The document discusses the key systems and structures of the human body. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the body and physiology as the study of how the body and its parts work. It then provides information on each of the main organ systems, including their functions. These systems include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Intestines(movements and secretions of small and large intestines ) The Guyto...Maryam Fida
Intestines(movements and secretions of small and large intestines)
Distended Portion of small intestine with chyme stretching concentric contractions at intervals lasting a fraction of a minute These contraction causes “Segmentation” of the small intestine ---forms spaced segments new points every time chopping chyme 2-3 times/min mixing with intestinal secretions maximum frequencyof segmentation contraction depends on frequency of BER (Basic electrical rhythm) i.e. In duodenum and proximal jejunum is 12/min and in terminal ileum is 8-9/min.
Atropine blocks the segmentation
law of gut
The peristaltic reflex +anal direction of movement of the peristalsis is called “LAW OF GUT”
human digestive system and its function. Human digestive system starts from Mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus are the parts in the human digestive system.
Physiology and Anatomy of Human Digestive System at a GlanceDilip Kumar Mahto
Human Digestive System is one of the very important system of human body. This presentation was prepared during class session of WASH to make them understand briefly.
This document provides an introduction to anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body parts and their relationships, while physiology is the study of body functions. Anatomy can be examined on a microscopic or developmental level, while physiology analyzes systems and their functions. The document then outlines the structural hierarchy of the body from chemicals to organ systems. It describes several key organ systems and homeostasis, concluding with important anatomical terminology.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, cavities, and history. It discusses the standard anatomical position of the body and introduces common anatomical terms like anterior/posterior, proximal/distal, and flexion/extension. The major body cavities described are the thoracic cavity containing the lungs and heart, abdominal cavity containing most digestive organs, and pelvic cavity containing urinary and reproductive organs. A brief history of anatomy highlights important early anatomists like Herophilus and Vesalius.
The human digestive system breaks down food through both mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion involves enzymes in saliva, gastric juice, and the pancreas. Food moves through the esophagus to the stomach and then into the small intestine, where most digestion occurs. Remaining waste moves into the large intestine to be excreted. Maintaining a healthy digestive system is important for nutrient absorption and preventing issues like acid reflux or constipation.
The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion to extract nutrients for absorption. It involves both organs of the gastrointestinal tract - the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine - and accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, broken down through peristalsis, enzymes, and absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Indigestible waste is eliminated as feces.
Intestines(movements and secretions of small and large intestines ) The Guyto...Maryam Fida
Intestines(movements and secretions of small and large intestines)
Distended Portion of small intestine with chyme stretching concentric contractions at intervals lasting a fraction of a minute These contraction causes “Segmentation” of the small intestine ---forms spaced segments new points every time chopping chyme 2-3 times/min mixing with intestinal secretions maximum frequencyof segmentation contraction depends on frequency of BER (Basic electrical rhythm) i.e. In duodenum and proximal jejunum is 12/min and in terminal ileum is 8-9/min.
Atropine blocks the segmentation
law of gut
The peristaltic reflex +anal direction of movement of the peristalsis is called “LAW OF GUT”
human digestive system and its function. Human digestive system starts from Mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus are the parts in the human digestive system.
Physiology and Anatomy of Human Digestive System at a GlanceDilip Kumar Mahto
Human Digestive System is one of the very important system of human body. This presentation was prepared during class session of WASH to make them understand briefly.
This document provides an introduction to anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body parts and their relationships, while physiology is the study of body functions. Anatomy can be examined on a microscopic or developmental level, while physiology analyzes systems and their functions. The document then outlines the structural hierarchy of the body from chemicals to organ systems. It describes several key organ systems and homeostasis, concluding with important anatomical terminology.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, cavities, and history. It discusses the standard anatomical position of the body and introduces common anatomical terms like anterior/posterior, proximal/distal, and flexion/extension. The major body cavities described are the thoracic cavity containing the lungs and heart, abdominal cavity containing most digestive organs, and pelvic cavity containing urinary and reproductive organs. A brief history of anatomy highlights important early anatomists like Herophilus and Vesalius.
The human digestive system breaks down food through both mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion involves enzymes in saliva, gastric juice, and the pancreas. Food moves through the esophagus to the stomach and then into the small intestine, where most digestion occurs. Remaining waste moves into the large intestine to be excreted. Maintaining a healthy digestive system is important for nutrient absorption and preventing issues like acid reflux or constipation.
The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion to extract nutrients for absorption. It involves both organs of the gastrointestinal tract - the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine - and accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, broken down through peristalsis, enzymes, and absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Indigestible waste is eliminated as feces.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
Introduction to endocrine system and pituitary glanddina merzeban
This document provides information about endocrine glands and hormones. It discusses that endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate biochemical reactions and body processes. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas and gonads. The hypothalamus controls endocrine activity through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal system. Hormones can be proteins, steroids or amino acid derivatives. They act through receptors on or inside target cells to initiate biochemical reactions. The secretion of hormones is regulated by feedback loops and factors like blood glucose levels. Disorders of growth hormone secretion can cause dwarfism or gigantism.
