Caesar launched two invasions of Britain in 55 BCE and 54 BCE. The first invasion in 55 BCE saw the Romans struggle to land and fight the Britons directly on the beach, accomplishing little. For the second invasion in 54 BCE, Caesar brought five legions and purpose-built landing craft, landing unopposed. The Britons under Cassivellaunus used guerrilla tactics like harassing foraging parties but avoided direct battles. While Caesar withdrew after receiving hostages, the invasions provided early Roman knowledge of Britain and began the process of Romanization.
The graves of the early kings and others of high status with a comparison with rich graves from Sweden. A comparison of motifs in manuscripts and metalwork from Sutton Hoo.
The expansion of the dominion of Henry II with the foreseen breakup of that dominion through family feud. Acquisition of Ireland and homage of Wales and Scotland.
The graves of the early kings and others of high status with a comparison with rich graves from Sweden. A comparison of motifs in manuscripts and metalwork from Sutton Hoo.
The expansion of the dominion of Henry II with the foreseen breakup of that dominion through family feud. Acquisition of Ireland and homage of Wales and Scotland.
One of the greatest navel battles of the American Civil War. Read the history here and from an historical book at that. You won't find this in the bookstore. Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us for amazing content.
The Labour party has promised increased self-government for India without a definite timetable.The governments in Delhi and London are alarmed by the support for the Indian National Army. Leaders are put on trial but Congress leaders as whether as the public no longer view them as allies of an enemy, Japan, but as fighters for freedom from Britain. A wide scale mutiny in the Indian Navy adds doubts about the ability to use native troops to put down domestic violence. In addition Britain has large war debts including a debt to India for the use of troops outside India. Efforts to bring the Muslim League (Jinnah) and the Indian National Congress (Nehru) founder on the insistence, among other things, that the League represents all Muslims and Congress represents all Indians Britain under Viceroy Mountbatten proposes a plan that would allow for splitting India and existing provinces of India on Muslim or Hindu majority grounds. Votes lead to splitting Bengal and Punjab as well as some minor adjustments. India and Pakistan become independent.
12 The Raj -Burma campaign and Bengal famineRobert Ehrlich
The Burma campaign was almost entirely the work of the British Indian Army. The success in driving Japanese troops from Burma is attributed to the efforts of General William Slim. He used Dakota planes to support troop movements and proceeded even in the monsoon season. Different approaches to the campaign were conducted by US General 'Vinegar Joe' Stillwell and British General Orde Wingate.
9 The Raj Rowlatt, Amritsar and Non Cooperation Robert Ehrlich
The Raj continues wartime measure through the Rowlatt Act. Protests result. A peaceful gathering at Amritsar is massacred by General Dyer. Dyer is removed from his post. is treatment is brought to Parliament where he is praised by Lords but the dismissal is upheld by Commons after a speech by Churchill. Gandhi uses satyagraha in labor disputes but extends this to non-cooperation with the raj. He is arrested but soon released. Congress becomes a larger force among the Indian public.
The presentation begins with a look at the role of Indians in England. Many serve in the shipping industry as lascars and some remain in England, primarily in the Docklands section of London. Recently noted is Queen Victoria's munshi, Abdul This presentation then looks at the contribution of India to the Great War (World War I). The opinions of sepoys are known from letters transcribed by censors. The army served on the Western Front, in East Africa, Mesopotamia, the Suez and was a component at Gallipoli Some opposition to the war came from expatriates in Canada and the US. Others gave support but agitated for home rule. Gandhi supported the ambulance corps and recruiting. The war resulted in an increase in industrial produciton.
7 The Raj - Imperial Architecture -Art and NationalismRobert Ehrlich
This presentation looks at building built by the Raj and Raj-supported princes in the late 19th century. Havell makes a case for including Indian elements in public buildings while others advocate using architecture associated with imperial power in Europe. Indian painters evolve from artists who use the motifs of western art to those who look to traditional art
After a brief look at the jubilees celebrated in India the presentation looks at the proposed 1905 Bengal partition and its consequences. Partition is justified by administrative concerns but the partition map effects religious differences and a policy of divide and rule. Muslims in Bengal support the partition but the Indian National Congress opposes it.The reaction is to combine support of native industry with boycott of foreign goods. Opponents divide into moderates who support just these efforts . and extremists who advocate swaraj or self-rule. The Raj counters with the Minto-Morley reforms which give a small increase in local self-government. In 1911 the partition is repealed
6 The Raj - Indentured Indian Labor in South AfricaRobert Ehrlich
A look at the Indian diaspora in South Africa where indentured labor predominates but there are formeer indentured laborers who have small businesses and merchants or 'passenger' Indians' who have paid there own way. Gandhi goes to South Africa as lawyer for a merchant but encounters the plight of indentured labor. He develops the technique fo satyagraha to protest discrimination against Indians.
