variables?
Types of measurement of variables
There are four distinct categories of measurement measures as you can see. (nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio). Accordingly, each of the four scales generally offers more details about the
variables being evaluated than the scales that came before it.
I. Nominal Scales
A nominal scale is a scale (of measurement) that uses labels to classify cases (measurements)
into classes. Some examples of variables that use nominal scales would be religious affiliation,
sex, the city where you live, etc. an observation is simply given a name, a label, or otherwise
classified
 Nominal scales use numbers, but these numbers are not in any mathematical relationship
with one another.
 A nominal scale uses numbers to identify qualitative differences among measurements.
 the lowest level of measurement
 categorical variables that represent different categories
 the data are organized in the form of frequency counts for a given category
 Frequency counts simply tell us how many people we have in each category.
For example - Gender (1 = male, 2 = female), Ethnicity or religion of person, Smoker vs.
nonsmoker, literate versus illiterate,
II. Ordinal scales
Ordinal scale, which is the second level of measurement, gives the ranking and ordering of the
data without determining the degree of variation. ranks or orders observations based on whether
they are greater than or less than one another

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 Ordinal scales do not provide information about how close or distant observations are from
one another.
 An ordinal scale of measurement uses numbers to convey “less than” and“more than”
information. This most commonly translates as rank ordering. Objects may be ranked in the
order that they align themselves on some quantitative dimension but it is not possible from
the ranking information to determine how far apart they are on the underlying dimension.
E.g Ranking of high school students – 1st, 3rd, 4th, 10th… Nth. A student scoring 99/100
would be the 1st rank, another student scoring 92/100 would be 3rd and so on and so forth.
III. INTERVAL SCALES
 Interval scales of measurement have all of the properties of nominal ordinal, and summative
response scales.
 The most common illustrations of an equal interval scale are the Fahrenheit and Celsius
temperature scales.
 According to Stevens “Equal intervals of temperature are sealed off by noting equal volumes
of expansion..Eg” Essentially, the difference in temperature between 30 and 40◦ F is equal to
the difference between 70 and 80◦ F.
 A less-obvious but important characteristic of interval scales is that they have arbitrary
zero points.
For example, the term zero degrees do not mean the absence of temperature – on the
Celsius scale, zero degrees is the temperature at which water freezes.
IV. RATIO SCALES
 A ratio scale of measurement has the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales
 It has an absolute/true/ zero point, where zero means absence of the property
 Ratio scales are time and measures of distance.
 interpret in a meaningful way ratios of the numbers on these scales
 four hours is twice as long as two hours or that three miles is half the distance of six miles
ORGANIZING AND PRESENTING DATA
4. What is organized data?
Data organization is the way to arrange the raw data in an understandable order. Organizing data
include classification, frequency distribution table, picture representation, graphical

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representation, etc. Data organization helps us to arrange the data in order that we can easily read
and work.
Statistics is the science of planning studies and experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing,
summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on the data
Raw data are the primary or secondary information gathered from a source, such as numbers,
instrument readings, figures, etc. Raw data is unprocessed data that has not been compiled,
interpreted to provide some sort of meaning, or "cleaned" by researchers to eliminate outliers.
Types of Statistics: Descriptive vs. Inferential
Descriptive Statistics is that branch of statistics which is concerned with describing the
population under study. Inferential Statistics is a type of statistics, that focuses on drawing
conclusions about the population, on the basis of sample analysis and observation.
Descriptive data analysis consists of techniques for gathering and organizing data. statistical
methods that identify, classify, and list the key traits of sample data. Descriptive statistics use –
ratio, percentage, mean, tables, graphs, figures, charts, standard deviations, diagram, range
Frequency distribution for qualitative Data
Qualitative data are values of a qualitative (non numerically valued) variable, .One way of
organizing qualitative data is to construct a table that gives the number of times each distinct
value occurs. The number of times a particular distinct value occurs is called its frequency (or
count).
A frequency distribution of qualitative data is a listing of the distinct values and their
frequencies. Frequency distribution provides a table of the values of the observations and how
often they occur
To Construct a Frequency Distribution of Qualitative Data, there are three steps
Step 1 - List the distinct values of the observations in the data set in the first column of a table.
Step 2 - For each observation, place a tally mark in the second column of the table in the row of
the appropriate distinct value.
Step 3 - Count the tallies for each distinct value and record the totals in the third column of the
table.
Practical example Frequency Distribution of Qualitative Data

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What is the highest level of education that your mother has attained? (please tick)? The
responses of the 40 participants in the study are given in Table below. Determine a frequency
distribution of these data
❐ 1. Illiterate ❐ 4.Technique/College/
❐ 2.Primary school ❐ 5. Undergraduate university
❐ 3.secondary school ❐ 6. Postgraduate
Table: Categorical data for frequency distribution
Illiterate Undergraduate Primary Primary Illiterate Primary
Illiterate Postgraduate Illiterate Tech/College Primary Tech/College
Primary Postgraduate Undergraduate Tech/College Tech/College Secondary
Secondary Primary Tech/College Postgraduate Secondary primary
Primary Secondary Tech/College Undergraduate Tech/College Secondary
Primary Secondary Secondary Primary Secondary
Undergraduate Undergraduate Undergraduate Primary Secondary
Solution
Step 1 - List the distinct values of the observations in the data set in the first column of a table.
The distinct values of the observations are illiterate, primary, secondary, college/technique,
undergraduate degree and post graduate which we list in the first column of Table
Step 2 - For each observation, place a tally mark in the second column of the table in the row of
the appropriate distinct value.
Step 3 Count the tallies for each distinct value and record the totals in the third column of the
table. Counting the tallies in the second column of Table, gives the frequencies in the third
column of Table. The first and third columns of Table and provide a frequency distribution for
the data in Table.
Table 1: Frequency distribution Table for categorical data
Item
Category tally Frequency count
Illiterate //// 4

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What is the highest level of
education your mother has
attained?
Primary //// //// // 12
Secondary //// /// 8
Technique /College //// // 7
Undergraduate //// / 6
Postgraduate /// 3
Total 40
1. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Central tendency is a statistical measure that determines a single value that accurately describes
the center of the distribution and represents the entire distribution of scores
The goal of central tendency is to identify the single value that is the best representative for the
entire set of data.
Central tendency serves as a descriptive statistic because it allows researchers to describe or
present a set of data in a very simplified, concise form.
Characteristics of a good measure of central tendency
Measure of central tendency is a single value representing a group of values and hence is
supposed to have the following properties.
1. Easy to understand and simple to calculate.
A good measure of central tendency must be easy to comprehend and the procedure involved in
its calculation should be simple.
2. Based on all item
A good average should consider all items in the series.
3. Rigidly defined
A measure of central tendency must be clearly and properly defined. It will be better if itis
algebraically defined so that personal bias can be avoided in its calculation.
2. Capable of further algebraic treatment
A good average should be usable for further calculations.
5. affected by extreme values
A good average should not be unduly affected by the extreme or extra ordinary values in a series.
The most common measures of central tendency are
1.1. The mean

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 The sum of all the data entries divided by the number of entries
 The mean, also known as the arithmetic average, is found by adding the values of the data and
dividing by the total number of values
 The mean is the sum of the values, divided by the total number of values.
1.1.1. Properties of Mean
 It is simple to understand and easy to calculate
 It takes into account all the items of the series
 It is rigidly defined and is mathematical in nature
 It is relatively stable
 It is capable of further algebraic treatment
 Mean is the center in balancing the values on either side of it and hence is more typical
 The mean is sensitive to the exact value of all the scores in the distribution
 The sum of the deviations about the mean equals zero
Computing Means of Ungrouped Data
Or
Example: The following data represents the ages of 20 students in a statistics class. Calculate the
mean age of students.
20 20 20 20 20 20 21
21 21 21 22 22 22 23
23 23 23 24 24 65
x
of
number
x
all
of
sum
bar
x 


203. 203
The Median
 Median is a point in the data set above and below which half of the cases fall.
 The median of a data set is the measure of center that is the middle value when
the original data values are arranged in order of increasing (or decreasing)
magnitude.
 The median is the middle score of a data set if the scores are organized from the smallest to
the largest.
 The median is a number or score that precisely divides a distribution of data in half. Fifty
percent of a distribution's observations will fall above the median and fifty percent will fall
below it.
 The middle number in an ordered set of numbers. Divides the data into two equal parts.
Properties of Median
 The median can be used for calculations involving ordinal, interval, or ratioscale data
 difficult to compute because data must be sorted
 best average for ordinal data
 unaffected by extreme data
Computing Median of Ungrouped Data
 If a data set is odd in number, the median falls exactly on the middle number.
 If a data set is even in number: the median is the average of the two middle values.
For an odd number of scores, here is a data set of 15 scores to consider
26 32 21 12 15 11 27 16 18 21 19 28 10 13 31
Step 1: To calculate the median, arrange the scores from the lowest to the highest:
10 11 12 13 15 16 18 19 21 21 26 27 28 31 32
Step 2: The location of the median score can be found by taking the middle value or using a
simple formula: Median =
𝑁+1
2
=
15+1
2
= 8 so the median is 19
The Mode
 Mode is the most frequently occurring value in a data set
 The mode is the most frequently occurring category of score.
 It is merely the most common score or most frequent category of scores
3.1.1. Properties of mode
 can apply the mode to any category of data

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 The mode is the only measure that applies to nominal (category) data as well as numerical
score data.
 You can have a single number for the mode, no mode, or more than one number.
 best average for nominal data
 easy to determine
 When two data values occur with the same greatest frequency, each one is amode and the
data set is bimodal.
 When more than two data values occur with the same greatest frequency, each isa mode and
the data set is said to be multimodal.
 When no data value is repeated, we say that there is no mode.
3.1.2 Computing Mode of Ungrouped Data
 Identify the number that occurs most often.
 Organize frequency distribution to identify the most frequent score in distribution
For example:
10 11 12 13 15 16 18 19 21 21 26 27 28 31 32
 21 is the mode of the data set
The following below data listed represent test score of psychology exam fourth year students.
Find out mean, median and mode.
Test scores taken from first year students in statistics class
Score Sex Score Sex Score Sex Score Sex
6 F 4 F 9 M 7 M
5 M 5 M 2 M 7 M
4 F 5 F 2 M 7 M
7 M 6 M 7 F 9 F
7 M 7 M 4 F 10 M
7 F 8 M 5 M 5 M
9 F 9 F 6 F 4 M
10 F 10 F 7 F 7 F
10 M 2 M 8 M 7 F
2 F 8 F 9 F 6 M

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Based on the above table above answer the following questions
1. What is the average test result of the sample?
2. What is the mean test score of the female and male students in the sample?
3. What is the median test score of the female and male students in the sample?
4. What is the mode of the sample?
Measures of variability
Measures of variability provide information about the amount of spread or dispersion among the
variables. Range, variance, and standard deviation are the common measures of variability.
4.1 Range, standard deviation and variance
Range
 Simply the difference between the largest and smallest values in a set of data
 Is considered primitive as it considers only the extreme values which may not be useful
indicators of the bulk of the population.
 The formula is - Range = largest observation - smallest observation
 is the difference between the largest and the smallest values.
 used for ordinal data
Range = the highest – the lowest scores
Standard deviation
 Measures the variation of observations from the mean
 Isthe positive square root of variance
 The most common measure of dispersion
 Takes into account every observation
 Measures the ‘average deviation’ of observations from the mean
 used on ratio or interval data
 The standard deviation measures the variation among data values.
 Values close together have a small standard deviation, but values with muchmore
variation have a larger standard deviation.
 For many data sets, a value is unusual if it differs from the mean by more thantwo
standard deviations
Steps in Calculating Standard deviation

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For example – The following are assessment scores of students in Abnormal psychology
Then, calculate the variance and standard deviation of the data set
Sum of square x = 88.5
Sample Variance
S2 = 𝛴(𝑥− 𝑥
̅)2
𝑛−1
=
88.5
10−1
= 9.83

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SD = √9.83 = 3.135
Or
𝑛𝛴(𝑥2) − (𝛴𝑥 )2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
=
10 𝑥17311−172225
10(10−1)
=
885
90
= 9.83
SD =√9.83 = 3.135
Variance
 is the sum of the squared deviations of each value from the mean divided by the number
of observations
 mean of squared differences between scores and the mean
 used on ratio or interval data
 used for advanced statistical analysis
 is equal to the average of the squared deviations from the mean of a distribution.
Symbolically, sample variance is s2
and population variance is
For example:
Classwork - Test scores - 6, 3, 8, 5, 3
Find the variance
Normal distribution
 Normal distribution It is critical to determine the likelihood of observations in a distribution
falling above or below a given value, as well as the likelihood that a sample mean
significantly differs from a known population mean. In addition, it is important to compare
scores on different distributions with different means and standard deviations.
 Z-scores are merely scores expressed in terms of the number of standard statistical
units of measurement (standard deviations) they are from the mean of the set of scores.
 A z score (or standardized value) is found by converting a value to a standardized
scale, as given in the following definition. This definition shows that a z score is the
number of standard deviations that a data value is deviated from the mean.

208. 208
 A z score (or standardized value) is the number of standard deviations that
a given value x is above or below the mean
 We used the range rule of thumb to conclude that a value is “unusual”
if it is more than 2 standard deviations away from the mean. It follows that unusual
values have z scores less than-2 or greater than + 2.
 A positive z-score means that a score is above the mean.
 A negative z-score means that a score is below the mean.
 A z-score of 0 means that a score is the exact sameas the mean
For example
A student scored a 65 on a math test that had a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. She
scored 30 on a history test with a mean of 25 and a standard deviation of 5. Compare her relative
position on the two tests.
Solution
Math: z = (65-50)/10= 15/10 = 1.5

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History: z = (30-25)/5 = 5/5 = 1
The student did better in math because the z-score was higher
Example 2
Find the z-score for each test and state which test is better
Test A:
Test B:
Test A: z = (38-40)/5 = -0.4
Test B: z = (94-100)/10 = -0.6
Test A is higher; therefore it is better. It has a higher relative position.
COURSE NAME:
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Meaning of Social Psychology
Social psychologists defined the field as follows:
 Social psychology can be defined as a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand
and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the
actual, imagined or implied presence of others. (Worchel et.al, 1991; Hogg and Vaughan,
1998).
 It seeks to understand the nature and causes of individuals' behaviors and thoughts in social
situations.
 Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence and relate to
one another (Myers, 1999). It pays attention to the influences producing regularities and
diversities in human social behavior.
 It is the scientific study of the personal and situational factors that affect individuals’ social
behavior. It is the study of the interaction between individual characteristics and social
situations.
 It studies how people affect and are affected by one another. Baron and Byrne (1997) defined
social psychology as a scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of
individual behavior, and thought in social situations.
Goals of Social Psychology
Regarding the goals of social psychology, the discipline has the following four major goals.

210. 210
1. Understanding and describing social behavior: Like
 What are some of the social behaviors people manifest?
 What is the nature of these behaviors?
 What are the similarities and unique behavioral patterns people display?
2. Explaining social behavior: If we understand a certain social behavior by providing a correct
description of the behavior then we proceed to the possibility of explaining why this behavior
happened. What caused it?
3. Predicting social behavior: Being able to explain the nature of a given social behavior would
enable us to predict what would happen in the future in similar situations. Prediction is a
major goal in several disciplines, largely because if one is able to predict a certain social or
physical phenomena then proactive measures can be taken.
4. Controlling and changing social behavior: the last but the most important goal in social
psychology is controlling and changing social behavior. This refers to helping, limiting,
influencing, and changing social behavior. The preceding three goals are largely meant to
contribute to this goal. There are a lot of desirable or undesirable social behaviors that plague
human society. Thus promoting the desirable ones and controlling the undesirable ones is a
major goal. Thus understanding a given social behavior, explaining it and predicting its
likelihood in the future are instrumental to control and change social behavior.
Unit1
Theories of Social Psychology
The five pertinent theories in social psychology are the following:
1. Genetic Theorists: they assume that large component of social behavior is related to
unlearned genetic causes. To them, social behavior is thought to be caused by instincts.
They have made researches to make comparison in identical twins, fraternal twins,
siblings, distant relatives and non-relatives in their social behavior to see similarities in
terms of genetics. Each group was developed in a similar to control the effects of
environment difference. Results showed marked similarity in identical twins more than
fraternal and fraternal more than other siblings and siblings more than distant relatives,
clearly demonstrating effect of genetics on social behavior.

211. 211
2. Learning Approach: Social phenomena are thought to arise through learning. The
learning approach deals with observable behavior. They assume that internal mental
processes could be inferred through observed behavior. Many of human social behavior is
thought to be a product of learning observable behavioral actions.
3. Psychoanalytic Theory: explains social behavior as a result of activity in the unconscious
part of the brain. They state early experience and repressed wishes as major causes of
social behavior. Childhood experiences are considered vital in shaping adult behavior.
4. Role Theory: suggests that social behavior is shaped by the roles that society provides for
individuals to play. For role theory, society has certain expectations for certain roles we
are assigned for. There are behaviors that we expect from a priest, police, teacher, medical
practitioner, accountant, lawyer, nurse, guard, housewife, farmer and other occupations.
Thus people are expected to behave in accordance with these expectations, and social
behavior develops in this manner.
5. Cognitive Approach: It assumes that the thinking process and perception of our social
world are examined to explain social behavior. This relates to how people come to
understand and represent the world. In this theory internal mental processes are focused.
Unit 2
SOCIALIZATION
Major Concepts of Socialization
One of the most significant and remarkable process occurring in human beings is the
transformation of the helpless infant in to a mature adult. As he/she develops the child learns one
or more languages, a wealth of empirical facts about his physical and social environment and a
variety of social skills and bodies of knowledge. He also acquires attitudes and values including
ways of relating to people like love, hatred, and helping or hurting others. The process by which
these relations are developed is called socialization.
Socialization is an interaction process whereby an individual’s behaviour is modified to conform
to expectations held by members of the group to which he/she belongs to. Socialization is the
process by which someone learns the ways of a given society or social group well enough so that
he can function within it. It is a process by which people adopt the codes of conduct of the
society and gain respect for its rules. Socialization is a lifelong developmental process whereby
the individual becomes a member of the society. It includes not only the process by which the

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child gradually acquires the ways of the adults around him but also the requirement of adults
required to take behaviours appropriate to expectations associated with new position in a group,
organization or society at large.
Theories of Socialization
1 Psychoanalytic Theory of Socialization: is formulated by Sigmund Freud. It is one of the
influential theories that give emphasis to early experiences. The theory also states that human
beings are usually moved by their biological desire for sex. How these sexual desires are
resolved at early age (oral, anal, and phallic stages), in the years birth to six years is assumed to
play a tremendous role in one’s socialization.
2 Cognitive Development Theory of Socialization: the theory is largely based on Jean Piaget’s
cognitive development. It focuses on stages of mental development (sensory-motor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) as the bases for learning social
values, roles and norms.
3 Social Learning Theory of Socialization: It is more based on the works of Albert Bandura.
The theory focuses on modelling, identification, imitation and role learning.
Summary of the theories with their focus
Theory Importance of
Heredity
Nature of
Human Being
Early or later stage importance
Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud Very Important Anti-social
(negative)
Early stage considered more
important
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget
Important Neutral
(Zero)
Throughout life, but early age is more
important
Social Learning
Albert Bandura
Not important Pro-social
(Positive)
Throughout life
Agents of Socialization
In our social interactions there are people with whom we interact most, and who are emotionally
important to us, they are called significant others. In the process of socialization those who learn
are the targets of socialization and the sources for learning are called agents of socialization.
The agents might be people, media and organizations as described below
People Media Organization

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Mother and father TV School
Sister and brother Radio Church
Grand pa and ma Movies Scouts
Aunts and uncles Books Clubs
Friends/peers Paintings Sports team
Teachers Sculpture Charity organizations
Neighbours Dram/theatre Political organizations
….etc Arts…etc Community in general…etc
Unit 3
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE
Meaning of Attitude and Related Terms
Social psychologists and sociologists have defined attitude in the following ways:
 Petty and Caccioppo (1981) as cited in Worchel (1991) defined attitude as a general and
enduring positive or negative feelings about some person, object or issue.
 Stephen Robins (1993) defined attitude as evaluative statements or judgments
concerning objects, events or people.
 Allport (1935) defined attitudes as a mental and neural state of readiness organized
through experience exerting a directive or dynamic influence up on the individual's
response to all objects and situations with which it is related.
 David G. Myers (1999) defined attitude as a favourable or unfavourable evaluative
reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or behaviour.
 Baron and Byrne (1995) defined attitude as lasting evaluations of various aspects of the
social world.
 Hogg and Vaughan (1998) defined attitude as a relatively enduring organization of
beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups,
events or symbols.
In general Attitudes are mental representations and evaluations of features of our social or
physical world.
Characteristics of Attitude
Some specific characteristics of attitude are the following.
 They are relatively permanent; that is they persist across time and situations.