5 The Raj Political. Social and Religious Reform and WomenRobert Ehrlich
The Indian National Congress makes moderate demands for political reforms. The British make laws or attempt to make laws dealing with practices that some identify with religious traditions and others fee it is up to Indians to address. Some measures that are considered suppressive of free speech and participation in the system are. overturned. Particularly troublesome is the question whether Indians can sit on juries that try British citizens.
The rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century is a combination of rising Indian identity but also Hindu and Muslim identity. At Ayodha they come into conflict. A limited self-governance is offered through the 1892 Councils Act. Education is expanded particularly high education.
The use of caste by the British in terms of their remake of the army. Caste as a census. A look at caste from historic, linguistic and genetic point of view.
The changes that take place in India after the areas administered by the East India Company are assumed by the Crown. The army is restructured in an attempt to prevent future mutinies. A series of famines occurs and question arise about how to prevent or lessen their impact.
The Government of India Act of 1935 and discontent. The entrance of India into World War 2 and the resulting disaffection of the Indian National Congress, the opposition of the Indian Antional Army and the support of over 2 million volunteers. The Indian Army is crucial in East Africa and the Middle East and of great support in North Africa and Italy. A look at the summer capital of Simla.
The Indian Army after the Great War. The consequences of the swadeshi movement. Move of the capitol to New Delhi. Congress rejects the reformed government proposed by the Simon Commission. Round table conferences to try to reconcile differences. Salt Satyagraha led by Gandhi to try to obtain concessions.
3 England & India Before the Raj: New Products, New MilitarismRobert Ehrlich
The East India Company must accommodate to changing regimes in Britain. Its product create changing tastes: tea, cotton cloths and diamonds. A look at Company officials who get rich on diamonds.
5 England & India Before the Raj; Controlling Indian territoryRobert Ehrlich
The East India Company must now administer the territory where it has obtained revenue rights. The Company is under increased scrutiny and a hearing is held on Clive and his vast gains. Parliament attempts to have an influence in this administration.
A governor-general, Warren Hastings is sent to lead the three divisions of presidencies.
War continues in the south with conflicts between Mysore and its neighbors. After France enters on the side of revolting American colonists, the conflict again spills over into India. A technological advance is the sue fo improved rockets by Mysore
We also look at working conditions for civilian employees in India.
4 England and India Before the Raj: From Commercial to Military PowerRobert Ehrlich
This is the time of Clive.
The decline of the Mughal Empire leads to the development of regional powers.
In the Carnatic conflicts between these powers offer opportunities for expansion of East India Company influence. In this they come into conflict with the French and European and North American Wars (Austrian Succession, Seven Years) involve an Indian theater.
In Bengal rights granted by a weak Mughal Emperor are abused. A new leader, nawab, of Bengal attempts to check these abuses. He attacks Calcutta but a counterattack at the Battle of Plassey results in a puppet nawab. He too grows weary of abuses and demands and at Buxar is defeated. The Emperor then grants the Company revenue rights in Bengal and neighboring areas.
Financial difficulties result in a British bailout with restrictions. The Company is allowed to send tea to North America with a lower tariff but it is rejected. The American Revolution results.
The use of European trained native Indian troops (sepoys) begins
13 f2015 Science and Invention in Restoration EnglandRobert Ehrlich
A overview of scientific institutions that facilitated the advances, particularly the Royal Society. Some of teh major scientists and some of the less well known scientist who contributed to their work.
The reopening of the theater after the Interregnum required new buildings, new plays and new approaches to acting. Indoor theaters with elaborate effects meant higher prices. The audience was middle class and even the court attended. Women were now on stage in prominent sexualized roles.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
8. Religion and some manifestations Causeways 1500-300 BCE Deposits in waterways Shrines 400 BCE-43 CE Often connected with later Romano-British temples Druids
13. Development of a ShrinePhases – Hayling Island Phase I: Two enclosures and pit ~50 BCE Association with Belgae and Commius? Phase II Temple: Circular structure surrounds pit ~0-25 CE Roman Temple ~60 CE
20. Lindow man: death Probable cause of death: 2 blows to the head with a heavy object; also strangulation by a thin cord; throat cut Motive: Religious sacrifice?