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 Attitudes are limited to socially significant events.
 Attitudes are generalizable and involve at least some degree of abstraction
Importance of Attitude
At this juncture it is essential to question why do we need to study attitudes? Few of the reasons
are:
1. They strongly influence our social thought- the way in which we think about and process
social information, how we store, and use social information is affected by our attitude.
2. They often function as schemas-cognitive frameworks that hold and organize information
about specific concepts, situations, or events. These mental scaffolding strongly influence
what we notice, enter into memory, and later remember.
3. They influence behaviour: this is the third and main reason that social psychologists have been
interested in attitudes for several decades and hence they use to predict how people behave in
various social contexts. If attitudes influence behaviour, then knowing something about them
can help us to predict people’s behaviour in a wide range of contexts. For example, if you
have positive attitude towards capital punishment, then you would vote for the party that
states capital punishment in its law than the one that avoids capital punishment in its law.
Attitudes also serve the following functions
 Knowledge function of attitudes: is used to organize and interpret diverse sets of
information.
 Self-identity function of attitudes: is used to express ones central values and beliefs. From
the attitude one has we can understand who he/she is. One’s attitudes somehow show one’s
religion, political affiliation, and even ethnicity.
 Self-esteem function of attitudes: is used to enhance self-esteem or image in the eye of
others. The respect and evaluation that we have about others is largely based on their
attitudes and behaviours.
Components of Attitude
Attitudes involve the categorization of a stimulus along an evaluative dimension, based on
affective, behavioural, and cognitive information (the “ABC’s” of attitude).
a) Cognitive component –this represents a person’s knowledge, held with varying degree of
certitude, about what is true or false, good or bad, desirable or undesirable. This is the
thought, information, and understanding component of attitude

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b) Affective component -it includes the emotion, feeling and sentiment component of attitude.
An attitude here is capable of arousing affect of varying intensity centring around the object
of the belief, other objects or individuals and groups taking negative or positive position with
respect to the object of belief or on the belief itself.
c) Behavioural component – this is the action component of attitude because the belief is
accompanied by a response with varying threshold of predisposition that lead to action when
it is activated. The kind of action taken is dictated by the content of the belief. Thus this
component refers to the response through action, and activity which is an expression of the
cognitive and affective components
Attitude Formation
Attitudes are learned rather than innate. The learning of attitude is an integral part of the
socialization process and may occur through direct experiences, or vicariously through
interactions with others, or it can be a product of cognitive processes. Attitudes can be formed
through various ways. Some of these are:
 Effects of direct experience: many of the attitudes people hold are the products of direct
experience with the attitude object. Touching, tasting, talking, seeing the attitude object,
person or issue.
 Classical conditioning: one way by which we learn attitudes is through association of
various social happenings.
 Instrumental conditioning: One most important way of developing or forming attitudes is
learning from consequences. A child may help his parents and the response may be very
good like: thank you, this is a nice behaviour. This would increase the likelihood of the
behaviour. There are many do’s and don’ts from the society that shape our attitudes. In
instrumental learning attitudes that have positive consequences or that remove negative
consequences will be strengthened and those attitudes that are followed by a punishment or
negative effect will be weakened.
 Social learning/observation learning: one learn many attitudes by modelling, imitating, and
identifying oneself with parents, peers, teachers, neighbours, and other people which one
usually consider them as models.
Attitude formation is largely a result of the socialization process as indicated in the previous
chapter. The cognitive components of attitudes are assumed to be learned in the same way as are

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any facts, knowledge or beliefs. The basic processes of association, reinforcement, and imitation
determine this acquisition.
Influential factors to the development of attitudes
 Family Influence
 Culture
 Peer influence
 Information
 Education
Attitude Change
An attitude change is any significant modification of an individual’s attitude. Formation and
change of attitude are not two separate things, they are interwoven. People are always adopting,
modifying, and relinquishing attitudes to fit their ever changing needs and interests. When we are
changing one form of attitude we are forming a different form of attitude.
What is important to note here is that deeply held attitudes that generally are built up over years
are supported by strong emotional feelings. Thus they are highly resistant to change, even though
they can sometimes be influenced by long-term powerful persuasion.
Attitudes Change When:
 one receives new information which is largely a cognitive change
 one has direct experience with the attitude object which brings in touch with the attitude
target that develops the affective change
 forcing a person to act this or that way which is a behavioural change
To change our attitudes; there are certain sources which include family, media, church,
neighbours, and others which we look them as agents of socialization.
In the attitude change process there are four sequential steps
 Attention-refers to giving focus to the attitude object. It is when we give attention
that we can precede to the next step.
 Comprehension-this refers to understanding the issue.
 Retention-this refers to maintenance and elaboration of the attended information
 Action-relates to taking action based on our understanding and retention

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Unit 4
PERSUASION
Persuasion refers to efforts to change others' attitudes/ideas. Persuasion occurs when a source
deliberately uses communication to change a receiver's attitude. Persuasion is ubiquitous in many
societies. A persuasive communication is a message intended to change an attitude and related
behaviours of an audience; like commercial advertising, public relations, and political and
government efforts to persuade.
For example advertisers try to convince us that their product is better than others; politicians
try to convince us they deserve our vote for they are better than this or that party in
various ways; some government and non-government organizations attempt to influence our
attitudes toward environmental protection, abortion, civil rights and other heated topics.
If we think for a moment we see that each day we are bombarded with many efforts of
persuasion by many individuals, organizations, newspapers, magazines, advertisements, radio
and TV commercials, political speeches, appeals from charities, religious preaching's ...etc. To
what extent are such attempts of persuasion successful is a big question to ask.
Baron and Byrne (1997) have identified the following characteristics of communicators
(sources), communications (messages) and audiences that influence persuasion.
S.
No
Findings Factor
1 Experts are more persuasive than non0experts Communicator
2 Popular and attractive communicators are more effective than unattractive and
unpopular ones.
Communicator
3 People who speak rapidly are often more persuasive than slow speakers. One reason for
this is that rapid speech conveys impression of the speaker Communicator
4 Messages that do not appear to be designed to change our attitudes are often more
successful than one that seems intended to this goal Message
5 Persuasion can be enhanced by messages that arouse strong emotions especially fear in
the audience.
Message
6 Individuals with low self-esteem are often easier to persuade than those with high self- Audience

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esteem
7 People are sometimes more susceptible to persuasion when they are attracted by some
extraneous event than when they are paying full attention to what is being said Audience
8 When persuasion is tough-that is when the audience is hostile-it is more effective to
present both sides of the issue than just one side
Audience +
Message
Unit 5
IMPRESSION FORMATION
We often engage in efforts to understand others and to gain insight into their intensions, traits
and motives. We try to figure out what other persons are really like? Why they do the things they
do. Based on this we determine the best way of interacting with them. The process through
which we seek such information is known as social perception or impression formation.
Such information is often provided by non-verbal cues like facial expressions, eye contact, body
posture, and movements or verbal communications. In the process of impression formation first
impressions are important. That is why people say that first impressions are last impressions.
Early information tends to have a stronger impact than latter information for it gets the first
attention of people. Most of us assume that the initial impressions we make on others will shape
the course of our relations with them in crucial ways. Further it is assumed that such impressions
may be quiet resistant to change once they are formed. It is for these reasons that most people
prepare carefully for first dates, job interviews, and other situations in which they will meet
others for the first time. We try to form a unified impression of others by combining diverse
information about them like their appearance, their words, and their actions. Points to ponder in
impression formation are
 The extensive and complexity of social perception reveals a paradox of social life. It is
important for people to understand and make sense of their world- particularly the people in
it.
 We all know in theory how best to understand anything, get as much information about it as
possible and think about it carefully and logically. The paradox is that we cannot do it. We
must decide and act, and we have to take the time and effort to do what we logically must do
in order to understand our social environment.

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 Our minds are active and our cognitive processes influence what information we notice or
ignore, remember or forget, believe or disbelieve, weigh carefully or not at all. In short we
construct our view of the world just as the world constructs our minds.
 We take "Cognitive Shortcuts" we quickly form an impression of some one and apply some
quick "rules of thumb" to arrive at explanations for their actions, apply schemata to filter
information and react. We are subject to an impressive array of basis: central trait, primacy
and recency effects, the assumption of our "implicit personality theories", schemata and
script, the illusion correlation, priming and availability, cognitive rigidity.....etc.
 The personal motives and emotional states of the perceiver affect his perceptions. When s/he
is anxious or tense, s/he is likely to perceive some objects differently from occasions when
he/she is happy and relaxed.
Much of this subjective experience is inevitably shaped by the social nature of the world and by
the personality of the perceiver.
In our every day interaction with other person, we frequently assess their intentions and motives
with respect to us. We determine whether or not a person likes us, and our judgment of his
feelings guides our own reaction to him.
The perception process is so complex and the following three factors are central:
1. Stimulus information (like physical appearance, expressive and other motor behaviour and
verbal behaviour of stimulus).
2. Perceiver variables (previous feelings and cognitions toward stimulus, reward cost of stimulus
and the consequent action of a person, implicit personality theory and stereotypes, and self
concept of perceiver).
3. Impression of stimulus person (attribution of personality traits and other cognitions,
contemporary feelings toward him, and perceptions of causality intent and justifiability).
Some fundamental points in the diverse way of perceiving others include.
A. The level of complexity at which persons are perceived varies form one perceiver to the other
Some use superficial character and
Others use central traits
B. Each perceiver has certain central traits or characteristics that he/she emphasizes in describing
others. E.g. intelligence, mood, security, honesty…etc

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C. The centrality of certain traits in forming impressions of others is probably a function of the
perceiver's own personality.
D. Some perceivers focus on "relational" terms, that is how others relate to the perceiver and to
other persons. If one is more nearer to them they recall his/her positive qualities. Some
people evaluate socially interactive people as better individuals in many other areas.
Modes of perceiving others
The different modes of perceiving others may be described in terms of dimensions varying from
the simple to the complex. The modes of person perception include:
 A person is described simply in terms of outward appearance or superficial
characteristics. E.g. his/her body build, facial and mannerisms.
 A person is described mainly in terms of a central trait and its immediate ramifications
(With drawn- quiet, shy, retiring and ingratiating).
 A person is described in terms of a cluster of congruous traits. E.g Strong man- powerful,
voice, aggressive, self confident and forceful.
 A person is described in terms of a variety of traits, including some which are
incongruous. A person may be described as kind, thoughtful, dishonest, and unsociable.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the communication that does not involve the content of spoken
language but relies instead on unspoken language of facial expressions, eye contact, and body
language between individuals.
In the process of perception non-verbal clues play a tremendous role.
Some non-verbal tools include:
 Facial expressions. More than two thousand years ago, the Roman orator Cicero stated that
the face is the image of the soul. By this he meant that human feelings and emotions are often
reflected in the face and can be read there in specific expressions. Facial expressions are
some how universal. In many cultures when people are happy they smile and when they are
in anger probably they will frown. Some social psychologists state that the face is the door to
the soul indicating that the face provides much information about an individual.
 Eye language – a number of emotions as being interested in, hatred, love, and other emotions
are expressed by our eyes. For example we gaze on others to communicate hatred and we
stare on others which communicate our love or being interested about others. Ancient

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philosophers call the eye as a window through the soul. The Amharic saying “Neger Bayne
Yegebal” which means we understand one better if we communicate by observing his/her
eyes. Imagine you went to your advisors office to discuss with him on academic issues. Your
professor was facing his back to you because he was finding a book in his shelf. Probably
you may want to sit and wait until he turns his face to you but your professor said go on tell
me what you want I am listening to you. What do you feel? I think dissatisfaction; because
you think that you would communicate better with him if he was looking in to your eyes and
you were looking to him, because in addition to your verbal explanation your professor could
better understand your state of feeling through your eyes.
 Body language – body language refers to cues provided by the position, posture, and
movement of body parts. It includes gesture, posture, and movements which also
communicate the emotional status of an individual. If you observe your friend early in the
morning going very slowly his head looking down words. What do you guess? Probably your
friend is sick or sad. On the other hand if you saw him frowning; I think you expect he is in
anger. In a certain café while studying about tips it was found that those waiters who squat
down near customers when taking their initial orders receive tips more often and better
amount of tips than when they remain standing in taking the order.
 Touching - the most intimate cue to good relations. People usually express their intimacy to
others by touching shoulders and other parts of the body. If someone touched you at your
shoulder during your conversation with him/her; what will be your reaction? What
information would this convey to you? This depends on a number of factors as who does the
touching (a friend, a stranger, one with same or different sex with you)? The nature of the
physical contact (brief, prolonged, gentle, or rough)? What part of the body is touched? And
the context in which it took place (business setting, doctor’s office, in a party)? Depending
on such factors, touch can suggest affection, sexual interest, dominance, caring, or even
aggression. In sum it is one means of nonverbal communication.
Face-to-Face Interaction
There are many ways of interacting with people
- through letters (postal message)
- telecom (including internet)
- through delegates and

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- face to face interaction
 Of all these means of interaction face to face interaction is considered to be the best one in
terms of effective communication of meaning in many contexts.
 The face communicates a lot because facial expressions convey our views of ourselves, our
views of others and our views of the situation. Facial expressions give us clues to the
emotions of people as discussed earlier.
 Changes in our emotions don't only indicate our emotions but they also change our
emotional experiences or mental feelings (e.g. is it feeling old and being old that makes
our face old or is it looking old that makes us feel old?). This is related to the Facial
Feedback Hypothesis this theory suggests that there is a close association between the
facial expressions and mental feelings. Facial expressions yield information that feeds
back in to our brain and influences our subjective experiences of emotion. In other words
we do not only smile because we feel happy sometimes when we smile, we feel happier
because we have smiled.
Many facial expressions are nearly universal. Due to this reasons people call the face the door for
understanding human beings.
Biases in Forming Impressions
There are several biases that influence our formation of impressions about others.
A. Primacy and Recency: The order in which information about a person is presented can have
profound effects on the subsequent impression we form about the person. A primacy is an
effect of the order of presentation of information in which earlier presented ones have a
disproportionate influence on our perception. Solomon Asch presented six traits of a
hypothetical person to participants. For half of the participants the person was described as
intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious in that order (positive traits first
followed by negative traits). For the other half of the participants the order of the presentation
was reversed (envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, intelligent). The person was
evaluated more favourably by the first group and less favourably by the second group.
Recency is an order of presentation effect in which latter presented information has more
impact than earlier or middle information. Recency effect is justified by the effect of decay;
early information decays and is more likely to be forgotten.

223. 223
B. Positivity and Negativity: Research indicates that in the absence of information to the
contrary, people tend to assume the best of others and form a positive impression. However,
if there is negative information this tends to attract our attention and assume a
disproportionate importance in the subsequent impression: we are biased towards negativity.
Further more once formed a negative impression is much more difficult to change in the light
of subsequent positive information, than is positive impression which is likely to change in
the light of subsequent negative information. We may be sensitive to negative information
for two reasons:
1. The information is unusual and distinct or extreme which attracts attention
2. The information indirectly signifies potential danger, and so its detection has
survival value for the individual.
C. Personal constructs and implicit personality theories: even within shared cultures
individuals tend to develop their own idiosyncratic ways of characterising people. For
example one might consider humour as most important organizing principle for forming
impressions of people, while another might consider intelligence as more important. So we
have different personal construct systems and would be likely to form very different
impressions of the same person. Personal constructs develop over time as adaptive forms of
person perception and so are very resistant to change. We also tend to develop our own
implicit theories or philosophies of human nature which are idiosyncratic and personal ways
of characterizing other people and explaining their behaviour.
D. Stereotypes- Impressions of people are also strongly influenced by widely shared
assumptions about the personalities, attitudes, and behaviours of people based on group
membership, for example ethnicity, nationality, sex, race and class.
E. Cognitive algebra- impression formation involves the integration of sequential pieces of
information about a person (i.e. Traits presented overtime) in to a complete image. Cognitive
algebra refers to an approach to the study of impression formation which focuses on how we
assign positive valence to attributes, and how we then combine these pluses and minuses in
to a general evaluation. There are three principal models of cognitive algebra: summation,
averaging and weighted averaging.
Summation: is a process where the overall impression is simply the cumulative sum of each
pieces of information. If in a scale of -3 to +3 we gave a friend +2 for intelligence, +3 for

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sincerity and -1 for boring we have the sum of the constituents +4 as our general evaluation. If
we learned he/she is generous +1 then our impression would grow to +5. Averaging: It refers to
the process where the overall impression is the cumulative average of each pieces of information.
For the above example we have the average as 5/4=1.25. Weighted averaging: here the valence
of each piece of information is fixed before simply adding the values and finding the average. In
the above example we may give 40% to intelligence 25% to sincerity, 10% to boring and 25% to
generosity. The weighted average will be (2x40%) + (3x25%) + (-1x10%) + (1x25%)= 1.7.
Impression Management (The Art of Looking Good)
Self presentation is the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a
favourable impression or an impression that corresponds to one’s ideals. Self serving bias, false
modesty and similar actions reveal the depth of our concern for self image. Whether we wish to
impress, to intimidate or to seem helpless we play various degrees of control of creating
impressions on others.
 Impression Management or self0presentation refers to efforts by individuals to produce
favourable impression on others.
 The desire to make a favourable impression on others is a strong one, so most of us do our
best to "look good". We engage in active efforts to regulate how we appear to others in order
to appear in the best or most favourable light possible. This process in known is impression
management.
 Evidence shows that persons who can perform this successfully gain important advantages in
many social settings.
It is a plain truth that there are very few or no person who doesn’t care about what people
think of him/her. We spend much money on clothes, cosmetics, car, and even for plastic
surgery-all because we worry about what others think of us. To make a good impression is
often to gain social and material rewards, to feel better about ourselves, and to become more
secure in our social identities. For example no one wants to look foolishly inconsistent. To
avoid seeming so, we express attitudes that match our actions. To appear consistent, we may
pretend attitudes we don’t believe in. even if it means displaying a little insincerity or
hypocrisy, it can pay to manage the impression one is making. For some people, making a
good impression is a way of life. By continually monitoring their own behaviour and noting
how others react, they adjust their social performance when it is not having the desired effect.

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Impression Management Techniques
The most common motive in self presentation is to make a good impression. How do people
accomplish this objective? Several tactics of successful impression management have been
identified. One strategy is to conform to the norms of the social situation. Two additional useful
strategies are self-promotion and ingratiation. Self-promotion refers to conveying positive
information about the self, either through one’s actions or by saying positive things about the
self. In contrast ingratiation or flattery refers to saying positive things about the listener. Social
psychologists suggest that these two tactics reflect different goals. The self-promoter wants to be
seen as competent whereas the flatterer wants to be liked. In some situations as in interviews for
a job, the person may want to accomplish both goals simultaneously coming across as both
likeable and talented. Impression management techniques take many different forms. But most of
the strategies employed seem to fall into two categories.
A. Self Enhancement: which include efforts to improve our own appearance. This can be done
by
 Altering dressing (E.g. women with professional dressing or business suit are to be
chosen for leadership position than culturally dressed ones). For job interviews we wear
our best suits.
 Personal grooming (use of cosmetics, hairstyle, and perfume)
 Judicious use of nonverbal cues (laughing, smile)
 Some selected verbal use
B. Other enhancement: here we induce positive moods and reactions in others. These
include
 Flattering
 Expressing agreement with their view
 Concern - showing a high degree of interest in them
 Doing small favours for them
 Asking for their advice and feedback
 Expressing liking verbally or nonverbally

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Unit 5
ATTRIBUTION THEORY: UNDERSTANDING THE WHY OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
In our everyday experience we encounter a wide range of behaviours in other people. We
encounter when one is grumpy, sour, unhappy, unfriendly, cheerier, friendly, helpful, rude,
incompetent, funny, energetic, etc. We can’t keep count all the adjectives to describe human
behaviour. When we see all these behaviours we can’t help to inquire why people behave in this
or that way. Attribution is the inference about the cause of a person’s action. Attribution is the
process of assigning causes to someone's behaviour. Those causes might be either characteristics
of the person or characteristics of the situation. Attribution is the process through which we seek
to identify the causes of others behaviour and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and
dispositions. So when we see the term attribution what we should think is the term explanation
as a synonym. So one of the most important inferences we make about other people is why they
behave as they do. What causes one individual to be shy at a party and another to be outgoing?
What prompts the romantic break-up of two people who seemed so close?
Why We Make Attributions
It is one distinct quality of human beings to inquire reasons for social occurrences. We want
explanations for social events. We cannot help being naive psychologists in inquiring why for
much of the social behaviour people manifest largely because curiosity is a normal human
behavior.
When we offer causal attributions, we offer either an external (situational) or internal
(dispositional) explanations. An external attribution claims that some outside factors to the
individual motivated the event. As we say "The devil made me do it so". In this case people
attribute things to an outside event. Take the following examples: If in Awassa Textile Factory,
the worker productivity declines; do we assume the workers are getting lazier? Or has there
equipment become less efficient? Or does a young boy who hits his classmates have a hostile
personality? Or is he responding to relentless teasing? When a salesperson in Merkato says,
“That cloth really looks nice on you” Does this reflect genuine feeling? Or is it a sales ploy? If a
student sleeps in your class; do you attribute this to his lack of sleep or to boredom? All these
questions require keen observation of the behavior before choosing a disposition or a situation to
explain the behavior. Here is an example of attribution on school achievement. Getting a mark of
65%-which you feel is low you might explain in a number of ways external to you like there was

227. 227
no reference books, I am not lucky, the teacher was not smart in his presentation, the exam was
difficult and so forth. By contrast an internal attribution assigns causality to factors within the
person and the claim is that the person is responsible for the event. Taking the same example you
may attribute internally and take responsibility as follows; I haven't studied well, I have missed
many classes in the course, I haven't referred to books...etc.
Fritz Heider (1958) widely regarded as attribution theory’s originator, analyzed the
“commonsense psychology” by which people explain everyday events. Heider concluded that
people tend to attribute someone’s behavior or external causes. A teacher may wonder whether a
child’s underachievement is due to lack of motivation and ability or to physical and social
circumstances. This distinction between internal and external causes often blurs, because
external situations produce internal changes. To say a school child “is fearful” may be a short
semantic leap from saying ‘school frightens the child’. Moreover situations act up on
dispositions. A bowling ball rolls down when you push it because it is round (dispositional) and
because it is pushed (situtional).
Our causal attribution or explanation will determine how we interact emotionally with others,
how we respond to the person and perhaps how we evaluate that person. This is the very
reason for studying attribution in social psychology.
Internal attributions are more preferred to external attributions in most situations because they
are helpful for inner control and external attributions lead to dependency behavior that makes as
to depend on external agents.
Here is an example about children in teaching cleanliness to children. In one section the teacher
enters to class and says how a clean class and clean children! It is very pleasant! attributing
their cleanliness to internal factors. In the other class he enters and orders the children to clean
their clothes and their class. After a month with this practice the teacher stopped going to these
classes and the result showed that those who were made to attribute the cleanliness to their own
behaviour continued to clean themselves as well as their room showing the lasting effect of
internal attribution where as those ordered by the teacher quit to clean themselves as well as
their room; after they knew there was no order which demonstrates dependency of the children’s
behaviour on the teacher’s order.

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But here it is essential to consider that excessive internal attribution will also cultivate the feeling
of guilt which might be devastating sometimes. So we need to attribute appropriately to both
internal and external causes.
Steps in attribution: There are three steps in attribution
 Perception of Action: Before giving causal attributions the first step is looking what
really the action is, what is its magnitude, where has it happened, by whom is it done;
so that we have a complete figure about the event or action that happened
 Judgement of Intention: Then we need to go to the motive of the individual for doing
that activity or action, his/her interest, and wishes have to be judged.
 Attribution of Disposition: Then we can predict future predispositions of the
individual; we can see into the consistent trait of the individual that was a cause for
his/her behaviour.
Here there are some factors that have to be considered in attributing causes to behaviours
exhibited by others. These are:
1. The event itself
2. Expectations we have
3. Past behaviour of the individual
4. Feelings of the individual
5. World view about the particular behaviour manifested.
Levels of Attribution
According to Heider and Weiner five levels of attribution are identified. These are association,
causality, foreseability, intentionality and justifiability.
Association is the situation people are held responsible for anything associated, connected or
related with them.
Causality is the situation where people are held responsible for any thing they caused even if it is
accidental.
Foreseebility is the situation in which people are held responsible for any thing they could have
predicted or forecasted.
Intentionality is the situation in which people are held responsible for any thing that is intended
or planned to happen.

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Justifiability is the situation in which people are held responsible for any thing that is planned,
and they have free choice.
Attribution Biases
This refers to falling short in rationality while providing causal explanation. Sometimes our
causal attributions might be weak and insufficient. The attribution process is subject to bias; it
can be biased by personality, by interpersonal dynamics, or biased in order to meet
communication needs. We don’t approach the task of attributing causes for behaviour in an
entirely objective manner. The cognitive mechanisms that are responsible for attribution may
themselves be subject to imperfections that render them to be suboptimal. There are four major
types of attribution biases
 Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) this relates to over emphasizing individual
dispositions in explaining the behavior of others by minimizing or underestimating the
role of the situation. This is a bias in attributing another’s behavior more to internal than
to situational causes. Even when there are clear external or environmental causes, we
tend to attribute to dispositional factors. Some general explanatory tendencies as
attributing to the driver alone in accidents ignoring the road condition and the car’s
mechanical condition, and the tendency among some people to attribute poverty and
unemployment to the person rather than social conditions are few examples. Some
explanations to the fundamental attribution include:
 Focus of attention: the actors behavior attracts relatively more attention
than the background. It is disproportionately salient in cognition, in effect,
the figure against the situational background and thus is over-represented
causally.
 Differential forgetting: attribution requires the representation of causal
information in memory. There is some evidence that people tend to forget
situational causes more readily than dispositional causes, thus producing a
dispositional shift over time.
 Actor versus observer bias- attributing the behavior of others to behavior of the person
and our own behaviour to be strongly influenced by situational factors. Research has
indicated that not only we tend to attribute others behavior more dispositional than our
own, but we also tend to consider their behavior to be more stable and predictable than

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our own. The actor-observer effect can be abolished or reversed if the actor is encouraged
to take the role of the observer regarding the behavior to be attributed.
 Self-serving bias- this relates to protecting ones own ego and self-esteem by attributing
our success to internal factors or our personal dispositions and our failure to external
factors or situational influences. Such bias is meant to protect or enhance self-esteem or
self-image. People tend to attribute internally and take credit for their successes, and
attribute externally and deny responsibility for their failures. Self serving biases are
clearly ego serving. There is also a cognitive component particularly for self enhancing.
People generally expect to succeed, and therefore accept responsibility for success; they
try hard to succeed and thus correlate success with own effort, and they generally
exaggerate the amount of control they have over successful performances.
There is also evidence for an anticipatory self-serving bias in which people who
anticipate failure, intentionally and publicly make external attributions before the event,
this is called self handicapping. Self handicapping is publicly making advance external
attributions for one’s anticipated failure or poor performance in a forthcoming event. It
is generally the tendency to take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure.
Defensive Attribution- this relates to protecting our security particularly in relation to
the degree of responsibility one is facing. When the responsibility is minor that has
little or no effect on our security or life we assume internal attribution, and when the
responsibility is sever we attribute to external factors or to situational explanations.
Unit 6
MAJOR FORMS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE:
CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE AND OBEDIENCE
I. Conformity (social influence by norm and social pressure)
It is a change in behaviour or belief with regard to a group's standards as a result of the group's
power. It is a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. It is the
correspondence in form, manner, or character which means agreement with others. It is an action
in accordance with some specified standards or authority. Hogg and Vaughan (1998) has defined
conformity as a deep-seated, private and enduring change in behaviour and attitudes due to group
pressure. Solomon Asch is the famous researcher in the area who made rigorous research on
conformity.

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Causal versus Normative Explanations to Conformity
How are we to account for conformity? According to causal explanations, factors internal or
(personal characteristics) and external or group norms to individuals cause conformity. The
presence of certain personality characteristics, authority figures and others can result in
conformity.
When do people conform?
We are more apt to conform in some situations than in others. The size of the group, the
unanimity of group opinions, and our commitment to the group can all affect conformity. In
addition, there are individual differences in the desire for individuality or uniqueness that can
also influence whether we conform or dissent. Some major conditions under which people
conform include
a. Judgement that need difficult requirements and feeling of incompetence
b. Feelings of more insecurity
c. Group size- in very few groups people maintain their identity. But as group number increases
conformity increases particularly from four to seven members. If there are more than this
number of members the degree of conformity will not increase much. The addition is less.
d. Unanimity- we fear to be alone in a group and to have our own position but if we get at least
one supporter we stand on our own position. With regard to this Novalis has said “My
opinion, my conviction, gains infinite strength and success, the moment a second mind has
adopted it” and fear of deviance is one major reason to conform.
e. Cohesiveness- the more similar members of a group are the more individual members are
likely to conform.
f. Status: high status people tend to influence in one way and low status people also influence
in their own ways.
g. When the response is in public-people conform when they are requested in the public but
they conform less if they are asked privately.
h. Prior commitment-made without prior commitment we reconsider our judgement but if we
made a prior commitment we remain resistant. For example in Asch’s Experiment if the
individual was asked for his 1st
judgement and if the rest “the confederates” misjudge it the
individual will maintain his/her initial judgement. A similar example is our everyday

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experience in which umpires or referees rarely reverse their initial judgements despite
apparent evidences.
Why do we conform?
Social psychologists give certain reasons for conforming. The most important reasons are
Normative Influence and Informational Influence.
Normative Influence-we call it the desire to be liked. Normative conformity is going along with
the crowd to avoid rejection, to stay in people’s good graces, or to gain their approval. It is
motivated by the desire for social approval. We often want others to accept us, like us and threat
us well. When we deviate from group norms we often pay a price in anxiety if not in rejection.
Here is an example of my own experience of colleagues in Bahir Dar University. In a group
many students decided to revolt on low quality food service in 1997. Some students got hungry
and wanted to eat, the cafeteria is open; students are legally free to eat. But due to fear of
rejection by other students they went hungry the whole day without breakfast as well as lunch.
This is a result of normative influence by the group. In some situations where we don’t exactly
know what we should be doing, we compare to what others do; i.e. by observing people in
similar situations and following their lead. This leads as to conform.
Sometimes the price is high enough to compel people to support what they do not believe in.
Thus normative influence most commonly leads to compliance and this is especially true for
people seeking to climb a group’s status ladder. Regarding the relationship between conformity
and acceptance Thomas Fuller said that “Do as most do and men will speak well of thee”.
Human beings dislike rejection. So, we try to behave the way people would like us to behave and
accept our behaviours. Sometimes normative influence may result in mere compliance, or
artificial change and lead people to discomfort, which is more a character of compliance.
Informational influence on the other hand, is guided by the desire to be right. We use the
opinions and actions of people to guide us in our behaviour and action. When reality is
ambiguous other people can be a valuable source of information. Informational influence is
motivated by the desire to be correct. The ambiguity of reality makes individuals to use
information to disambiguate reality and resolve subjective uncertainty. Informational influence
usually brings genuine change of behaviour that helps to internalize the new behaviour adopted.
Some of the experiments on when do people conform have isolated either normative or
informational influence.

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For example- we have said earlier that conformity is greater in the presence of the group, this
surely reflects normative influence. On the other hand researches have documented that
conformity is greater when participants feel incompetent or when the task is especially difficult
this again purely reflects informational influence.
In summary it is essential to note that conformity is not simply acting as other people act rather
it is being affected by how they act. It is acting differently from the way you would act alone if
there were not others to influence you.
Most contributories to the development of our knowledge to conformity are the following among
others.
1. Asch’s studies of group pressure as we have described earlier is the most famous study in the
area.
2. Miligrams experiments on obedience particularly destructive obedience with several
examples is also notable.
3. Sheriff’s norm formation studies. As one of the early founders Sheriff focused on conformity
as a vehicle of norm formation.
Compliance (Conformity by Request)
One of the most common forms of compliance is in response to direct pressure to comply with a
request. For example, when a friend asks a favour, a salesperson tries to induce us to buy a
product, or a partner asks us to change our behaviour. Think also some of the direct requests you
may make to your friends as to lend you many, to refrain from smoking in front of you, to tell
you what really they think of your new haircut or new clothes, to join the volunteer group you
are organizing, and so on. How would you present all these requests in order to increase the
chances that your friends will comply? Compliance is usually equated to a response to social
influence when people conform by simply going along overtly with certain kind of social
influence without genuine internal or private opinion change. It is an overt behavioural
conformity while maintaining ones own attitude. This is opposite to identification and
internalisation which refer to a genuine and internal change which is enduring and made as part
of the individuals real behaviour or personality.
Compliance is conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with social pressure while
privately disagreeing. It refers to a form of social influence including direct requests from one
person to another.

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Compliance according to Hogg (1998) is a superficial public and transitory change in behavior
and expressed attitudes in response to request, coercion or group pressure. For Maghaddam it is a
type of conformity in which a change in outward behavior is not accompanied by a change in
beliefs. An exact opposite of this is called acceptance. Compliance will deal on how we can
make people say ‘yes’ to our requests, what are the techniques to do so? Which ones work best?
And when do they work best?
Obedience-Social Influence by Demand
Obedience is social influence by demand usually by authorities. It refers to conformity to direct
orders from a person/s/ of high status and authority. The individual who is commanded by a
legitimate authority ordinarily obeys. In short it is acceptance of command. It is the act of
submission to the demands or requests of a person or organization in authority. It is the act or
process of adapting to the desires, demands or coercion of others.
In any social group, organization or society, it is important that people obey orders from those
who have legitimate authority. In wartime, generals expect soldiers to obey orders, and they
severely punish disobedience. We expect drivers to follow the orders of police officers directing
traffic. Most people believe that public health officials have the right to require the school
children be vaccinated against polio and other communicable diseases. In general citizens obey
the laws enacted by state federal governments. Compliance with authorities is increased when
people believe that they are treated fairly, trust the motives of the authorities, and identify with
the group or organization.
In compliance, it is noted that often we are more willing to agree to request from persons with
authority this principle underlies one major form of social influence called obedience. Obedience
occurs when people obey commands or orders from others to do something. Obedience is less
frequent than conformity or compliance because even persons who possess authority and power
generally prefer to exert it through requests rather than direct orders. Obedience drops sharply
when the authority figure is removed.
Destructive Obedience- Some Basic Findings
More powerful authorities get better obedience than those with less authority. Some orders are
destructive. For example, we may be required to injure an innocent person. A number of
disastrous acts happen in the world due to destructive obedience. The torture, killings and
slaughter of 6 million Jewish by the Nazi’s was largely a product of obedience. Of course life

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could have been meaningless without obedience. Many organizational activities require
obedience, but we should question when, and to which orders we should obey. Many human
sufferings emanate from acceptance of destructive obedience. There are extremely huge
examples to this. Saddam Hussein’s soldiers were willing to murder unarmed civil protesters in
their country, in Ethiopia too during the. All this is a result of destructive obedience. Destructive
obedience has some social psychological basis.
Why do people obey?
1. Persons in authority relieve those who obey of the responsibility for their own actions. Those
who obey orders say "I was only carrying out orders" This is a defence many offer after
obeying harsh or cruel directions. It is the authority responsible for this, they say. The
authorities also tell obeyers the same; that is it is authorities not obeyers that take the
responsibility.
2. Persons in authority often possess visible badges or signs of their status like uniforms, titles
and similar symbols. Faced with such obvious reminders of who is in charge most people
find it difficult to resist. A constable is less likely to say no to a commander or to the vice
commissioner.
3. Gradual escalation of authority figures orders- this is a gradual increase in the intensity of
command from authorities. An authority may first request politely, then some how demand,
then a strong demand, and finally may force the subordinate. This is the case in many
situations and many organizations. When you do not obey, authorities will threaten you, deny
your promotion, deduct your salary and even dismiss you from job.
4. Finally events in many situations involving destructive obedience vary quickly and the fast
pace of some events or commands give participants little time for reflection. Here I would
like to recall the June 8, 2005 killings of around 40 civilians in Addis Ababa. It was said that
there were demonstrators, and the government feared that this may develop in to havoc. And
thus it was felt that the crowd was beyond the capacity of the federal police to control this.
The Police Commissioner expressed that untrained police were also used, because the event
gave them little time to reflect as they said. The fear of the gradual escalation of the crowd in
to anticipated havoc made police to take destructive obedience (as reported by the police
commissioner. So the fast pace of events give little time to reflect and caused the death of
over 40 lives.

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Conformity and Obedience
Obedience is literally part of conformity as described earlier. Some ways /dimensions in which
conformity and obedience differ include
Criteria Hierarchy Imitation Explicitness Voluntarism
Obedience Regulate people
of different Status
Imitation is
not involved
Requirements
are explicit
Obedience is typically admitted
Conformity Regulate people
of same Status
Involves
Imitation
Requirements
are implicit
Conformity is typically denied
COURSE NAME
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Unit 1
Introduction
Meaning and Definition of Organizational Behavior
Before we define organizational behavior we should say something about organizational
psychology. Industrial/organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that applies
psychological theories and principles to organizations. Often referred to as I-O psychology, this
field focuses on increasing workplace productivity and related issues such as the physical and
mental well-being of employees. Industrial-organizational psychologists perform a wide variety
of tasks, including studying worker attitudes and behavior, evaluating companies, and
conducting leadership training. It is the scientific study of individual and group behavior in
formal organizational settings.
Therefore Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,
groups and structure have on behavior within organization for the purpose of applying such
knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness.
Organizational behavior can be defined as the understanding; prediction and management of the
human behavior that affect the performance of the organizations.
Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people,
individuals, and groups act in organizations. It interprets people-organization relationships in
terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social system.