21. Druids Repository of traditional knowledge Gods Tribal Law Administration of justice. Supervision of sacrifices. Used lunar calendar.
33. Government of provinces given to high officials whose offices arose from wealth not ability. Officers of senatorial or equestrian rank.
34.
35. Invasion – 55 BCE Legio VII Claudia Legio X Equestris
36. AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE From CAESAR’S INVASION OF BRITAIN NS 293, U of ILLINOIS, NROTC Capt M. T. Carson, MOI Captain M. A. Boccolucci, U of San Diego Major Pfiester, Marquette University Major Darin Clay U of Wisconsin Captain Howell, University of Kansas
37. Significant Points In the first invasion, the Romans must fight ashore, actually fighting it out in the surf. The campaigns, taken together, give a good example of how Caesar learned from his mistakes the first time out. i.e. specialized landing craft, larger force. Capt. Carson, UIUC
38. Caesar, Veniti and Britain Threat to trade Veniti attack Roman fleet High, sturdy sailing vessels Roman fleet Oared vessels Use hooks to cut rigging
47. Political Aspects Excitement of crossing the ‘Ocean’ Keeps Caesar before the eyes of Rome Letter to the Senate Commentaries
48. Intelligence Shortcomings Campaigns preceded by poor intelligence Possible Sources Merchants – not forthcoming; warn Britons Volusenus fails to find Richborough Envoy, Commius, had influence with Atrebati but not tribes in the area of invasion Campaigns work as intelligence gathering – not as conquest Rose Mary Sheldon (2002): “Caesar, Intelligence, and Ancient Britain,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 15:1, 77-100
49. First Landing August 55 B.C. Embarks two Veteran Legions [VII, X] and some cavalry. Launches following a “reconnaissance in force” Could not land since force was too small and had been observed Caesar sails from Boulogne to the Dover area. Sees British are there in force, so sails north for better beach He is tracked by British in chariots Capt. Carson, UIUC
51. First Landing (Cont) Finds a better beach by Deal Must fight ashore Romans reluctant to leave ships Hand to hand fighting in the surf Transport ships cruise parallel to the shore delivering supporting fire Romans finally secure a foot hold on dry land After three weeks, Caesar re-embarks and leaves, accomplishing little Capt. Carson, UIUC
54. The Fighting “Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of battle, our men did not all exert the same vigor and eagerness which they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground.” Caesar ordered …”the enemy to be beaten off and driven away, with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great service to our men “ “All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish color, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight.
57. Aftermath – First Invasion Envoys from enemy promise hostages Commius returns, reporting ill treatment Only two kingdoms provide hostages
58. Preparations: 2nd Invasion After building special flat-bottom, low freeboard, minimum draft landing craft, Caesar attacks again 5 legions (including veteran VII, X), plus 2,000 cavalry, for a total of about 22,000 troops A total of 800 ships to include 28 warships Capt. Carson, UIUC
59. Opposing forces 2,000 war chariots Horses suitable for chariots but not cavalry Briefly united tribes Some knowledge of Roman tactics “Indirect warfare”
60. Second Invasion, July 54 B.C. Lands at the same beach Lands unopposed; (Britons seeing the size of the force decide not to oppose) Caesar immediately marches inland 12 miles, catching Britons off guard. 7th Legion attacks, hit with flank attack, but the veterans withstand, improvise and take position Britons united under Cassivellaunus Storm damages Roman fleet. Not separate Naval commander hurts repair effort. Lose 10 days. Capt. Carson, UIUC
63. The Land Campaign Cassivellaunus divides force to attack base camp and to get main body to pursue Cassivellaunus sees Caesar’s extreme sensitivity to the security of base camp Realizes even with chariots, cannot win pitched fight Caesar pursues, conducts masterful forced crossing of Thames, sends cavalry around flanks, brings up supporting fires and conducts frontal assault Capt. Carson, UIUC
64. The Land Campaign (Cont) Romans unable to force the Britons into a pitched battle Roman base camp attacked, attack is beaten off, but commander sends word to Caesar that he expects to be attacked again Caesar leaves main body, rushes back, surveys situation and decides to abandon campaign Caesar withdraws after receiving few hostages, and a promise of tribute Capt. Carson, UIUC