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Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational
objectives, and social objectives. Manufacturing and service firms are organizations, and so are
schools, hospitals, churches, military units, retail stores, police departments, volunteer
organizations, start-ups, and local, state and federal government agencies. There are a variety of
organizations that comprise the workplace. In short organizational behavior is concerned with
the study of what people do in an organization and how their behavior affects the performance of
the organizations. Organizational behavior focuses the following elements of individual & group
behaviors.
Personality, Perception, Learning, Motivation, Roles of norms, Team building, Conflicts &
negotiation.
Nature of organizational behavior
Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people,
individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach.
That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group,
the whole organization, and whole social system.
Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational
objectives, and social objectives.
Organizational Behavior is;
 A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only.
 An Interdisciplinary Approach.
 An Applied Science.
 A Normative Science.
 A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach.
 A Total System Approach
These six features or characteristics show the nature of organizational behavior that is the study
of understanding and control behavior within the organization. The organizations in which
people work have an effect on their thoughts, feelings, and actions. These thoughts, feelings, and
actions, in turn, affect the organization itself. Organizational behavior studies the mechanisms
governing these interactions, seeking to identify and foster behaviors conducive to the survival
and effectiveness of the organization.
1. Job Satisfaction

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2. Finding the Right People
3. Organizational Culture
4. Leadership and Conflict Resolution
5. Understanding the Employees Better
6. Understand how to Develop Good Leaders
7. Develop a Good Team
8. Higher Productivity
These eight objectives of organizational behavior shows that OB is concerned with people within
the organization, how they are interacting, what is the level of their satisfaction, the level of
motivation, and find ways to improve it in a way that yields productivity.
Goals of organizational behavior
A. Explanation: Seek to answer why an individual or a group of individuals did something.
B. Prediction: The goal of prediction focuses on future events to determine what outcomes will
result from a given action. There are various ways to implement a major change, so the manager
is likely to assess employee responses to several change interventions. Such information can be
used in making the decision as to which change effort to use.
D. Control: the most controversial goal is to control behavior because most of us live in
democratic societies, which are built upon the concept of personal freedom. OB does offer
technologies that facilitate the control of people. Whether those technologies should be used in
organizations becomes an ethical question.
The bottom line of organizational behavior is to explain and predict behavior within an
organization by examining behavior in three different levels of influence at the individual, group
and organizational level. The level of analysis at individual level is more related to the study of
aspects like learning, perception, creativity, motivation, personality, turnover, task performance,
cooperative behaviour, deviant behaviour, ethics, and cognition. The group level of analysis
involves the study of group dynamics, intra- and intergroup conflict and cohesion, leadership,
power, norms, interpersonal communication, networks, and roles. The organization level of
analysis covers the topics such as organizational culture, organizational structure, cultural
diversity, inter-organizational cooperation and conflict, change, technology, and external
environmental forces. Organizations can better understand performance in the workplace and
improve interactions among employees. This can also create a competitive advantage through

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improved motivation, leadership, communication and organizational culture, all of which greatly
affect a business' bottom line
Research Methods in organizational behavior
OB researchers have many tools they use to discover how individuals, groups, and organizations
behave
1. Surveys
Surveys are one of the primary methods management researchers use to learn about OB. A basic
survey involves asking individuals to respond to a number of questions. The questions can be
open-ended or close-ended.
2. Field Studies
Field studies are also effective ways to learn about what is truly going on within organizations.
3. Case Studies
Case studies are in-depth descriptions of a single industry or company. Case writers typically
employ a systematic approach to gathering data and explaining an event or situation in great
detail
4. Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis is a technique used by researchers to summarize what other researchers have
found on a given topic. This analysis is based on taking observed correlations from multiple
studies, weighting them by the number of observations in each study, and finding out if, overall,
the effect holds or not. For example, what is the average relationship between job satisfaction
and performance?
Unit 2
Theories of job satisfaction
While there are numerous definitions, the consensus is that job satisfaction is a multidimensional
psychological response with three main arms: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (Weiss, 2002).
We form attitudes toward our job by interpreting our feelings, beliefs, and behaviors.
1. Locke’s range of affect theory
With origins in organizational psychology, Edwin Locke’s (1976) range of affect theory is
perhaps the well-recognized model of job satisfaction.

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Locke’s theory recognized the importance of how much people value different aspects of their
job, along with how well their expectations are met. In short, our values inform our expectations,
and the closer these are to reality, the more satisfied we feel.
2. The dispositional approach
Outlined by Barry Staw and colleagues, the dispositional approach was formed in light of
evidence that affective disposition predicts job satisfaction (Staw, Bell, & Clausen, 1986). They
argued that people’s tendency to experience positive or negative emotions accounts for
individual differences in job satisfaction.
3. The Job Characteristics Model
The Job Characteristics Model aims to specify conditions under which people are satisfied by
their work and motivated to perform effectively (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).
With meta-analyses lending support for this job satisfaction theory (Fried & Ferris, 1987), it has
become commonly used to examine characteristics of work leading to job satisfaction.
Five core characteristics have been reported, along with three psychological states acting as a
sort of ‘gateway’ to satisfaction:
6. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Self-determination theory (SDT) emerged from the work of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. As
a macro theory successfully validated in many fields of intrinsic motivation and behavior, SDT is
well placed to provide insight into job satisfaction. According to SDT, there are six factors that
affect job satisfaction

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1. Work that is engaging
Engaging activities allow people to express their natural strengths and capitalize on their current
skillset.
Four factors tied to job satisfaction that makes work engaging.
1. Autonomy of work schedule/style
2. Tasks are clear, with an obvious start and end point
3. Task are varied
4. Consistent feedback on performance is provided
2. Work that is meaningful
3. Level of relatedness
Relatedness could apply to many aspects of a person’s job, ranging from whether they feel
trusting of their superiors/subordinates to whether they feel part of a meaningful cause that helps
and supports people – either inside or outside their immediate environment.
4. Ability to leverage character strengths
Environments bringing out the best in us will be more engaging, draw out our best work, and
satisfy us most.
5. Tendency for ‘job crafting’
Job crafting is the philosophy of taking the initiative to redesign the way you work. Job crafting
enables people to sculpt a personalized approach to tasks, professional relationships, and even
the meaning of their job as a whole.
6. Workplace culture
Work–life balance, Autonomy, and Communication factors are the major components of
workplace culture.
Unit 3
Diversity in Organizations
Demographic Diversity
Diversity: refers to the ways in which people are similar or different from each other. It may be
defined by any characteristic that varies within a particular work unit such as gender, race, age,
education, tenure, or functional background (such as being an engineer versus being an

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accountant). Even though diversity may occur with respect to any characteristic, our focus will
be on diversity with respect to demographic, relatively stable, and visible characteristics:
specifically gender, race, age, religion, physical abilities, and sexual orientation. Understanding
how these characteristics shape organizational behavior is important. While many organizations
publicly rave about the benefits of diversity, many find it challenging to manage diversity
effectively. This is evidenced by the number of complaints filed with the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regarding discrimination.
Benefits of Diversity
As the business environment becomes more global and organizations become leaner and flatter,
they must accomplish more with fewer people: people who have different cultures, values,
motivations, work styles, lifestyles and family roles (Montes, 2000). By averaging the many
facets of diversity in the internal and external environment, organizations can benefit from
diversity (Robinson & Dechant, 1997). Some of the benefits that flow from the effective
management of diversity are discussed below.
5. Improved Organizational Performance
Recent indicates that, within the proper context, cultural diversity does in fact add value to the
firm. When firms pursue a growth strategy, higher racial diversity is positively related to
productivity, return on equity and market performance. Racial diversity enhances productivity
and this relationship intensifies as strategic growth increases. Cultural diversity can provide
firms with diverse experience and knowledge, qualities that seem beneficial for firms with an
orientation towards growth and addition, organizations that overcome resistance to change in the
area of accepting diversity, appear to be well positioned to handle other types of change enabling
improved flexibility.
6. Recruitment and Retention
In order to sustain competitive advantage, an organization needs to attract and retain skilled and
talented human resources. In a tight labor market, a company’s ability to attract and retain
outstanding people depends to a large extent on its corporate image. Talented people will be
attracted to corporations that value their capabilities and will be more willing to contribute to the
organization’s goals if they believe they are treated fairly. Attracting, retaining and promoting
excellent employees from different demographic groups sends a clear message to potential
applicants, that the company has effective diversity management practices. On the other hand,

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racially motivated job treatment discrimination and promotion discrimination against minorities
are factors that affect minority employees.
7. Lower Absenteeism Rates
If diversity is managed correctly, it can lead to reduced absenteeism rates. Absenteeism rates for
women were found to be 58 percent higher than for men (Meisenheimer, 1990). Individuals who
are different from their work units in racial or ethnic background tend to be less psychologically
committed to their organizations, less inclined to stay with the organization and more likely to be
absent. Research also indicates that a positive relationship exists between employees’
perceptions of being valued and cared about by their organizations and their attendance,
dedication and job performance.
8. Increasing Creativity and Innovation
Workforce diversity can enhance market understanding, stimulate creativity and foster
innovative thinking.
Cultural diversity enables employees to provide different perspectives for the performance of
creative tasks.
In addition, employees who feel valued and supported by their organization tend to be more
innovative in another research study, the ideas produced by ethnically diverse groups were
judged to be of higher quality than the ideas produced by homogeneous groups
9. Higher Quality Problem-Solving in Teams
Research shows that more innovative teams produce more innovative solutions to problems. As
culturally diverse members have different backgrounds and life experiences, they can see
problems from a variety of perspectives. Multiple perspectives stimulate greater discussion and
lead to higher quality solutions. While diverse groups experience more conflict in agreeing on
what is important and in working together at the outset, they ultimately outperform homogeneous
groups in identifying problem perspectives and generating alternative solutions.
10. Building Effective Global Relationships
As companies become more global, the need to integrate cultural diversity into marketing, sales
and customer services strategies is becoming essential. Cultural competence is being recognized
as a key management skill. For example, American managers have to adjust to a world of
extraordinary variety in consumer preferences and work practices. The increased cultural
awareness developed by a firm’s adaptation to diversity can help it become more effective in

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cross-cultural situations. International firms do not experience diminishing performance returns
as they face increasingly heterogeneous environments.
Challenges of Diversity
If managing diversity effectively has the potential to increase company performance, increase
creativity, and create a more satisfied workforce, why aren’t all companies doing a better job of
encouraging diversity? Despite all the potential advantages, there are also a number of challenges
associated with increased levels of diversity in the workforce.
Similarity-Attraction Phenomenon
One of the commonly observed phenomena in human interactions is the tendency for individuals
to be attracted to similar individuals. Research shows that individuals communicate less
frequently with those who are perceived as different from themselves. They are also more likely
to experience emotional conflict with people who differ with respect to race, age, and gender.
Individuals who are different from their team members are more likely to report perceptions of
unfairness and feel that their contributions are ignored. The similarity-attraction phenomenon
may explain some of the potentially unfair treatment based on demographic traits. If a hiring
manager chooses someone who is racially similar over a more qualified candidate from a
different race, the decision will be ineffective and unfair. In other words, similarity-attraction
may prevent some highly qualified women, minorities, or persons with disabilities from being
hired. Similarity-attraction may affect women and minorities to a greater extent. Even when
candidates from minority or underrepresented groups are hired, they may receive different
treatment within the organization. For example, research shows that one way in which
employees may get ahead within organizations is through being mentored by a knowledgeable
and powerful mentor. Yet, when the company does not have a formal mentoring program in
which people are assigned a specific mentor, people are more likely to develop a mentoring
relationship with someone who is similar to them in demographic traits. Demographic traits are
part of what makes up surface-level diversity. Surface level diversity includes traits that are
highly visible to us and those around us, such as race, gender, and age. Researchers believe that
people pay attention to surface diversity because they are assumed to be related to deep-level
diversity, which includes values, beliefs, and attitudes. We want to interact with those who share
our values and attitudes, but when we meet people for the first time, we have no way of knowing
whether they share similar values. As a result, we tend to use surface-level diversity to make

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judgments about deep-level diversity. Research shows that surface-level traits affect our
interactions with other people early in our acquaintance with them, but as we get to know people,
the influence of surface level traits is replaced by deep-level traits such as similarity in values
and attitudes.
Stereotypes
An important challenge of managing a diverse workforce is the possibility that stereotypes about
different groups could lead to unfair decision making. Stereotypes are generalizations about a
particular group of people. The assumption that women are more relationship oriented, while
men are more assertive, is an example of a stereotype. The problem with stereotypes is that
people often use them to make decisions about a particular individual without actually verifying
whether the assumption holds for the person in question. As a result, stereotypes often lead to
unfair and inaccurate decision making. For example, a hiring manager holding the stereotype
mentioned above may prefer a male candidate for a management position over a well-qualified
female candidate. The assumption would be that management positions require assertiveness and
the male candidate would be more assertive than the female candidate. Being aware of these
stereotypes is the first step to preventing them from affecting decision making.
Managing Diversity in Organizations
Over the past decade diversity management has become a critical aspect of operating a business.
Increasing globalization, the changing composition of the population and increasing reliance on
non-traditional workforce talent have provided the fundamental stimulus for diversity
management (Montes, 2000).
Although top management may view diversity as important, the focus on short term financial
results to satisfy shareholders, often shifts the focus to other more tangible and compelling
business priorities (Robinson & Dechant, 1997). Diversity management requires a long term
commitment and the payback is often not as tangible or predictable as that derived from sales
targets or even health and safety initiatives.
Yet, unless proponents of diversity management can demonstrate compelling arguments,
diversity management is unlikely to get the attention it deserves. In other words, a proper
business case for diversity has to be built.
Developing a business case for diversity is more difficult because of the failure to systematically
measure and document the impact of diversity on the bottom line (Robinson & Dechant, 1997).

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The new paradigm for diversity management transcends traditional moral arguments, by seeking
to connect diversity to business perspectives. The new model accepts the philosophies of former
paradigms by promoting equality of opportunity for all employees whilst acknowledging cultural
differences among people and recognizing and respecting the value of those differences. The
new model for managing diversity lets the organization internalize differences among employees
so that the organization learns and grows because of these differences (Compton, 1995).
Individual approaches to managing diversity
1. Learning
In simple terms, the easiest way to manage diversity is to inculcate into the managers the sense
that if they learn about different people working in their organization, they would be able to
manage diversity more effectively. Therefore, learning is an individual approach to diversity
management for managers.
2. Empathy
Empathy approach refers to managers being able to empathize with employees. This means that
the managers are able to feel their emotions and be considerate about their problems which may
be related to their cultural background or any other element of diversity.
Organizational approaches
Some of the organizational approaches to managing diversity are:
1. Testing
This means that all tests being given in the organization for recruiting, hiring, promotion etc.
should be culturally unbiased and not favor any specific individual or group of individuals. This
shall create a sense of fair play in the organization.
2. Training
Training to manage and deal with diverse workforce and peers should be held at the
organizations.
3. Mentoring
Managers need to be mentors who guide their diverse workforce to perform efficiently.
4. Work/Family programs
Adjust work-hours according to family needs. Some employees may not be available at certain
times of the day. Therefore, they may be given appropriate arrangements in order to ensure that

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they can perform at their best. This is also called flex time Studies have found that these
programs decrease family conflict, job dissatisfaction and stress-related problems.
Further, to create an organizational culture that supports workforce diversity involves several
important elements. These elements include a needs analysis, administrative and management
support and commitment, education and training, culture and management systems changes and
continuous follow-up and evaluation.
5. Needs Analysis
Needs analysis should be prepared first to provide information to senior management in gaining
their support as well as to adequately determine workforce and organizational needs for creating
a diverse workplace. First, find out what employees are concerned about; the needs and
expectations of a diverse workforce can vary by organizational and functional levels, location,
ethnicity, and gender. Second, determine the needs of the organization. Does the organization
have trouble retaining employees who would add to its diversity? In an organization with
diversity, which, if any, areas of the workforce are being treated inappropriately? By using a
survey that focuses on these questions you can ascertain where administration and management
feel the organization presently is regarding diversity.
6. Administrative and Management Commitment and Support
Administrative and management support is critical for diversity change efforts. An important
role for senior management is to provide leadership through development of a vision and goals
for a diverse workplace.
To gain support from administration you need to directly link diversity to the business. Provide
data regarding the diversity opportunities in the marketplace, workforce and organization.
Benchmarking best practices related to diversity from other organizations, demographic data,
briefings regarding complaints, potential lawsuits, and hiring and retention problems are all
relevant sources of data. In general, the organizations experiencing the greatest success with
diversity training are more likely to view diversity as a business issue rather than a social issue;
link diversity to other organizational initiatives, such as quality management or career
development. Finally, administrative support and commitment is essential also for the means to
provide the programs and resources necessary for diversity education and training.
7. Education and Training

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Organizations that successfully manage diversity distinguish between the differences of
education and training. Education is a building of awareness and creating a base of general
understanding. At the administrative and management levels, educational efforts can spawn
interest and an awareness of need, which can then extend the change process throughout the
organization.
Training involves activities designed to build usable skills. Training targets in on specific issues
to develop the skills necessary to effectively and sensitively deal with an issue. For example,
training might teach managers how to conduct performance appraisals with employees from a
different culture. By using the information gathered during the needs analysis, an organization
can target in on the specific diversity issues they need to address with training.
Unit 4
Stress at Workplace
In the workplace, employee-environment fit should be the primary focus. If it's a good match, the
employee is likely to be relaxed. A poor fit increases tension and stress.
Reducing stressors in workplace
The followings are the methods used to reduce workplace stress:-
1. Encourage workplace wellness
Exercise and healthy living are two of your best weapons against workplace stress.
2. Revamp the habitat
A lot of stress comes from environment. Think about every aspect of your office space and what
it does (or doesn’t do) for the wellness of your team. Simple things like the quality of the coffee
can affect employee engagement.
3. Allow for flexible hours and remote working
Allow your employees to work remotely, and give flexibility for start and end times. This
freedom is great for office morale, and the policy shows employees that you trust them enough
not to babysit.
4. Encourage social activity
Employees spend a lot of time together, and the more comfortable they are, the less stress they
will feel. As coworkers get to know each other, expectations and communication barriers are
broken down, greasing the wheels for easier future interactions.
5. Create quiet time

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Stress can't be completely avoided, but you can help alleviate it when it arrives. Ensure your
employees have a place where they can take a break.
6. Provide onsite or distance counseling
Many companies have also begun providing counseling as a way for employees to help deal with
stress; in a recent study, almost half of workers felt they needed help in learning how to handle
the stresses of their jobs. This strategy—in or out of the office, in group settings or
individually—can help employees prepare for what stress will come their way.
7. Recognize your employees
Employees love being praised for a job well done, and recognizing their success results in a
serious boost in engagement
Unit 5
Leadership and Power
What is power?
Some people see power as something they receive from an external source. This could be an
assigned title or position that gives someone control and authority over others.
Other people believe power is an innate quality that can be cultivated internally and that
manifests externally. In this sense, a person’s personal power grows as they develop.
True power is a combination of both internal and external power. This means that anyone
can access a certain amount of power, regardless of their position in the hierarchy.
Power and Influence
Powerful leaders have a great capacity to influence others. Their power is based on a
combination of their innate leadership qualities and the way others perceive them.
However, having power does not necessarily equate to having influence. The most powerful
leaders support and uplift their team members instead of dominating and controlling them.
The Five types of power effective leaders use
To be a more effective leader, you must understand the five types of power, how effective
each one is, and when it’s appropriate to use them.
1. Legitimate power
This is a type of formal power that you receive when you occupy a certain position in your
organization. Depending on the position, it gives you authority within the company. It also
lasts as long as you remain in that role.

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2. Reward power
Reward power means having the capacity to offer rewards or benefits in exchange for
carrying out a task or achieving a result.
3. Expert power
Expert power comes from having both deep technical knowledge and extensive experience in
your field of expertise. When you’re the expert in your field, people in your company
naturally come to you to benefit from your knowledge. Your expertise gives you credibility,
and people trust and respect your opinions.
4. Referent power
Leaders get referent power through qualities that inspire trust and respect in their colleagues.
These include honesty and integrity. A person who holds referent power has excellent
interpersonal skills and exudes confidence. This makes them natural leaders. They listen to
their colleagues and offer help and support.
5. Coercive power
It involves using threats to force people to do your will.
COURSE NAME
THEORETICAL MODELS OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
Introduction
The terms counseling and psychotherapy are used interchangeably, except where they have
special meanings as defined by the theorist. Traditionally, the term psychotherapy has been
associated with psychiatrists and medical settings, whereas the term counseling has been
associated with educational and, to some extent, social-work settings. Psychotherapy and
counseling are interactions between a therapist/counselor and one or more clients/patients. The
purpose is to help the patient/client with problems that may have aspects that are related to
disorders of thinking, emotional suffering, or problems of behavior. Therapists may use their
knowledge of theory of personality and psychotherapy or counseling to help the patient/client
improve functioning. The therapist’s approach to helping must be legally and ethically approved.
In counseling and psychotherapy, there is a trust relationship in which the focus is on personal
meaning of events and experiences. Rather than rely on general interpretations of information or
behaviors, counseling focuses more on personal awareness, interests, attitudes, and goals. It has a
philosophical and theoretical base which conceptualizes learning, human behavior, and

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interpersonal relationships. A professionally trained and certified counselor considers counseling
a professional endeavor. Counselling theories can also be seen as hypotheses based on the
counsellor’s observations in which the counsellor’s attempts to predict or explain further event in
Counselling which requires further testing and verification.
ψ Definitions of Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy, or talk therapy, is a way to help people with a broad variety of mental illnesses
and emotional difficulties. Psychotherapy can help eliminate or control troubling symptoms so a
person can function better and can increase well-being and healing.
Problems helped by psychotherapy include difficulties in coping with daily life; the impact of
trauma, medical illness or loss, like the death of a loved one; and specific mental disorders, like
depression or anxiety. There are several different types of psychotherapy and some types may
work better with certain problems or issues. Psychotherapy may be used in combination with
medication or other therapies. Further, Psychotherapy is the treatment given to mentally ill and
emotionally disturbed people through psychological techniques. It is also called clinical
intervention because in this method clinical psychologist use their professional capacity and try
to influence and bring given changes in the behaviors of mentally ill and emotionally disturbed
people.
Goals of Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is more than a talk between two people regarding some problem. It is a
collaborative undertaking, started and maintained on a professional level towards the goals.
These are:
ψ Removing existing symptoms: To eliminate the symptoms that are causing distress and
impediments is one of the prime goals in psychotherapy.
ψ Modifying existing symptoms: Certain circumstances may militate against the object of
removing symptoms (e.g., inadequate motivation, diminutive ego strength or financial
constraints); the objective can be modification rather than cure of the symptoms.
ψ Retarding existing symptoms: There are some malignant forms of problems e.g., dementia
where psychotherapy serves merely to delay an inevitable deteriorative process. This helps in
preserving client’s contact with reality.

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ψ Mediating disturbed patterns of behavior: Many occupational, educational, marital,
interpersonal, and social problems are emotionally inspired. Psychotherapy can play vital
role from mere symptom relief to correction of disturbed interpersonal patterns and
relationships.
ψ Promoting positive personality growth and development: Deals with the immaturity of the
normal person and characterological difficulties associated with inhibited growth. Here
psychotherapy aims at a resolution of blocks in psycho-social development to a more
complete creative self-fulfillment, more productive attitudes, and more gratifying
relationships with people. It also aims at
ψ Strengthening the client’s motivation to do the right things.
ψ Reducing emotional pressure by facilitating the expression of feeling.
ψ Releasing the potentials for growth.
ψ Changing maladaptive habits.
ψ Modifying the cognitive structure of the person.
ψ Helping to gain self-knowledge.
ψ Facilitating interpersonal relations and communications.
ψ Counseling theories
A theory is a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something happens or why
something exists. It can also be seen as principles on which a given subject is based. It is also an
opinion or ideas that somebody believes is true but is still open for further proofs.
Bammer and Shostrom (1977) defined theories of Counselling as a structure of hypotheses and
generalization based on Counselling experience and experimental studies.
Psychoanalytic theory of counseling
Psychoanalytic approach is a type of approach based upon the theories of Sigmund Freud, who is
considered one of the forefathers of psychology and the founder of psychoanalysis. This therapy
explores how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviors, with the aim of offering
What is theory?

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insight and resolution to the person seeking therapy. Psychoanalytic therapy tends to look at
experiences from early childhood to see if these events have affected the individual’s life, or
potentially contributed to current concerns.
Basic assumptions of Psychoanalytic Counseling theory
The Freudian view of human nature is basically deterministic. According to Freud, our behavior
is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations, and biological and instinctual drives
as these evolve through key psychosexual stages in the first six years of life. Instincts are central
to the Freudian approach. Although he originally used the term libido to refer to sexual energy,
he later broadened it to include the energy of all the life instincts. These instincts serve the
purpose of the survival of the individual and the human race; they are oriented toward growth,
development, and creativity. Libido, then, should be understood as a source of motivation that
encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it. Freud includes all pleasurable acts in his concept
of the life instincts; he sees the goal of much of life as gaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Freud
also postulates death instincts, which account for the aggressive drive. At times, people manifest
through their behavior an unconscious wish to die or to hurt themselves or others. Managing this
aggressive drive is a major challenge to the human race. In Freud’s view, both sexual and
aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do.
ψ Human beings are basically determined by psychic energy and by early experiences.
ψ Unconscious motives and conflicts are central in present behavior.
ψ Irrational forces are strong; the person is driven by sexual and aggressive impulses.
ψ Early development is of critical importance because later personality problems have their
roots in repressed childhood conflicts.
Key Concepts:
Normal personality development is based on successful resolution and integration of
psychosexual stages of development. Faulty personality development is the result of inadequate
resolution of some specific stage. Id, ego, and superego constitute the basis of personality
structure. Anxiety is a result of repression of basic conflicts. Unconscious processes are centrally
related to current behavior.
ψ Psychoanalysis theory of counseling summarized its basic assumptions as follows
ψ A person’s development is determined by events in early childhood experiences
ψ Human behavior is largely driven by the unscious mind

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ψ The liberation from the effects of unconscious material is achieved through bringing this
material in to conscious mind
Adlerian counseling theory
Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria on February 7, 1870, he was the second of six children
born to Jewish parents. Adler’s childhood was filled with episodes of serious health issues and
interactions with death. At age 3, his younger brother died of pneumonia while young Adler was
in the room. At age 5, Adler almost succumbed to pneumonia and later recollected hearing the
physician remark on his slim chance for survival. Although he did survive, Adler was plagued
with numerous health problems and was even run over in the street on more than one occasion.
Despite these challenges, Adler persevered and channeled his life experiences into later ideas of
compensation, organ inferiority, and courage. The medical problems also seemed to prompt a
striving to overcome death, which could have led him to pursue and eventually receive his
medical degree in 1895.
Alfred Adler believed that the personality of individuals was formed in their early years as a
result of relationships within the family. He emphasized the importance of individuals’
contributions to their community and to society. Adlerian are interested in the ways that
individuals approach living and family relationships. The Adlerian approach to therapy is
practical, helping individuals to change dysfunctional beliefs and encouraging them to take new
steps to change their lives. An emphasis on teaching and educating individuals about dealing
with interpersonal problems is another characteristic of Adlerian therapy.
Basic assumption of Adlerian counseling theory
Adler’s view of personality stressed the importance of the person as a whole but also of the
individual’s interaction with surrounding society. He also saw the person as a goal directed,
creative individual responsible for his own future. He emphasized in his own theories of working
toward superiority, but not in an antisocial sense. Instead, he viewed people as tied to their
surroundings; Adler claimed that a person’s fulfillment was based on doing things for the “social
good.”
ψ Adlerian concept of social interest is the individual’s feeling of being part of a whole,
spanning the past, present, and the future.

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ψ Adler believed that people were mainly motivated toward this feeling of belonging. He did
not believe that social interest was innate but rather a result of social training.
ψ Adler expressed that people strove to become successful and overcome the areas that they
perceived as inferior. He referred to this process of personal growth as striving for perfection.
Those who did not overcome feelings of inferiority developed an inferiority complex. Those
who overcompensated for feelings of inferiority developed a superiority complex.
ψ Adler believed that a person’s conscious behavior, not their unconscious, was the mainstay
of personality development. Because of this concept, Adlerian theory emphasizes personal
responsibility for how the individual chooses to interpret and adjust to life’s events or
situations.
ψ Maladjustment is defined in Adlerian theory as choosing behavior resulting in a lack of social
interest or personal growth. Adler believed that misbehavior would take place when the
person had become discouraged or when positive attempts at good behavior had failed to get
the needed results. Encouragement to good behavior was often the recommended antidote to
misbehavior.
ψ Another concept is that of teleology, which simply put means that a person is as influenced
by future goals as by past experiences.
ψ Adlerian espoused the belief that the birth of each child changed the family substantially. He
thought that the birth order of the children in the family influenced many aspects of their
personality development. Birth order is not a deterministic concept but does increase an
individual’s probability of having a certain set of experiences. Actual birth order is less
important than the individual’s interpretation, or the psychological position of the child’s
place in the family.
ψ Briefly, characteristics of these birth positions are -
ψ Oldest children are usually high achievers, parent pleasers, conforming, and are well
behaved.
ψ Second born children are more outgoing, less anxious, and less constrained by rules than first
born. They usually excel as what the first born does not.

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ψ Middle children have a feeling of being squeezed in and are concerned with perceived unfair
treatment. These children learn to excel in family politics and negotiation. However, they can
become very manipulative. This position also tends to develop areas of success that are not
enjoyed by their siblings.
ψ Youngest child is the most apt at pleasing or entertaining the family. While they run the risk
of being spoiled, they are also the most apt at getting what they want through their social
skills and ability to please. They are often high achievers, because of the role models of their
older siblings.
ψ Only children or children born seven or more years apart from siblings are more like first
born children. Children with no siblings often take on the characteristics of their parents’
birth order, as the parents are the only role models. While these children may mature early
and be high achievers, they may lack socialization skills, expect pampering, and be selfish.
 Adler saw the family as the basic socialization unit for the child. He believed that
children’s interpretation of the events in their life was determined by the interaction with
family members before the age of five. The family interactions taught the children to
perceive events and situations through certain subjective evaluations of themselves and the
environment. These perceptions that guided the children’s behavior were called fictions.
Basic mistakes could be made based on these fictions.
Adlerian believe that some of those mistakes are (Mozak, 1984)
ψ Over-generalizing in which the individual believes that everything is the same or alike.
ψ False or impossible goals of security which leads the individual to try to please everyone in
seeking security and avoiding danger.
ψ Misperception of life and life’s demands which leads the individual to expect more
accommodation than is reasonable and to interpret their failure to get accommodation as
never getting any breaks.
ψ Minimization or denial of one’s worth results in the individual believing that they cannot be
successful in life. Faulty values result in a ‘me first’ mentality with little or no regard for
others.

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ψ Adler believed that life took courage or a willingness to take risks without knowing the
outcome. He believed that a person with a healthy life style contributed to society, had
meaningful work, and had intimate relationships. He espoused cooperation between the
genders as opposed to competition. He believed that well-adjusted people lived in an
interdependent relationship with others in a cooperative spirit.
Jungian counseling theory
Jung was interested in the spiritual side of individuals, which he felt developed at or after
midlife. Fascinated by dynamic and unconscious influences on human behavior, Jung believed
that the unconscious contained more than repressed sexual and aggressive urges, as Freud had
theorized. For Jung, the unconscious was not only personal but also collective. Interpsychic
forces and images that come from a shared evolutionary history define the collective
unconscious. Jung was particularly interested in symbols of universal patterns, called archetypes,
that all humans have in common. In his study of human personality, Jung was able to develop a
typology that identified attitudes and functions of the psyche that operate at all levels of
consciousness. The constructs that form the basis of his theory came from observations that he
made of his own unconscious processes as well as those of his patients.
Jungian therapeutic goals in counseling
From a Jungian point of view, the goal of life is individuation (Hall, 1986). As mentioned,
individuation refers to a conscious realization of psychological reality that is unique to oneself.
As individuals become aware of their strengths and limitations and continually learn about
themselves, they integrate conscious and unconscious parts of themselves. In her brief
description of the goals of analysis, Mattoon (1986) describes the goal of Jungian analysis as the
integration of the conscious and unconscious to achieve a sense of fullness, leading to
individuation. Goals of Jungian therapy can depend on the developmental stage of the patient
(Harris, 1996), whether childhood, adolescent, midlife, or old age. For children, the goal may be
to help them in problems that interfere with their Self archetype (normal development). In
adolescence and early adulthood there is often a focus on identity and understanding more about
one’s Self than one’s persona. In midlife, goals can shift from pragmatic ones of earning a living
and being responsible for a family to less material and more spiritual aspects of one’s life. For
people 70 or older, seeing life as a whole process and developing serenity are some of the goals

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of therapy. Of course, individuals may have other goals as well, but these are common ones that
are related to stages in the life span.
Humanistic theory of counseling
Humanistic therapy helps individuals access and understand their feelings, gain a sense of
meaning in life, and reach self-actualization. The aim of humanistic therapy is usually to help the
client develop a stronger, healthier sense of self, also called self-actualization. The aim of
humanistic therapy is usually to help the client develop a stronger, healthier sense of self, also
called self-actualization. It is also to help individuals access and understand their feelings to help
to gain a sense of meaning in life. Humanistic theory sees each individual’s personality as being
composed of physical, intellectual, emotional, behavioral, creative, and spiritual elements.
The emphasis for many humanistic therapists is the primacy of establishing a therapeutic
relationship that is collaborative, accepting, authentic, and honors the unique world in which the
client lives. The humanistic approach is also holistic in that it assumes interrelatedness between
the client’s psychological, biological, social, and spiritual dimensions. Humanistic psychology
assumes that people have an innate capacity toward self-understanding and psychological health.
Therapeutic techniques in humanistic theory of counseling
Humanistic approach uses few techniques but stresses the attitude of the therapist. Basic
techniques include active listening and hearing, reflection of feelings, clarification, and being
there for the client. This model does not include diagnostic testing, interpretation, taking a case
history, or questioning or probing for information. The techniques used in person centered
therapy have changed over time. Three periods of time in which different techniques were
stressed.
Nondirective Period (1940 - 1950): In this period of theory development, the counselor focused
on listening and creating a permissive atmosphere. The counselor did not provide interventions,
but communicated acceptance and clarification.
Reflective Period (1950 - 1957): During this period of time, counselors emphasized being non-
judgmental of the client, while responding to the client’s feelings and reflecting the affect
accurately.
Experiential Period (1957 - 1980): This is the period of the EWG - Empathy, Warmth and
Genuineness.

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Empathy is the ability of the counselor to understand the emotions of the client and correctly
communicate this understanding.
Warmth is also referred to as acceptance and positive regard in person centered literature.
Warmth is the ability of the counselor to convey an unconditional acceptance of the client’s
personhood. Genuineness or congruence is the ability to be who one really is without assuming
roles or facades. The counselor helps the client through accurate reflections of feelings, keeping
the client focused on the concern, and clarification of feelings and information. The counselor
uses open-ended questions or phrases to help the clients gain insight into experiences and
necessary changes in their lives.
COURSE NAME
CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND COUNSELING
Introduction
The career counseling movement is a product of our development as a nation. It is the story of
human progress in a nation founded on the principle of human rights. Career counseling touches
all aspects of human life, for it has involved political, economic, educational, philosophical, and
social progress and change. To think of the career counseling movement as merely another
educational event is a gross misinterpretation of its broader significance for social progress. In
fact, this movement has had and will have a tremendous impact on the working lives of many
individuals. Understanding the historical perspectives of this movement will provide a greater
insight into the development of the career counselor’s role in the 21st century.
Theories of Career Development & Counseling
Theory Defined
Theory is a series of connected hypothetical statements designed to explain a particular behavior
or set of behaviors. At a more basic level, theories provide counselors and clients with concepts
to organize their thoughts about career behavior and career interventions.
As such, career theories and career counseling theories offer a framework within which clients’
experiences and behavior can be understood, and help in the development of hypotheses about
what other experiences and behaviors might follow.
How are career theory and career counseling different?

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ψ Career theories are concerned with how individuals experience their careers, how they make
career decisions, and the environments in which careers are made.
ψ Career theory provides an analysis of work situations that emphasizes several characteristics:
the study of both individuals and institutions; and the properties of ‘emergence’ and
‘relativity’ (Arthur, Hall & Lawrence, 1989).
ψ Career counseling theories focus on how best to intervene to assist individuals in their career
development; they provide a basis for action.
ψ To put it another way, career theories are concerned with what is; career counseling theories
are concerned with what might be.
ψ A counselor's theoretical stance reflects his/her conceptual framework for understanding and
examining factors which influence career choice(s) and career development, how and why
people make the choices they do, how and why they react to changes, as well as the when
and how to provide meaningful interventions.
ψ Thoughtful, consistent selection of theory allows the counselor to make assessments and
choose interventions in an informed and purposeful manner.
John Holland theory of career development and counseling
John Holland's typology of people and work environments is the most popular theory of
vocational choice. The theory is comprehensive, coherent, and practical, and is the basis for
many assessment tools in use today (Spokane, 1996).
Holland's theory can be seen as an updating and extension of trait-and-factor theory, since it
assumes the need to match individuals to occupations based on personal assessment and job
analysis. Holland's theory is a trait-and-factor theory without the flaws of that earlier
approach.
According to Holland the person making a vocational choice in a sense ‘search’ for situations
which satisfy his hierarchy of adjustive orientations (Holland, 1959, p. 35). The modem term
for "adjustive orientations" is personality style or type.
Four basic ideas implicit in Holland's statement were:
ψ people have different personality styles;
ψ jobs exist in different types of environments; and
ψ people look for jobs with environments which match their own style.

261. 261
ψ Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. Based on
the third idea, an occupational choice is considered to be an expression of a person's
personality.
Through a satisfactory match with similarly typed work environments, people use their
preferred skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and can take on agreeable
problems and roles. Thus, career choice is an expression of how a person perceives oneself.
Holland views both personalities and work environments as characterized by one or more of
six types. These are: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional
(RIASEC).
ψ Realistic – likes realistic jobs such as mechanic, surveyor, farmer, electrician. Has
mechanical abilities, but may lack social skills. Is described as: asocial, conforming, hard-
headed, practical, frank, inflexible and genuine.
ψ Investigative – likes investigative jobs such as biologist, chemist, physicist, and
anthropologist. Has mathematical and scientific ability but often lacks leadership ability. Is
described as: analytical, cautious, critical, curious, introspective, independent and rational.
ψ Artistic – likes artistic jobs such as composer, musician, stage director, writer. Has writing,
musical or artistic abilities but often lacks clerical skills. Is described as: emotional,
expressive, intuitive, open, imaginative and disorderly.
ψ Social – likes social jobs such as teacher, counselor, and clinical psychologist. Have social
skills and talents, but often lacks mechanical and scientific ability. Is described as:
cooperative, empathic, sociable, warm and persuasive.
ψ Enterprising – likes enterprising jobs such as salesperson, manager, television producer, and
buyer. Has leadership and speaking abilities but often lacks scientific ability. Is described as:
adventurous, ambitious, energetic, sociable, self-confident and domineering.
ψ Conventional – likes conventional jobs such as book–keeper, financial analyst, banker, tax
expert. Has clerical and arithmetical ability, but often lacks artistic abilities. Is described as:
careful, conscientious, inflexible, unimaginative and thrifty.
Careers are determined by an interaction between our personality and the environment in John
Holland's Theory of Career Choice. We want jobs with people like us.
John Holland's Theory of Career Choice (RIASEC) maintains that in choosing a career, people
prefer jobs where they can be around others who are like them. They search for environments

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that will let them use their skills and abilities, and express their attitudes and values, while taking
on enjoyable problems and roles. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality
and environment.
Theory of work adjustment
Super’s life span theory of work adjustment
ψ Super assumed that an individual’s career choice was not merely the result of matching his or
her abilities and interests to the world of work, but that it was an expression of his or her self-
concept.
ψ Super conceives of vocational development as one part of your total growth over your life
span. In addition to the role of worker, you play a variety of other roles at certain ages,
including child, student, citizen, spouse, parent, homemaker, leisure, and pensioner (Osborne
et al., 1997).
Super divides the vocational part of life into the following stages:
ψ Growth
ψ Exploration stage
ψ Establishment stage.
ψ Maintenance stage
ψ Disengagement stage
1. Growth stage. This is a period of general physical and psychological development, when you
form attitudes and behaviors that shape your self-concept for the rest of your life. (Self-
concept in simple terms means “the characteristics you ascribe to yourself.”)
ψ Prevocational sub-stage. No interest in or involvement with careers and occupational
choices is expressed.
ψ Fantasy sub-stage. Needs and fantasy are the bases of vocational thinking.
ψ Interest sub-stage. Thoughts about occupations are based on your likes and dislikes.
ψ Capacity sub-stage. Abilities and career requirements are considered.
2. Exploration stage. You become aware that a career will be a major part of your life, and you
begin to explore occupations in school, part-time work, and leisure activities.
II. Tentative sub-stage. Needs, interests, abilities, and values become the basis for occupational
choices.