65. Strategic Considerations Virtually no strategic thought, at least for the first invasion. Land and take over. Little planning. Was the first invasion a reconnaissance in force, or a true attempt to invade For second invasion, Caesar comes to play, 5 legions a substantial force Capt. Carson, UIUC
66. Operational Considerations First invasion hindered by lack of plan Few supplies, few troops, no landing craft Intelligence: recon force too small; no beach survey Deal chosen because looked good upon arrival No attempt at surprise Second invasion; planned. Larger fleet, larger force Landing craft, faster debarkation, close to beach. Uses same beach, brings supplies. Capt. Carson, UIUC
67. Tactical Considerations First landing, no landing plan, fight in the surf Good fire support in the first landing, brought the heavy stuff along on the cargo vessels. Once fight is joined and Romans are organized, their superior training and fighting skills are apparent and they prevail. The Britons chariots a factor until Romans learn how to counter Capt. Carson, UIUC
68. Tactical Considerations (Cont) Shortage of cavalry adequate recon and force screening difficult for Romans Cassivellaunus conducts a textbook guerrilla fight Avoids decisive engagement Harasses foraging parties Strikes at the beachhead with a sufficient force to cause alarm Capt. Carson, UIUC
69. Technical Consideratons First time, no landing craft, rectified the second time out. Returned with the gunships, not as critical the second invasion. Good use of heavy artillery in crossing the Thames. Capt. Carson, UIUC
70. Conclusions Security of beachhead and LOC to Gaul, primary concerns for Caesar. Britons conduct guerrilla campaign, Cassivellaunus able to recognize that he cannot conventionally defeat Romans. Wins without winning a battle. Caesar commands both land and sea. Caused problems in 54 after the storm Good naval gunfire support, earliest known example Capt. Carson, UIUC
72. Conclusions (Cont) Somehow, Caesar’s reputation is not damaged. Flexibility of Cassivellaunus - exploited Roman sensitivity to base camp Crossing of Thames excellent example of supporting arms. As veteran troops gain familiarity with new weapons(chariots in this case), they adapt tactics to cope or overcome the new system. The new weapon then loses most of its impact. Capt. Carson, UIUC
73. Conclusions (Cont) Romans aware of the pitfalls of invasion Opportunity for Roman and Romanized merchants British leaders adopt aspects of Roman culture British policy reflects events in Rome “…a Celtic-Gallic midget called Asterix (fix meant "king" in Celtic… for about 20 years has been beating up on Romans all over the place-to the delight of citizens who have never quite forgotten, or forgiven, Caesar” Dora Jane Hamblin. Smithsonian, May 1993
74. An Opposing View Purpose was only Caesar’s greed Loss of troops and ships Leaving Gaul might have threatened Italy Failure to find wealth (silver, gold, pearls?) Britain’s only asset – barbarous slaves who can neither write poetry or music
75. After Caesar leaves Conflict in Gaul Troops disbanded to winter quarters however Approach of fall Enough supplies to overwinter Uprisings in 53 and 52 in Gaul prevent return
76. Evaluations Success 55 reconnaissance in force; 54 police action Trading patterns established Loyal allies cultivated 90 years of peace
77. Evaluation Failure No occupation for enforcement Did not successfully counteract chariot guerilla warfare Did not gain access to mineral resources Did not learn about agriculture, industry
78. Effects On Britain Subject to tribute Roman ‘technical assistance’ leads to improved coinage. Those who aided Rome benefit economically Those who opposed Rome wait their chances.
79. “British” Reaction A kind of conquest Caesar made here; but made not here his brag Of 'came, and saw, and overcame.' With shame- The first that ever touch'd him- he was carried From off our coast, twice beaten; and his shipping- Poor ignorant baubles!- on our terrible seas, Like egg-shells mov'd upon their surges, crack'd As easily 'gainst our rocks Queen, Cymbeline Act III, Scene 1
Editor's Notes
The term ‘shrine’ is used loosely as it is not clear what specific ritual functions may have taken place, but these sites were probably the focus of activities involving communication with the supernatural.