263. 263
III. Transition sub-stage. As you enter the job market or seek further education and training,
realistic considerations about employment opportunities in the world of work characterize
your thinking.
IV. Trial sub-stage. You find and try out a beginning work role you believe is a potential life’s
work, but at this point you have not made a final commitment.
3.Establishment stage. You believe you have found your appropriate field of work, and you try
to create a permanent place in it.
1. Stabilization (or second trial) sub-stage. One or two career changes may mark this period,
but there is greater commitment to an occupational choice. (For some people, it may become
clear that work could possibly be a series of unrelated occupations.)
2. Advancement sub-stage. As the career pattern becomes clearer, you put forth efforts to make
a secure place for yourself in the world of work. For many, this is a time of creativity and
promotion.
3. Maintenance stage. Your major concern is continuation in your chosen occupation, holding
onto the gains you have established.
4. Disengagement stage. Physical and mental activity decrease; work slows down and, in due
time, stops.
5. Deceleration. This is a time of declining work activity. Some people take on part-time work
to replace their full-time career.
6. Retirement. Work stops—easily, with difficulty, or only with death.
Vocational Maturity
ψ Vocational maturity here means developing attitudes, performing behaviors, and completing
tasks that are appropriate at various stages in life.
ψ Accomplishing vocational developmental tasks at certain stages does not always occur in
well-ordered sequences. For example, a person reaching the maintenance stage may
experience new growth, decide a job change is needed, and recycle the exploration stage
Super’s Vocational Development tasks
Life stage Vocational
development task
Description Attitude & behavior appropriate to VDT

264. 264
Early
Adolescence
Crystallizing a
vocational
preference
Developing ideas
about work that is
appropriate for you
self
Awareness of the need of crystallize, use of
personal resource, noticing environmental factor,
distinguishing
interest form values, develop generalized
preference, obtain information on, planning for
the preferred occupation,
& wisdom of vocational preference.
Middle
adolescence
Specifying a
vocational
Narrowing a
general career
direction into a
specific one
Attitude and behaviors similar to
crystallization task,
but relating to the need for specification
Late adolescence Implement a
vocational
preference
Completing training
and entering suitable
employment
Awareness of the need to carry out the vocational
preference, planning to implement preference,
accomplishing plan to qualify for job entry, and
obtaining an entry level job
Young adulthood Stabilizing in
vocation
Settling into field of
work showing
appropriateness of
choice
Awareness of need to stabilize, plan for stabilization,
qualify for regular job, obtain stable job, act on
resignation to instability
Middle adulthood Consolidate
status &
advancing in
a vocation
Creating a secure job
position for yourself
Awareness the need to consolidate and advance,
gaining information on how to consolidate and
advance, plan for consolidation, & advancement, and
carrying out these plans
Super has studied career patterns that can be seen in workers’ lives. The career patterns described
next are adapted from Super’s work.
 Occupation-stable career pattern. School, then a series of jobs in the same occupation, but for
different employers

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 Organization-stable career pattern. School, then employment in one organization in different
occupations within the company
 Conventional career pattern. School, then one or more trial jobs, then stable employment
 Double-track career pattern. School, then two occupations pursued at the same time
 Interrupted career pattern. School, then work experience, then suspension of work, then
return to school (possibly) or work (most common to people who drop out of the labor force
for such reasons as being laid off or caring for children)
 Unstable career pattern. School, then an alternating sequence of trial and unstable jobs with
no permanent occupation, or one potential career sacrificed for another
 Multiple-trial career pattern. School, then a series of occupational changes in un-related trial
jobs without really establishing a career.
 Super (1957) said in choosing an occupation one is, in effect, choosing a means of
implementing a self-concept.
 A self-concept can be described as a set of beliefs you have about yourself. It is your answer
to the question “Who am I?”
 A healthy self-concept emerges as you progress through the tasks and master the crises of
each stage of vocational development.
 When you choose an occupation, you say in effect, “I am this or that kind of person.” When
you work in and adjust to an occupation, you discover whether your work is agreeable and lets
you play the role you want in life.
 Working in an occupation is one way to test your self-concept against reality and to see if you
can live up to the image you have of yourself.
ψ Career assessment tools
Assessment refers to both standardized and no standardized methods used in the five models.
This broader use of assessment is found in all career models as a part of client problem
identification and is used in ongoing career counseling to identify appropriate intervention
strategies. The process of career counseling usually begins with an intake interview, then
moves to assessment, on to diagnosis and problem identification, followed by a counseling
process that maintains a client-collaborative relationship, then intervention strategies, and
ends with an evaluation of outcomes and future plans. Individual needs may dictate different
paths for some individuals. The five counseling models use a wide range of techniques but the

266. 266
steps in each model are very similar. A consensus of model procedures includes information
gathering, assessment, diagnosis, intervention strategies, and decision making. Standardized
assessment does not dominate career counseling, and the locus of control has shifted to give
the client equal responsibility in counseling decisions.
Intake Interview
The intake interview has many purposes, including building the foundations from which
client–counselor relationships are established, and plays a major role by assessing client
problems. Ivey and Ivey (1999, p. 12) make a distinction between interviewing and
counseling, although they are often used interchangeably: “Interviewing may be considered
the most basic process used in information gathering, problem solving, and information and
advice giving,” whereas “counseling is a more intensive and personal process.” In the
parameter descriptions that follow, the intake interview is used for information gathering,
building client–counselor relationships, assessing problems, determining client’s readiness
for career counseling, and establishing the process of counseling.
A preliminary assessment of the client’s personal and career problems is obtained through
background information and observation in the trait-and-factor and PEF model. This
information is used with valid test results to form a subjective and objective appraisal of the
client. The client’s social networks, support system, and unique beliefs are the subject of an
intensive interview in the developmental model. This information is used with standardized
measures to form a picture of the client’s career development. In the learning theory model,
the interview identifies both personal and career problems and obstacles such as career
beliefs that could block optimal career decisions. The major emphasis is identifying learning
opportunities for each client. Both emotional and cognitive problems are emphasized in the
CIP model. Furthermore, this model considers a trusting relationship that enhances self-
efficacy and fosters learning to be most important. In the multicultural model for ethnic
women, culturally appropriate relationships are established. A structural interview is used to
determine client needs and to discuss client worldviews.
The following interview sequence is designed to provide helpers with structured guidelines
for observing their clients while in dialogue with them. Most of the topics, such as
demographic information and educational history, are typically found in career counseling
models; however, the discussion of selected life roles significantly increases the options for

267. 267
obtaining pertinent information. For example, work history and preference for a future career
are discussed as part of the work role and in association with other life roles. Individual client
needs, however, will directly determine the major focus of the interview and the sequence to
be followed. For instance, an interview may be terminated during the discussion of life roles
if it is determined that the individual is unable to communicate effectively with a counselor
because of major clinical depression. In another case, the interview might focus on only
selected life roles, or the counselor might need to focus on a recurring emotional problem.
The flexibility suggested for the interview provides a greater opportunity to meet the needs of
a wide range of clients. The following outline of the intake interview was adapted from a
number of sources including Brown, Brooks, and Associates (1990), Brems (2001), and
Cormier and Nurius (2003).
ψ Identifying Information Name, address, age, gender, marital status, occupation, university,
school or training facility, work history (Can be taken orally or by written response on pre
interview form. Direct questioning has the important advantage of observing client behavior
and emotional responses. Therefore, even if a written self-report is used, a discussion of this
information should be included in the interview.)
ψ Presenting Problems Reason client has come to counseling
ψ Current Status Information Affect, mood, attitude
ψ Health and Medical Information Including substance abuse
ψ Family Information Current status and past history
ψ Social/Developmental History Cultural and religious background social interactions
Descriptions of past problems
ψ Life Roles Current work role Homemaker Spouse Parent Leisure role Citizen role
Interrelationship of life roles
ψ Problems That Can Interfere with Career Choice Ability level, lack of academic achievement
and proficiencies Lack of dominant interest patterns Affective domain concerns such as poor
self-concept and self-awareness Vocational identity Information processing skills Lack of
information or training Career maturity Barriers (Examples are indecision, faulty thinking,
constraints, and contextual influences.)
ψ Effects of Unemployment

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Being out of work for six months or more is associated with lower well-being among the long-
term unemployed, their families, and their communities. Each week out of work means more lost
income. The long-term unemployed also tend to earn less once they find new jobs. They tend to
be in poorer health and have children with worse academic performance than similar workers
who avoided unemployment. Communities with a higher share of long-term unemployed
workers also tend to have higher rates of crime and violence.
Although there is considerable research documenting the association between long-term
unemployment and poor socioeconomic outcomes, it is not clear what drives those associations.
Those who become long-term unemployed may have issues that contribute to their
unemployment status and also to their poor future outcomes. In this case, long-term
unemployment can be associated with, but is not the underlying cause of, poor future outcomes,
a phenomenon referred to as a “selection” effect. Another complicating factor is the extent to
which the association between poor outcomes and long-term unemployment is rooted in the fact
of an involuntary job loss itself and not the time spent looking for work. Last, to a certain extent,
health, family, and child outcomes are influenced by the loss of income associated with long-
term unemployment, and isolating the income effects from the direct effects on long-term
unemployment can be difficult.
Long-term unemployment can also influence outcomes indirectly. While a worker is
unemployed, that worker’s family income falls due to the lack of earnings, and that loss of
income (which becomes larger as unemployment is longer) can affect the worker and the
worker’s household. The loss of income can reduce the quantity and quality of goods and
services the worker’s family can purchase. Further, dealing with the loss of income can
exacerbate stress. To the extent that the negative consequences of long-term unemployment have
an effect through the loss of income, tax and transfer programs can help mitigate those
consequences.
COURSE NAME
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Definitions of Concepts
• Although many definitions of abnormality have been proposed over the years, none is
universally accepted.

269. 269
• Still, most of the definitions have certain features in common, often called “the four D’s”:
deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger.
– Patterns of psychological abnormality are typically deviant (unusual, bizarre);
distressing (unpleasant and upsetting to the person); dysfunctional (interfering
with the person’s ability); and possibly dangerous(harmful).
Criteria to define abnormality
1. Statistical deviance: Abnormal psychological functioning is deviant, but deviant from
what? if a behaviors, ability and experiences deviate from the norm or if it is atypical,
not average, extreme or different from other members of the population regarding place
and time. We do not expect people to cry themselves to sleep each night, wish themselves
dead. Not the only criterion. Eg very intelligent individuals (statistically deviant) like
Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud cannot be regarded as “abnormal”.
Limitation:
• It has no value- it makes no distinction between desirable and undesirable rarities
2. Dysfunction: if the Behavior impairs the ability to conduct daily activities in a
constructive way like ability to eat, dress one’s self, think properly and hold a job
properly is impaired.
• There are two aspects of dysfunctional behavior:

270. 270
– Dysfunctional to one’s self: inability to reach personal goals, inability to maintain
relationships.
– Dysfunctional to others: impairment of social (group) functioning eg drinking
alcohol.
3. Personal distress (discomfort):
Relatively long-lasting psychological or physical distress, pain, suffering, feeling of
helplessness, losing interest, unhappiness and feeling of guilt which is out of proportion
to a situation. However, not all disorders distress all individuals, eg “abnormal” person
who has no contact with reality may feel happy (no distressed).
Limitation: it gives us no standard for evaluating the behavior itself.
The absence of distress is not absence of a psychological disorder.
4. Danger: symptoms of a psychological disorder that lead to life or property being put at
risk. Eg, a person with a psychological disorder may be in danger when: depression and
hopelessness lead him or her to attempt suicide; body image lead the person to refuse to
eat enough food to maintain a healthy weight, which in turn leads to malnutrition and
medical problems.
Theoretical Models in Psychopathology
There are a number of diverse literatures focusing on risk factors for mental health problems.
These do not act independently, but combine in some way to influence the risk an individual has
for developing a disorder
 Biological model
Disruption of brain systems and as the same result of inappropriate neurotransmitter actions
results in inappropriate perception, mood and behavior. Low and high hormone result that
make abnormal behavior
Genetics
 Consider how genetic factors influence an individual’s risk of developing a mental health
disorder
Psychological Causes (Psychogenic Perspective)
Focus on the internal mental processes that influence mood and behaviour. There are a number of
psychological explanations of mental health disorders, the best known being psychoanalytic,

271. 271
humanistic, behavioural and cognitive behavioural. Generally according to this perspective
abnormality is caused by
• Troubling life experiences
• Interpersonal – between people (e.g., arguments)
• Intra-psychic – within thoughts and feelings
• Learned associations
• Distorted perceptions and Faulty ways of thinking
Socio-cultural Causes
Focuses on the role of social and cultural factors in mental health disorders. It includes: -
Immediate circle – people with whom we interact most locally. Extended circle of relationships
such as family back home or friends from high school. People in our environment with whom we
interact minimally. Political or social unrest. Discrimination toward one’s social group. Socio-
cultural factors include a wide range of influences, from the family to wider socio-economic
factors. This revealed increased rates of depression or anxiety among women, those living in
urban setting, unemployed people, and those who are separated, divorced or widowed.
Bio-psychosocial Perspective
The bio psychosocial model declares that disorders cannot be understood as resulting from the
influence of one factor, but it is biological, psychological or social. The bio-psychosocial
approach attempts to integrate these various factors into a holistic causal model. Assumes that
biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce
psychological disorders

272. 272
Fig: dimensions of Abnormal Behaviour adapted from Sue et al, (2017) essentials of abnormal
Diagnosis and Classification of Psychological Disorder
 Categorizing mental disorders differ with respect to the principle objective for use
in clinical, research, or statistical settings.
• Commonly used Diagnostic Manuals
 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (5th Edition 2013) –
DSM-5, American Psychiatric Association
 International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death –
ICD World Health Organization

273. 273
DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders)
DSM, medical reference book published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that
describes and classifies all known mental illnesses and emotional disorders
• The APA first published a predecessor of DSM in 1844, as a statistical classification
of institutionalized mental patients.
It was designed to improve communication about the types of patients cared for in these
hospitals.
• The APA published the first DSM in 1952, listing 106 mental illnesses.
 DSM-II was published in 1968,
 DSM-III in 1980 and DSM-III-R in 1987.
 DSM-IV lists more than 300 psychiatric disorders and was updated in a “text revision”
called the DSM-IV-TR in 2000.
 DSM IV Classification is a multi-axial system, involves an assessment on several axes,
each of which refers to a different domain of information that may help the clinician plan
treatment and predict outcome.
HOW ARE ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR PATTERNS CLASSIFIED?
• The latest version, published in 2013, is the DSM- 5 by APA. International Statistical
Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) was published by the
WHO. which is now in its tenth revision ICD-11). According to DSM mental disorders
involve either Emotional distress (typically depression or anxiety), Significantly impaired
functioning (difficulty meeting responsibilities at work, in the family, or in society at
large), or behavior that places people at risk for personal suffering, pain, disability, or
death (e.g., suicide attempts, repeated use of harmful drugs). Expected or culturally
appropriate response to a stressful event, such as signs of bereavement or grief following
the death of a loved one is not considered disordered within the DSM, even if behavior is
significantly impaired.
The causes of most mental disorders remain uncertain: however, it is best explained within a
multifactorial model (bio-psychosocial factors). Using the DSM classification system, the
clinician arrives at a diagnosis by matching a client’s behaviors with the diagnostic criteria.
Abnormal behaviors are categorized according to the symptoms they are:-
• The DSM is considered to be the standard classification of mental disorders.

274. 274
• Most disorders are now defined in terms of observable signs and symptoms.
• The DSM consists of three major components
 diagnostic classification, diagnostic criteria sets and the descriptive text
 A DSM diagnosis consists of selecting those disorders from the classification that
best reflect the signs and symptoms shown by the individual
 For each disorder there is a set of diagnostic criteria, indicating what symptoms
must be present (and for how long) in order to qualify for a diagnosis (called
inclusion criteria) as well as those symptoms that must not be present (called
exclusion criteria).
• The descriptive text of DSM-IV systematically describes each disorder under the
headings Diagnostic Features, Specific Culture, Age, and Gender Features, Prevalence,
Course, Familial Pattern and Differential Diagnosis
• DSM-IV groups mental disorders along a diagnostic system of five axes or areas of
functioning:
• Axis, I list clinical syndromes
• Axis II lifelong, maladaptive personality patterns mental retardation
• Axis III General medical conditions
• Axis IV psychosocial and environmental problems;
• Axis V a global assessment of functioning on a 100-point scale from persistent violence,
suicidal behavior or inability to maintain personal hygiene at one end to symptom free
Multi axial System: In the DSM, diagnoses are categorized in terms of relevant areas of
functioning within what are called axes.
• There are five axes, along which each client is evaluated.
• An axis is a class of information regarding an aspect of an individual’s functioning.
The Five Axes of the DSM-IV-
• Axis 1: In the DSM-IV- system, these are called clinical syndromes,
• meaning that each is a collection of symptoms that constitutes a particular form of
abnormality.
• Delirium, dementia, amnesic and other cognitive disorders
• Substance-related Disorders, Schizophrenia and other Psychotic Disorders, Mood
Disorders

275. 275
• Anxiety Disorders, Somatoform Disorders
• Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders and Eating Disorders
• Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation
– Axis II includes sets of disorders that represent enduring characteristics of an
individual’s personality or abilities.
• Axis III: General Medical Conditions
 Axis III is for documenting a client’s medical conditions
 Although these medical conditions are not the primary focus of the clinician, there
is a solid logic for including Axis III as part of the total diagnostic picture.
 At times, physical problems can be the basis of psychological problems
• Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
• On Axis IV, the clinician documents events or pressures that may affect the
diagnosis, treatment, or outcome of a client’s psychological disorder.
– Axis IV conditions include the negative life events of losing a job, having an
automobile accident, and breaking up with a lover
• Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning Scale
– Axis V is used to document the clinician’s overall judgment of a client’s
psychological, social, and occupational functioning.
– Ratings are made for the client’s current functioning at the point of
admission or discharge, or the highest level of functioning during the
previous year
 DSM-5 published in 2013. DSM-5 contains a number of significant changes from the
earlier DSM-IV including:
o The usage of numbers from Roman into Arabic number; eliminating axis system,
o instead listing categories of disorders along with a number of different related
disorders.
o Asperger’s disorder was removed and incorporated under the category of autism
spectrum disorders.
o Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder was added, in part to decrease over-
diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorders.