Over 150 years later when a dyke was being cleaned, a series of posts were found together with an early to mid Iron Age sword. Subsequent excavations in 1981 revealed the posts to be a wooden causeway which dendrologists dated to a period between 457 and 300 BC. It appeared to have been repaired and added to every eighteen years or so during that period and the construction and maintenance of a walkway on such a scale at that time would have been a major feat of engineering. Hundreds of artifacts were also found around the causeway, including eleven spears, six swords, woodworking and metalworking tools, as well as part of a human skull which had a crescent-shaped chop mark, probably inflicted by a sword; this injury is unlikely to have killed the man.[4]Twenty years later in further excavations more sections of the causeway were dug out, some of them containing posts several metres long, plus a complete spear, a currency bar, a sword, a dagger and some bronze fittings, all of which appeared to have been deliberately damaged before their burial.[5] The most important discovery was two votive Iron Age boats. One of these boats as well as other artifacts can be seen at The Collection in Lincoln.The pre-Roman Iron Age wooden causeway at Fiskerton was excavated in part in 1981 (Field and ParkerPearson 2003). Associated with the causeway are ferrous weapons, tools and other artefacts, and finds ofbronze, pottery, stone, bone, jet and amber. The causeway appears to run from the site of the modern village ofFiskerton (five miles east of the city of Lincoln), down to the now canalised River Witham. Dendrochronologyhas dated the causeway to have been in use from at least 457 to 321 BC, although its precise function has not yetbeen established
The boat was apparently a votive deposit. It looks as if it had never been run on to a beach and was wedged into place with the back end actually pegged into place.
Wide enough for two carts. Hazel and ash. 3-3.5 m. 148 bc. Fragments that might have come from a cart.
Phase I Three main elements formed the focus of the ritual ensemble:an enclosure (c. 25 x 25 m) with its entrance aligned to the east, aninner enclosure, also with an eastern entrance, and a pit set on thewestern margin of the inner enclosure.o The outer enclosure was defined by a narrow square-shaped slotthat was widened at intervals by semicircular post-holes. This onlysurvived well just to the south of the entrance where it had not beendestroyed by the phase II enclosure ditch. In form, it was probably a fence of upright posts with planking or wattles in between. There areindications that the enclosure had a double or multiple boundary, asreflected in the parallel traces of ditches for part of the boundary.o The inner enclosure was much better preserved, taking the form ofa deep slot with preserved plank impressions in places, andsubstantial square post-holes at the corners and at intervals tosupport what must have been a plank-built fence. It was bestpreserved on its southern and eastern sides, showing clear evidencefor an inturned entrance in the middle of the eastern side. Becauseof later structures little survived of the western side, except for ashallow beam slot to the north of the pit that interrupted thealignment on this side. The distance between the east and west sidesof the enclosure is 8.60 m, which may conform to 28 units of amodule of 307 mm. This is close to the modules of 310 mm atManching and 304.2 mm at Mont Beuvray (Schubert and Schubert1993; Schubert 1994), and may indicate use of a metrical unit inlaying out the enclosure. Subsidiary measurements of the innerenclosure suggest that the module was used for some of the detailsof the layout (further analysis of which is proceeding). The innerenclosure was also probably laid out so that the east-west to northsouthratio was c. 4:5.o The pit appears to have been an integral part of this phase, sincethe entrances appear to have been aligned on it, and the beam-slotreferred to above respects its position. It was c. 2.5 x 1.7 m, and 0.65m deep, but since the fill dates to phase II, it is possible that the pitcould have been smaller in phase I, but subsequently enlarged. o APhase II The significant change was the probable round-house-likebuilding that replaced the inner enclosure. As discussed above, thisresembles a domestic structure in plan, and as such, can be regarded asa 'house' for the deity. The motivation for this phase of apparenttectonisation is not entirely clear: was it a dim reflection of the Graeco-Roman practice of building temples for the gods (Brunaux 1988:32;King 1990:223), or a 'domestication' of the deity arising out of localcultural changes and preferences, or merely the desire to build a shelterfor valuable votive offerings that needed to be placed near the ritualfocus?