276. 276
o Several diagnoses were officially added to the manual including binge eating,
hoarding, and premenstrual dysphoric disorders.
DSM-5 Classification
No. Classes of disorders Lists under the category
1 Neurodevelopmental Disorders Intellectual Disability, Communication, Autism Spectrum,
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity, learning Disorders,
2 Schizophrenia Spectrum and
Other Psychotic Disorders
Schizotypal (Personality), Brief Psychotic Disorder
Schizophreniform, Schizophrenia Schizoaffective Disorder,
3 Bipolar and Related Disorders Bipolar I and II, Cyclothymic Disorder
4 Depressive Disorders Disruptive Mood Dysregulation, Major Depressive Disorder,
5 Anxiety Disorders Separation Anxiety Disorder, Selective Mutism Specific Phobia
6 Obsessive-Compulsive and
Related Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Hoarding Disorder
7 Trauma- and Stressor-Related
Disorders
Reactive Attachment Disorder, Disinhibited Social Engagement
Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
8 Dissociative Disorders Dissociative Identity, Dissociative Amnesia Depersonalization
/Derealization Disorder
9 Feeding and Eating Disorders Pica Rumination, Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake, Anorexia
Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Binge-eating disorder
10 Sleep-Wake Disorders Insomnia Disorder, Hypersomnolence Disorder, Narcolepsy
11 Sexual Dysfunctions Delayed Ejaculation, Erectile, Female Orgasmic, Female Sexual
Interest/Arousal, Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder,
Based on the DSM-5’s classification some of the psychological disorders are presented as
follows.
1.1.Anxiety disorder
Anxiety disorders include disorders that share features of excessive fear and anxiety and related
behavioral disturbances. Fear is the emotional response to real or perceived imminent threat,
whereas anxiety is anticipation of future threat. Obviously, these two states overlap, but they also
differ, with fear more often associated with surges of autonomic arousal necessary for fight or
flight, thoughts of immediate danger, and escape behaviors, and anxiety more often associated
with muscle tension and vigilance in preparation for future danger and cautious or avoidant

277. 277
behaviors. Sometimes the level of fear or anxiety is reduced by pervasive avoidance behaviors.
Panic attacks feature prominently within the anxiety disorders as a particular type of fear
response. Panic attacks are not limited to anxiety disorders but rather can be seen in other mental
disorders as well.
Anxiety is emotional state in which people feel uneasy, apprehensive, or fearful. A pathological
state characterized by a feeling of inner tension, intense fear, and apprehension or reacts to stress
by developing certain body complaints. It is a reaction to danger, uncertainty, impending
problem, difficult situation, bereavement, disappointment, conflicts, tragic events or problems at
home, in the community or at work; hassles of daily life. People usually experience anxiety
about events they cannot control or predict, or about events that seem threatening or dangerous.
A mild to moderate amount of anxiety is normal and even beneficial. Individuals who experience
an abnormally high amount of anxiety often feel overwhelmed, immobilized, and unable to
accomplish the task at hand. Most people react to such anxiety by using various coping
mechanisms which enable them to escape the development of serious anxiety reactions. When
these fail that the person develops a morbid anxiety. The anxiety disorders differ from one
another in the types of objects or situations that induce fear, anxiety, or avoidance behavior, and
the associated cognitive ideation. Thus, while the anxiety disorders tend to be highly comorbid
with each other, they can be differentiated by close examination of the types of situations that are
feared or avoided and the content of the associated thoughts or beliefs. Anxiety disorders differ
from developmentally normative fear or anxiety by being excessive or persisting beyond
developmentally appropriate periods. They differ from transient fear or anxiety, often stress-
induced, by being persistent (e.g., typically lasting 6 months or more), although the criterion for
duration is intended as a general guide with allowance for some degree of flexibility and is
sometimes of shorter duration in children (as in separation anxiety disorder and selective
mutism).
Sub classification of anxiety disorders
1) Separation Anxiety Disorder
The essential feature of separation anxiety disorder is excessive fear or anxiety concerning
separation from home or attachment figures. The anxiety exceeds what may be expected given
the person's developmental level. Individuals with separation anxiety disorder have symptoms
that meet at least three of the following criteria: They experience recurrent excessive distress

278. 278
when separation from home or major attachment figures is anticipated or occurs. They worry
about the well-being or death of attachment figures, particularly when separated from them, and
they need to know the whereabouts of their attachment figures and want to stay in touch with
them. They also worry about untoward events to themselves, such as getting lost, being
kidnapped, or having an accident that would keep them from ever being reunited with their major
attachment figure. Individuals with separation anxiety disorder are reluctant or refuse to go out
by themselves because of separation fears. They have persistent and excessive fear or reluctance
about being alone or without major attachment figures at home or in other settings. Children with
separation anxiety disorder may be unable to stay or go in a room by themselves and may display
"clinging" behaviour, staying close to or "shadowing" the parent around the house, or requiring
someone to be with them when going to another room in the house.
Diagnostic Criteria of Separation Anxiety
A. Developmentally inappropriate and excessive fear or anxiety concerning separation from
those to whom the individual is attached, as evidenced by at least three of the following:
 Recurrent excessive distress when anticipating or experiencing separation from home or
from major attachment figures.
 Persistent and excessive worry about losing major attachment figures or about possible harm
to them, such as illness, injury, disasters, or death.
 Persistent and excessive worry about experiencing an untoward event (e.g., getting lost,
being kidnapped, having an accident, becoming ill) that causes separation from a major
attachment figure.
 Persistent reluctance or refusal to go out, away from home, to school, to work, or elsewhere
because of fear of separation.
 Persistent and excessive fear of or reluctance about being alone or without major attachment
figures at home or in other settings.
 Persistent reluctance or refusal to sleep away from home or to go to sleep without being near
a major attachment figure.
 Repeated nightmares involving the theme of separation.
 Repeated complaints of physical symptoms (e.g., headaches, stomach-aches, nausea,
vomiting) when separation from major attachment figures occurs or is anticipated.

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B. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, lasting at least 4 weeks in children and
adolescents and typically 6 months or more in adults.
C. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, academic,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder, such as refusing to leave
home because of excessive resistance to change in autism spectrum disorder; delusions or
hallucinations concerning separation in psychotic disorders; refusal to go outside without a
trusted companion in agoraphobia; worries about ill health or other harm befalling significant
others in generalized anxiety disorder; or concerns about having an illness in illness anxiety
disorder.
2) Selective Mutism
When encountering other individuals in social interactions, children with selective mutism do not
initiate speech or reciprocally respond when spoken to by others. Lack of speech occurs in social
interactions with children or adults. Children with selective mutism will speak in their home in
the presence of immediate family members but often not even in front of close friends or second-
degree relatives, such as grandparents or cousins. The disturbance is often marked by high social
anxiety. Children with selective mutism often refuse to speak at school, leading to academic or
educational impairment, as teachers often find it difficult to assess skills such as reading. The
lack of speech may interfere with social communication, although children with this disorder
sometimes use non-spoken or nonverbal means (e.g., grunting, pointing, writing) to
communicate and may be willing or eager to perform or engage in social encounters when
speech is not required (e.g., nonverbal parts in school plays).
Diagnostic Criteria for selective mutism
A. Consistent failure to speak in specific social situations in which there is an expectation
for speaking (e.g., at school) despite speaking in other situations.
B. The disturbance interferes with educational or occupational achievement or with social
communication.
C. The duration of the disturbance is at least 1 month (not limited to the first month of
school).
D. The failure to speak is not attributable to a lack of knowledge of, or comfort with, the
spoken language required in the social situation.

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E. The disturbance is not better explained by a communication disorder (e.g., childhood
onset fluency disorder) and does not occur exclusively during the course of autism
spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, or another psychotic disorder.
3) Specific Phobia
Phobia is described as "an irrational fear" of an object, activity or situation.
A phobia is an excessive, enduring fear of clearly defined objects or situations that interferes
with a person’s normal functioning. People with phobias always try to avoid the source of their
fear.
Common phobias include: fear of height (Acrophobia), storm (Astraphobia), enclosed place
(Claustrophobia), crowed of people (Agoraphobia), open place (Ochlophobia), night
(Nycotophobia), fire (Pyrophobia), animals (Zoophobia), blood (haematophobia), water
(Hydrophobia), men (Androphobia), etc.
4) Panic Disorder
Panic is an intense, overpowering surge of fear. People with panic disorder experience panic
attacks—periods of quickly escalating, intense fear and discomfort accompanied by such
physical symptoms as rapid heartbeat, trembling, shortness of breath, dizziness, and nausea.
Panic attacks may last from a few seconds to several hours. Most peak within 10 minutes and
end within 20 or 30 minutes.
Symptoms in panic attack include a racing heart, shortness of breath, trembling, choking or
smothering sensations, and fears of “going crazy,” losing control, or dying from a heart attack,
agitation, tremors, palpitations, chocking sensation and a dreadful feeling of impending danger.
5) Generalized anxiety disorders
People with this disorder feel anxious most of the time. They worry excessively about routine
events or circumstances in their lives - relate to finances, family, personal health, and
relationships with others. Although they recognize their anxiety as irrational or out of proportion
to actual events, they feel unable to control their worrying. People with disorder often find that
their worries interfere with their ability to function at work or concentrate on tasks.
Physical symptoms, such as disturbed sleep, irritability, muscle aches, and tension, may
accompany the anxiety. To receive a diagnosis of this disorder, individuals must have
experienced its symptoms for at least six months. This disorder affects about 3 percent of

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people in the general population in any given year. From 55 to 66 percent of people with this
disorder are female.
Risk and Prognostic Factors
Temperamental: Behavioral inhibition, negative affectivity (neuroticism), and harm avoidance
have been associated with generalized anxiety disorder.
Environmental: Although childhood adversities and parental overprotection have been
associated with generalized anxiety disorder, no environmental factors have been identified as
specific to generalized anxiety disorder or necessary or sufficient for making the diagnosis.
Genetic and physiological: One-third of the risk of experiencing generalized anxiety disorder is
genetic, and these genetic factors overlap with the risk of neuroticism and are shared with other
anxiety and mood disorders, particularly major depressive disorder.
6) Substance/Medication-Induced Anxiety Disorder – anxiety caused or aggravated by
substance.
7) Anxiety Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - a physiological effect of another
medical condition. Symptoms can include prominent anxiety symptoms or panic attacks.
1.2.Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body
dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder), excoriation
(skin-picking) disorder, substance/medication-induced obsessive-compulsive and related
disorder, obsessive-compulsive and related disorder due to another medical condition, and other
specified obsessive-compulsive and related disorder and unspecified obsessive-compulsive and
related disorder (e.g., body-focused repetitive behavior disorder, obsessional jealousy). OCD is
characterized by the presence of obsessions and/or compulsions. Obsessions are recurrent and
persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced as intrusive and unwanted, whereas
compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in
response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly. Some other
obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are also characterized by preoccupations and by
repetitive behaviors or mental acts in response to the preoccupations. Other obsessive-
compulsive and related disorders are characterized primarily by recurrent body-focused
repetitive behaviors (e.g., hair pulling, skin picking) and repeated attempts to decrease or stop the
behaviors.

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1. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
In OCD a person experiences recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and feels compelled to
perform certain behaviors (compulsions) again and again. OCD usually begins in adolescence or
early adulthood. The obsessions and compulsions significantly interfere with their ability to
function and may consume a great deal of time. The person is aware of senselessness of the
behavior and does not derive pleasure from performing the act
The characteristic symptoms of OCD are the presence of obsessions and compulsions.
Obsessions are repetitive and persistent thoughts (e.g., of contamination), images (e.g., of violent
or horrific scenes), or urges (e.g., to stab someone). Importantly, obsessions are not pleasurable
or experienced as voluntary: they are intrusive and unwanted and cause marked distress or
anxiety in most individuals. The individual attempts to ignore or suppress these obsessions (e.g.,
avoiding triggers or using thought suppression) or to neutralize them with another thought or
action (e.g., performing a compulsion). Compulsions (or rituals) are repetitive behaviors (e.g.,
washing, checking) or mental acts (e.g., counting, repeating words silently) that the individual
feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied
rigidly. Most individuals with OCD have both obsessions and compulsions. Compulsions are
typically performed in response to an obsession (e.g., thoughts of contamination leading to
washing rituals or that something is incorrect leading to repeating rituals until it feels "just
right").
Common obsessions include unwanted thoughts of:
 feeling being contaminated by germs/dirt,
 committing sins,
 doubts about whether doors are locked or appliances are turned off,
 thoughts of accidentally and unknowingly harming someone,
The most common compulsions involve
 Cleaning rituals and checking rituals. For example, people with obsessions about germs
may wash their hands dozens of times each day until their skin becomes raw.
 Other compulsions include counting objects, hoarding vast amounts of useless materials,
and repeating words or prayers internally.
2. Body Dysmorphic Disorder

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It is one’s preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that
are not observable or appear slight to others. At some point during the course of the disorder, the
individual has performed repetitive behaviors (e.g., mirror checking, excessive grooming, skin
picking, reassurance seeking) or mental acts (e.g., comparing his or her appearance with that of
others) in response to the appearance concerns. The preoccupation causes clinically significant
distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The
appearance preoccupation is not better explained by concerns with body fat or weight in an
individual whose symptoms meet diagnostic criteria for an eating disorder.
Specify if: With muscle dysmorphia: The individual is preoccupied with the idea that his or her
body build is too small or insufficiently muscular. This specifier is used even if the individual is
preoccupied with other body areas, which is often the case. Specify if: Indicate degree of insight
regarding body dysmorphic disorder beliefs (e.g., "I look ugly" or "I look deformed"). With good
or fair insight: The individual recognizes that the body dysmorphic disorder beliefs are definitely
or probably not true or that they may or may not be true. With poor insight: The individual thinks
that the body dysmorphic disorder beliefs are probably true. With absent insight /delusional
beliefs: The individual is completely convinced that the body dysmorphic disorder beliefs are
true.
3. Hoarding Disorder
The essential feature of hoarding disorder is persistent difficulties discarding or parting with
possessions, regardless of their actual value. The term persistent indicates a long-standing
difficulty rather than more transient life circumstances that may lead to excessive clutter, such as
inheriting property. The difficulty in discarding possessions refers to any form of discarding,
including throwing away, selling, giving away, or recycling. The main reasons given for these
difficulties are the perceived utility or aesthetic value of the items or strong sentimental
attachment to the possessions. Some individuals feel responsible for the fate of their possessions
and often go to great lengths to avoid being wasteful. Fears of losing important information are
also common. The most commonly saved items are newspapers, magazines, old clothing, bags,
books, mail, and paperwork, but virtually any item can be saved. The nature of items is not
limited to possessions that most other people would define as useless or of limited value. Many
individuals collect and save large numbers of valuable things as well, which are often found in
piles mixed with other less valuable items. Individuals with hoarding disorder purposefully save

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possessions and experience distress when facing the prospect of discarding them. This criterion
emphasizes that the saving of possessions is intentional, which discriminates hoarding disorder
from other forms of psychopathology that are characterized by the passive accumulation of items
or the absence of distress when possessions are removed. Individuals accumulate large numbers
of items that fill up and clutter active living areas to the extent that their intended use is no longer
possible. For example, the individual may not be able to cook in the kitchen, sleep in his or her
bed, or sit in a chair. If the space can be used, it is only with great difficulty. Clutter is defined as
a large group of usually unrelated or marginally related objects piled together in a disorganized
fashion in spaces designed for other purposes (e.g., tabletops, floor, and hallway). Individuals
who have been forced to clear their homes still have a symptom picture that meets criteria for
hoarding disorder because the lack of clutter is due to a third-party intervention. Hoarding
disorder contrasts with normative collecting behavior, which is organized and systematic, even if
in some cases the actual amount of possessions may be similar to the amount accumulated by an
individual with hoarding disorder. Normative collecting does not produce the clutter, distress, or
impairment typical of hoarding disorder. Symptoms (i.e., difficulties discarding and/ or clutter)
must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning, including maintaining a safe environment for self and others. In
some cases, particularly when there is poor insight, the individual may not report distress, and
the impairment may be apparent only to those around the individual. However, any attempts to
discard or clear the possessions by third parties result in high levels of distress.
Treatment of OCD
 Exposure and response prevention
 The therapist exposes the patient to feared thoughts or situations and prevents the patient
from acting on his or her compulsion.
 For example, a therapist might have patients with cleaning compulsions touch something
dirty and then prevent them from washing their hands.
1.3.Mood disorder
Mood is internal, subjectively experienced emotion that is pervasive and colours the entire
person’s psychic life.
1.3.1. Bipolar and Related Disorders
1. Bipolar I Disorder

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Three major types of bipolar I disorder are preceded one other such as (1) manic episode, (2)
hypomanic and major depression episodes.
Manic Episode involves a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or
irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased goal-directed activity or energy, lasting
at least 1 week and present most of the day, nearly every day (or any duration if hospitalization is
necessary). During the period of mood disturbance and increased energy or activity, three (or
more) of the following symptoms (four if the mood is only irritable) are present to a significant
degree and represent a noticeable change from usual behavior:
A. Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.
B. Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep).
C. More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking.
D. Flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing.
E. Distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external
stimuli), as reported or observed.
F. Increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or
psychomotor agitation (i.e., purposeless non-goal-directed activity).
G. Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences
(e.g., engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business
investments).
The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked impairment in social or
occupational functioning or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others, or
there are psychotic features. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, other treatment) or to another medical condition.
Note: A full manic episode that emerges during antidepressant treatment (e.g., medication,
electroconvulsive therapy) but persists at a fully syndromal level beyond the physiological effect
of that treatment is sufficient evidence for a manic episode and, therefore, a bipolar I diagnosis.
Hypomanic Episode when a person manifests a distinct period of abnormally and persistently
elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or
energy, lasting at least 4 consecutive days and present most of the day, nearly every day. During
the period of mood disturbance and increased energy and activity, three (or more) of the

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following symptoms (four if the mood is only irritable) have persisted, represent a noticeable
change from usual behavior, and have been present to a significant degree:
 Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.
 Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep).
 More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking.
 Flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing.
 Distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external
stimuli), as reported or observed.
 Increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or
psychomotor agitation.
 Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences
(e.g., engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business
investments).
The episode is associated with an unequivocal change in functioning that is uncharacteristic of
the individual when not symptomatic. The disturbance in mood and the change in functioning are
observable by others. The episode is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social or
occupational functioning or to necessitate hospitalization. If there are psychotic features, the
episode is, by definition, manic. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, other treatment).
Major Depressive Episode in order to diagnose major depressive episode five (or more) of the
following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change
from previous functioning; at least one of the symptoms is either (1) Depressed mood or (2) Loss
of interest or pleasure. Note: Do not include symptoms that are clearly attributable to another
medical condition.
i. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective report
(e.g., feels sad, empty, or hopeless) or observation made by others (e.g., appears tearful).
(Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood.)
ii. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day,
nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or observation).