On eof three found at Lindow. Last meal wheat, barley and mistletoe. Lindow Man was a healthy male in his mid-20s. He may have been someone of high status, as his body shows little evidence of heavy or rough work. The nature of his death was violent, perhaps ritualistic; after a last meal of charred bread, Lindow Man was strangled, hit on the head, and his throat was cut. Lindrow woman. Forensics identified the skull as belonging to a woman, probably aged 30–50.[5] On hearing the news of the discovery of the remains Peter Reyn-Bardt, who lived near Lindow Moss, believed it was the body of his wife. MrsReyn-Bardt had disappeared in 1960 and was the subject of an ongoing investigation by police. Peter Reyn-Bardt confessed to the murder of his wife and was tried and convicted.
Cheshire
Aust-on-SevernRomantemple of Henley Wood near Yattonin north Somerset, and of course inour same Bristol Channel Region.This figurine, which must also be assigned tothe end of the Iron Age, is now in theWoodspring Museum, We s t o n - s u p e r- M a re .It is tempting to label bothimages as ‘Venus figurines’because the Roman goddessconnected with love and procreation,who is often portrayedunclothed is so familiar to us.But the subjects of this note arenot directly connected withGraeco-Roman art and they mustrepresent a purely native powerof this region. Although we willprobably never know for certainwhat she was called, the onlylocal goddess known to us byname is Sulis, later equated bythe Romans with Minerva andgiven a temple at Bath. Is itpossible that the Aust on Severn figurineshows Sulis in her pre-Roman guise when shewas, above all, a goddess of fecundity?
Optio –lieutenant to centurion
Caesar writes that the Venetic shipswere much taller than the Roman, making it impossible to attack themwith missiles or to board them even if the Romans had added turrets totheir vessels.15 They were even too stoutly built to allow a ramming attack. So instead, the maneuverable, oared Roman vessels were driven into themiddle of the Gallic ¯ eet and, using sharp hooks attached to long poles,the Romans reached out and cut the halyards that attached the yards tothe masts on the enemy ships, thus destroying their sails and rigging. Thisopened the way to boarding-parties.
Caesar does not make much of this attempton his naval base, but he may have taken it more seriously than he admits.51Here under attack, he then shortly thereafter decides to leave. Caesar himselfrelates that, for two reasons, he had already decided to return to Gaul evenbefore the British overtures for peace were made: the approach of theequinox and the unsettled state of Gaul. Neither excuse should be taken asgenuine. Because he had taken over enough supplies to winter in Britain,the state of the weather in the Channel was irrelevant. And secondly, Gaulwas so quiet on his return that he was able to disperse his troops intowinter quarters. If Commius was used as the go-between, as has beensuggested, then the ® rst overtures to peace may even have come from theRomans.52 The terms of the surrender Caesar negotiated with the Britonswere quite moderate, again suggesting that Caesar was simply anxious toextricate himself from a bad situation.When his British expeditions are examined in detail, they reveal, not the perfect general of latermodern authors like Mommsen, Froude, Rice Holmes, Dodge, White,or Last,53 but rather the ambitious demagogue closer to Fuller’sinterpretation, where he is described as ``a general who could not only winbrilliant victories but also commit dismal blunders’ ’ Ð blunders so costly tohimself that more than half his campaigns were consumed in extricatinghimself from the results of his own mistakes.54 To spend over half a warextricating oneself from di culties created by the enemy may or may notbe good generalship; but to have to do so as a consequence of one’s ownmistakes is incontestably bad generalship, even when the extrications arebrilliant. And dismal military blunders follow from bad intelligencegathering. What these commentaries indicate is that we may never knowexactly what happened in Britain, and Caesar is not telling the wholetruth, for if this account is the best face Caesar can put on his ownactions, then something even less impressive must have happened in Britain.
Caesar did learn some useful things about the Britons. He learned that,unlike the Gauls of his own time, the Britons made use of chariots inwarfare, and he saw how these were handled. Gauls on the mainland nolonger used chariots, so this was a rather old technique, but a ``new’ ’element to Caesar. He describes their tactics with care, and pays hightribute both to the skill with which the chariots were driven and to theire€ ectiveness in battle. Yet the information did not allow him to overcomethe chief tactical problem this presented to the Romans: the di culty ofpursuit. On his reconnaissance in 55, Caesar was without cavalry exceptfor the thirty men of Commius’s bodyguard. Even in his invasion in thefollowing year he was, like all Roman commanders, inadequately furnishedwith cavalry. Consequently, charioteers could always escape him whentheir attack failed