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iii. Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change of more than 5% of
body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. (Note: In
children, consider failure to make expected weight gain.)
iv. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.
v. Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others; not merely
subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down).
vi. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day.
vii. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which may be delusional)
nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick).
viii. Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by
subjective account or as observed by others).
ix. Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a
specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide.
The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance or another medical condition.
2. Bipolar II Disorder
Bipolar II disorder is characterized by a clinical course of recurring mood episodes consisting of
one or more major depressive episodes and at least one hypomanic episode. The major
depressive episode must last at least 2 weeks, and the hypomanic episode must last at least 4
days, to meet the diagnostic criteria. During the mood episodes, the requisite number of
symptoms must be present most of the day, nearly every day, and represent a noticeable change
from usual behavior and functioning. The presence of a manic episode during the course of
illness precludes the diagnosis of bipolar II disorder.
3. Cyclothymic Disorder
The essential feature of cyclothymic disorder is a chronic, fluctuating mood disturbance
involving numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and periods of depressive symptoms that
are distinct from each other. The hypomanic symptoms are of insufficient number, severity,
pervasiveness, or duration to meet full criteria for a hypomanic episode, and the depressive
symptoms are of insufficient number, severity, pervasiveness, or duration to meet full criteria for
a major depressive episode. During the initial 2-year period (1 year for children or adolescents),

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the symptoms must be persistent (present more days than not), and any symptom-free intervals
last no longer than 2 months. The diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder is made only if the criteria
for a major depressive, manic, or hypomanic episode have never been met. If an individual with
cyclothymic disorder subsequently (i.e., after the initial2 years in adults or 1 year in children or
adolescents) experiences a major depressive, manic, or hypomanic episode, the diagnosis
changes to major depressive disorder, bipolar I disorder, or other specified or unspecified bipolar
and related disorder (sub classified as hypomanic episode without prior major depressive
episode), respectively, and the cyclothymic disorder diagnosis is dropped.
1.3.2. Depressive Disorders
Depressive disorders include disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, major depressive disorder
(including major depressive episode), persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia), premenstrual
dysphoric disorder, substance/medication-induced depressive disorder, depressive disorder due
to another medical condition, other specified depressive disorder, and unspecified depressive
disorder.
i. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
The core feature of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is chronic, severe persistent
irritability. This severe irritability has two prominent clinical manifestations, the first of which is
frequent temper outbursts. These outbursts typically occur in response to frustration and can be
verbal or behavioral (the latter in the form of aggression against property, self, or others). They
must occur frequently (i.e., on average, three or more times per week) over at least a year in at
least two settings, such as in the home and at school, and they must be developmentally
inappropriate. The second manifestation of severe irritability consists of chronic, persistently
irritable or angry mood that is present between the severe temper outbursts. This irritable or
angry mood must be characteristic of the child, being present most of the day, nearly every day,
and noticeable by others in the child's environment.
ii. Major Depressive Disorder
The criterion symptoms for major depressive disorder must be present nearly every day to be
considered present, with the exception of weight change and suicidal ideation. Depressed mood
must be present for most of the day, in addition to being present nearly every day. Often
insomnia or fatigue is the presenting complaint, and failure to probe for accompanying
depressive symptoms will result in underdiagnoses. Sadness may be denied at first but may be

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elicited through interview or inferred from facial expression and demeanor. With individuals
who focus on a somatic complaint, clinicians should determine whether the distress from that
complaint is associated with specific depressive symptoms. Fatigue and sleep disturbance are
present in a high proportion of cases; psychomotor disturbances are much less common but are
indicative of greater overall severity, as is the presence of delusional or near-delusional guilt.
The essential feature of a major depressive episode is a period of at least 2 weeks during which
there is either depressed mood or the loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities. In
children and adolescents, the mood may be irritable rather than sad. The individual must also
experience at least four additional symptoms drawn from a list that includes changes in appetite
or weight, sleep, and psychomotor activity; decreased energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt;
difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions; or recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal
ideation or suicide plans or attempts. To count toward a major depressive episode, a symptom
must either be newly present or must have clearly worsened compared with the person's pre-
episode status.
1.4. Personality disorder
A personality disorder is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates
markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an
onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.
A non-psychotic illness characterized by maladaptive behavior, which the person utilizes to fulfil
his or her needs and bring satisfaction to self.
Clinical features
 Unexplained failure, particularly in job, because of which the person repeatedly
changes his job.
 Irresponsibility
 Inability to distinguish b/n truth and false hood, good and bad, Moral and immoral.
 Inability to accept blame
 Failure to learn by experience.
 Shallow and impersonal response to sex life.
Etiology
 Personality disorders result from a complex interaction of inherited traits and life
experience

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Types of Personality Disorders
Personality Disorders Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid & Schizotypal
Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic & Narcissistic
Cluster C Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive
Cluster A.
1. Paranoid personality - People with paranoid personality disorder:
 Feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people;
 Believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to support their
suspicions;
 Are rigid, hypersensitive, blame others for one's own mistakes and lack a sense of
hummer and ability to relax.
2. Schizoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder involves social isolation and a lack of desire for close
personal relationships.
 People with this disorder prefer to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally
detached.
 Over sensitivity avoidance of competitive or close interpersonal relationships.
 Often ego centricity, autistic thinking and day dreaming
 Has difficult in expressing stress with apparent detachment.
3. Schizotypal personality disorder:
 People with Schizotypal personality disorder engage in odd thinking (magical
thinking), speech, and behaviour.
 They use words and phrases in unusual ways, and they may believe they have magical
control over others.
 They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicious
of others.
 Perceptual disturbance, such has recurrent illusion
 The person has in appropriate affect.
Cluster B.
4. Antisocial personality disorder- usually seen in person’s b/n age 15 and 40.

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 Lack of capacity to show concern for others to form a responsibility r/n ship with family
or friends.
 Inability to sustain a satisfying sexual relationship display two or more divorce or
separation, promiscuous behavior.
 Immediate gratification, resulting behaviors such as theft, prostitution, multiple arrests.
 Break the law, and they may use or exploit other people for their own gain.
 They lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
 People with this disorder are also sometimes called sociopaths or psychopaths.
 Antisocial personality disorder affects about 3 percent of males and 1 percent of females.
5. Hysterical personality disorder
 They constantly strive to be the centre of attention.
 They may act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.
 They may also talk in a dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated emotional
reactions, often seductive
 Also characterized as self-cantered and quite concerned about the approval of others,
romantic fantasy, feeling of dependency and helplessness exist.
6. Narcissistic personality disorder
 Have a grandiose sense of self-importance.
 Seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success, power,
beauty and the like
 They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others.
 Believes he or she is unique and should associate with other high - status person
 Requires excessive admiration, Displays a sense of entitlement
 Exploiters others, Lack of empathy
 Displays arrogance, haughty behaviors or attitudes.
7. Borderline personality disorder
 Experience intense emotional instability, particularly in r/s with others.
 Experience minor problems as major crises.
 Have an unstable self-image or sense of self.

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 Unstable interpersonal relationship, Impulsive, unpredictable behavior that may involve
gambling, shoplifting and sex.
 Drinks and tolerate a lot of alcohol
 Unstable affect that shifts from normal moods to period of depression, unpleasant mood,
or anxiety.
 Masochistic behavior [self -inflicted pain]
 About 2 percent of all people have borderline personality disorder. About 75 percent of
people with this disorder are female.
Cluster C.
8. O-C-P (Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder)
 Characterized by a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.
 Devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take time for
leisure activities and friendships.
 They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.
9. Dependent personality disorder
 Involves severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.
 Have difficulty making decisions without a great deal of advice and reassurance from
others.
 They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends.
 They feel uncomfortable by themselves.
 Lacks self-confidence and is unable to function in an independent role, in attempt to
avoid any chance of becoming self-sufficient.
 The person allows others to become responsible for his life.
10. Avoidant personality disorder
 It is social withdrawal due to intense, anxious shyness.
 People with avoidant personalities are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel
certain of being liked.
 They fear being criticized and rejected (Hypersensitivity to rejection, criticism, or
disapproval). Often they view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
 Social withdrawal, has no close friends or confident.

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1.5.Schizophrenias and other Psychotic disorders
Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders include schizophrenia, other psychotic
disorders, and schizotypal (personality) disorder. They are defined by abnormalities in one or
more of the following five domains: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking (speech),
grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia), and negative symptoms.
Key Features That Define the Psychotic Disorders
Delusions are fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence. Their
content may include a variety of themes (e.g., persecutory, referential, somatic, religious,
grandiose). Persecutory delusions (i.e., belief that one is going to be harmed, harassed, and so
forth by an individual, organization, or other group) are most common. Referential delusions
(i.e., belief that certain gestures, comments, environmental cues, and so forth are directed at
oneself) are also common. Grandiose delusions (i.e., when an individual believes that he or she
has exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame) and erotomanic delusions (i.e., when an individual
believes falsely that another person is in love with him or her) are also seen. Nihilistic delusions
involve the conviction that a major catastrophe will occur, and somatic delusions focus on
preoccupations regarding health and organ function.
Hallucinations are perception-like experiences that occur without an external stimulus. They are
vivid and clear, with the full force and impact of normal perceptions, and not under voluntary
control. They may occur in any sensory modality, but auditory hallucinations are the most
common in schizophrenia and related disorders. Auditory hallucinations are usually experienced
as voices, whether familiar or unfamiliar, those are perceived as distinct from the individual's
own thoughts. The hallucinations must occur in the context of a clear sensorium; those that occur
while falling asleep (hypnagogic) or waking up (hypnopompic) are considered to be within the
range of normal experience. Hallucinations may be a normal part of religious experience in
certain cultural contexts.
Disorganized thinking (formal thought disorder) is typically inferred from the individual's
speech. The individual may switch from one topic to another (derailment or loose associations).
Answers to questions may be obliquely related or completely unrelated (tangentiality).
Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior may manifest itself in a variety of ways,
ranging from childlike "silliness" to unpredictable agitation. Problems may be noted in any form
of goal-directed behavior, leading to difficulties in performing activities of daily living.

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Negative symptoms account for a substantial portion of the morbidity associated with
schizophrenia but are less prominent in other psychotic disorders. Two negative symptoms are
particularly prominent in schizophrenia: diminished emotional expression and avolition
(decrease in motivated self-initiated purposeful activities). Diminished emotional expression
includes reductions in the expression of emotions in the face, eye contact, intonation of speech
(prosody), and movements of the hand, head, and face that normally give an emotional emphasis
to speech.
1.5.1. Classification of Schizophrenias and other Psychotic disorders
1. Delusional Disorder
The essential feature of delusional disorder is the presence of one or more delusions that persist
for at least one month. A diagnosis of delusional disorder is not given if the individual has ever
had a symptom presentation that met for schizophrenia. Apart from the direct impact of the
delusions, impairments in psychosocial functioning may be more circumscribed than those seen
in other psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, and behavior is not obviously bizarre or odd.
If mood episodes occur concurrently with the delusions, the total duration of these mood
episodes is brief relative to the total duration of the delusional periods. The delusions are not
attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., cocaine) or another medical
condition (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) and are not better explained by another mental disorder,
such as body dysmorphic disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder. In addition to the five
symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition,
depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions
between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders. The Subtypes are:-
Erotomanic type: someone believes that another person is in love with the individual.
Grandiose type: the conviction of having some great talent or insight or of having made some
important discovery.
Persecutory type: the individual's belief of being conspired against, cheated, spied on, followed,
poisoned, maliciously maligned, harassed, or obstructed in the pursuit of long-term goals.
Treatment
 Delusion disorder is difficult because of the denial by the patient, the presence of suspicion.
 CBT
2. Brief Psychotic Disorder

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The essential feature of brief psychotic disorder is a disturbance that involves the sudden onset of
at least one of the following positive psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence), or grossly abnormal psychomotor
behavior, including catatonia. Sudden onset is defined as change from a nonpsychotic state to a
clearly psychotic state within two weeks, usually without a prodrome. An episode of the
disturbance lasts at least one day but less than a month, and the individual eventually has a full
return to the premorbid level of functioning. The disturbance is not better explained by a
depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features, by schizoaffective disorder, or by
schizophrenia and is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a
hallucinogen) or another medical condition (e.g., subdural hematoma). In addition to the five
symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition,
depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions
between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
3. Schizophreniform Disorder
The characteristic symptoms of schizophreniform disorder are identical to those of
schizophrenia. Schizophreniform disorder is distinguished by its difference in duration: the total
duration of the illness, including prodromal, active, and residual phases, is at least 1 month but
less than 6 months. The duration requirement for schizophreniform disorder is intermediate
between that for brief psychotic disorder, which lasts more than 1 day and remits by 1 month,
and schizophrenia, which lasts for at least 6 months. The diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder
is made under two conditions. 1) when an episode of illness lasts between 1 and 6 months and
the individual has already recovered, and 2) when an individual is symptomatic for less than the
6 months' duration required for the diagnosis of schizophrenia but has not yet recovered. In this
case, the diagnosis should be noted as "schizophreniform disorder (provisional)" because it is
uncertain if the individual will recover from the disturbance within the 6-month period. If the
disturbance persists beyond 6 months, the diagnosis should be changed to schizophrenia
Another distinguishing feature of schizophreniform disorder is the lack of a criterion requiring
impaired social and occupational functioning. While such impairments may potentially be
present, they are not necessary for a diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder.

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In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment
of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important
distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
4. Schizophrenia
The characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia involve a range of cognitive, behavioral, and
emotional dysfunctions, but no single symptom is pathognomonic of the disorder. The diagnosis
involves the recognition of a constellation of signs and symptoms associated with impaired
occupational or social functioning. Individuals with the disorder will vary substantially on most
features, as schizophrenia is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome. At least two symptoms must be
presented for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period or longer. At least one of
these symptoms must be the clear presence of delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech,
grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior and negative symptoms may also be present.
Schizophrenia involves impairment in one or more major areas of functioning. If the disturbance
begins in childhood or adolescence, the expected level of function is not attained. The
dysfunction persists for a substantial period during the course of the disorder and does not appear
to be a direct result of any single feature.
Categories/Types of Schizophrenia
Although all schizophrenics share the symptoms already discussed to a certain degree, the way in
which these symptoms shown up in behavior can be used to distinguish among several types of
schizophrenia. There are five basic categories and two major types of schizophrenia.
1. Disorganized: disorganized schizophrenics are very confused in speech, have vivid and
frequent hallucinations, and tend to have very inappropriate affect (emotion) or flat affect.
They are very socially impaired, unable to engage in the normal social rituals of daily life.
Giggling, silliness, nonsensical speech, and neglect of cleanliness are common. They may
not bathe or change clothing and may have problems with urinating or defecating in public,
either because of incontinence or a deliberate wish to shock those watching.
2. Catatonic: although it is becoming rare, catatonic schizophrenia involves very disturbed
motor behavior. The person doesn’t respond to the outside world and either doesn’t move at
all, maintaining often odd-looking postures for hours on end (a condition known as
catatonia) or moves about wildly in great agitation. It is as if there are only two “speeds” for
the catatonic, totally of or totally on.

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3. Paranoid: the paranoid schizophrenic suffers from hallucinations and delusions. Auditory
hallucinations are common, and the delusions are typically persecution, grandeur, or
extreme jealousy of another or several other persons. Although their thinking is not as
scattered as that of the disorganized schizophrenic, their delusions tend to be bizarre but
very systematic.
4. Undifferentiated: sometimes a person with schizophrenic symptoms does not consistently
show signs of one of the three previous categories but may instead shift from one pattern to
another or show no consistent pattern. This person is usually labeled as having
undifferentiated schizophrenia.
5. Residual: some people have a major episode of schizophrenia that ends, leaving the
person in a state between an active episode of schizophrenia and, in some cases, full
recovery. If they no longer show the major symptoms of delusions and hallucinations but
still have some residual (leftover) symptoms such as negative beliefs, poor language skills,
or some unusual ideas and perceptions, they might be given the label of residual
schizophrenic. They would be considered a little “odd” by others but would be able to
function in daily life, unlike a person who is suffering from an active episode of
schizophrenia.
Risk and Prognostic Factors
Genetic and physiological: Among individuals with schizophrenia, there may be an increased
risk for schizoaffective disorder in first-degree relatives. The risk for schizoaffective disorder
may be increased among individuals who have a first-degree relative with schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, or schizoaffective disorder.
1.6.Dissociative and somatoform disorder
Dissociative disorders are characterized by a disruption of and/or discontinuity in the normal
integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor
control, and behavior. Dissociative symptoms can potentially disrupt every area of psychological
functioning. This sub-section includes dissociative identity disorder, dissociative amnesia,
depersonalization /derealization disorder, other specified dissociative disorder, and unspecified
dissociative disorder.
Dissociative symptoms are experienced as a) unbidden intrusions into awareness and behavior,
with accompanying losses of continuity in subjective experience (i.e., "positive" dissociative

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symptoms such as fragmentation of identity, depersonalization, and derealization) and/ or b)
inability to access information or to control mental functions that normally are readily amenable
to access or control (i.e., "negative" dissociative symptoms such as amnesia).
The dissociative disorders are frequently found in the aftermath of trauma, and many of the
symptoms, including embarrassment and confusion about the symptoms or a desire to hide them,
are influenced by the proximity to trauma.
Types of Dissociative Disorder
1. Dissociative Identity Disorder
Disruption of identity is characterized by two or more distinct personality states, which may be
described in some cultures as an experience of possession. The disruption in identity involves
marked discontinuity in sense of self and sense of agency, accompanied by related alterations in
affect, behavior, consciousness, memory, perception, cognition, and/or sensory-motor
functioning. These signs and symptoms may be observed by others or reported by the individual.
Recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information, and/ or
traumatic events that are inconsistent with ordinary forgetting. The symptoms cause clinically
significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural or religious practice. Note: In
children, the symptoms are not better explained by imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.
The symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts or
chaotic behavior during alcohol intoxication) or another medical condition (e.g., complex partial
seizures).
2. Dissociative Amnesia
An inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful
nature, that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting. Dissociative amnesia most often consists of
localized or selective amnesia for a specific event or events; or generalized amnesia for identity
and life history. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The disturbance is not attributable to the
physiological effects of a substance (e.g., alcohol or other drug of abuse, a medication) or a
neurological or other medical condition (e.g., partial complex seizures, transient global amnesia,
sequelae of a closed head injury /traumatic brain injury, other neurological condition). The

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disturbance is not better explained by dissociative identity disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder,
acute stress disorder, somatic symptom disorder, or major or mild neurocognitive disorder.
Dissociative amnesia differs from the permanent amnesias due to neurobiological damage or
toxicity that prevent memory storage or retrieval in that it is always potentially reversible
because the memory has been successfully stored.
Localized amnesia, a failure to recall events during a circumscribed period of time, is the most
common form of dissociative amnesia.
Selective amnesia, the individual can recall some, but not all, of the events during a
circumscribed period of time. Thus, the individual may remember part of a traumatic event but
no other parts. Some individuals report both localized and selective amnesias.
Generalized amnesia, a complete loss of memory for one's life history, is rare. Individuals with
generalized amnesia may forget personal identity. Some lose previous knowledge about the
world (i.e., semantic knowledge) and can no longer access well-learned skills
Systematized amnesia, the individual loses memory for a specific category of information (e.g.,
all memories relating to one's family, a particular person, or childhood sexual abuse).
Continuous amnesia, an individual forgets each new event as it occurs.
3. Depersonalization /Derealization Disorder
The presence of persistent or recurrent experiences of depersonalization, derealization, or both:
1. Depersonalization: Experiences of unreality, detachment, or being an outside observer
with respect to one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, body, or actions (e.g., perceptual
alterations, distorted sense of time, unreal or absent self, emotional and/ or physical
numbing).
2. Derealization: Experiences of unreality or detachment with respect to surroundings (e.g.,
individuals or objects are experienced as unreal, dreamlike, foggy, lifeless, or visually
distorted).
During the depersonalization or derealization experiences, reality testing remains intact. The
symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of
a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, medication) or another medical condition (e.g., seizures). The
disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, panic

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disorder, major depressive disorder, acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, or
another dissociative disorder.