Stages & regulation of pancreatic secretionrashidrmc
The document discusses the phases and regulation of pancreatic secretion. It describes three phases: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. In the cephalic phase, acetylcholine causes acinar cells to secrete enzymes via parasympathetic stimulation. In the gastric phase, secretion continues in the same way. However, the enzymes from these first two phases generally are not released into the intestine until the intestinal phase. In this third phase, the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin are released in response to acidic chyme and fats in the duodenum. They work to secrete bicarbonate and digestive enzymes through the pancreatic ducts. Together, the endocrine and nervous systems regulate
The document summarizes the three main processes involved in urine formation: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. It describes glomerular filtration in detail, including the characteristics of the filtration membrane that allow it to be highly selective. The normal glomerular filtration rate is 125 mL/minute, with the kidneys producing a total of about 180 L of filtrate per day. Glomerular filtration rate is regulated by several factors that influence the net filtration pressure across the glomerular membrane.
MAJOR FOODS: CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND PROTEINS
PROCESSES OF DIGESTION FOR ABSORPTION
MECHANISMS FOR ABSORPTION DIGESTIVE END PRODUCTS
DIGESTION OF VARIOUS FOODS BY HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES: LARGE POLYSACCHARIDES OR DISACCHARIDES
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES IN THE DIGESTIVE JUICES RETURN OH AND H IONS
White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are classified into two main groups: granular and agranular. Granular leukocytes include basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils which contain cytoplasmic granules. Their functions include fighting infection and mediating allergic reactions. Agranular leukocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes which do not contain granules. Lymphocytes mediate immune responses and develop antibodies, while monocytes phagocytose pathogens and become macrophages. Leukocytes are formed in bone marrow and lymph nodes to protect the body from microorganisms and disease.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can be steroid hormones or peptide hormones. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback loops that regulate hormone production and secretion.
This document outlines the course details for Human Anatomy and Physiology taught at the School of Medical and Allied Sciences. The course code is BMLS2004 and is taught by A. Vamsi Kumar. The course is divided into 6 units that cover topics such as cells and tissues, the musculoskeletal system, and body systems like the digestive and urinary systems. The goals are for students to gain knowledge of human anatomy and physiology, be able to discuss body structures and functions, and identify any anomalies. Reference materials and YouTube videos are provided to aid student learning.
The endocrine system involves communication between glands and target cells through chemical messengers called hormones. The pituitary gland located at the base of the brain regulates other endocrine glands through feedback loops. It has an anterior and posterior lobe. The thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which affect metabolism. Thyroxine is converted to the active T3 in target cells. The thyroid synthesizes these hormones by binding iodine to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin within its follicles.
Biomolecules and the cell MEMBRANE, TRANSPORT SYSTEMAreeba Ghayas
The document provides information on biomolecules and the cell. It discusses the six main elements that make up the human body - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. The cell is described as the basic structural and functional unit of life, with eukaryotic cells being larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The main organelles of the eukaryotic cell are then outlined, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytosol/cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of synapses, including their definition, structure, function, types of transmission (electrical vs. chemical), neurotransmitters, and various properties like synaptic delay, fatigue, summation, and more. It discusses excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and how convergence and divergence allow signals to be dispersed or combined. Clinical implications are that problems with synaptic transmission can cause diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
Main function: The GIT provides the body with a supply of water, nutrients, electrolytes,
vitamines.
Actions:
1) Digestion of the food
2) Absorption of the products of digestion
Ad 1) Digestive processes: - mechanical
- chemical
Mechanical methods: - mastication (chewing)
- swallowing (deglutition)
- movements of the GIT
(motor functions)
Chemical means (secretions): - saliva
- gastric juice
- pancreatic juice
- intestinal juice
- bile
PHYSIOLOGY OF MOUTH
Functions:
1/ Mechanical and chemical digestion of the food
2/ The source of the unconditioned reflexes
3/ Control of physical and chemical properties of the food
Ad 1 a Mechanical activity – mastication
The anterior teeth – a cutting action
The posterior teeth – a grinding action
Thee maximal closing force - incissors 15 kg
- mollars 50 kg
Inervations of the muscles of chewing – 5th, 8th, 12th cranial nerves
Centers – near the brain stem and cerebral cortex centers for taste
Act of mastication:
The movement of the lower jaw down:
- Contraction of m. biventer mandibulae (m.digastricus), m.
pterygoideus ext., m.m. infrahyoidei →
The movement – up: the drop initiates a stretch reflex
Contraction of m. masseter, m. temporalis, m. pterygoideus
Rebound of antagonists- inhibition – the jaw drops +
compression of the bolus of the food against the linings of the mouth - rebound – repetitive
actions.....
Mastication reflexive and voluntary
Function of the mastication: - grinding the food
- mixing with saliva
- prevention of excoriation of GIT
- makes easy swalowing
2
- aids subsequent digestion
SALIVATION
Ad 1 b) Adjustment of the food by the saliva
The salivary glands: - parotid
- submandibular
- sublingual
- buccal
Secretion of the saliva: - basal - 800 – 1500 ml/day
- during intake of food
Regulation of salivary secretion
– nervous - parasympathetic
- sympathetic
Unconditioned reflexes:
Taste and tactile stimuli increase 8-20 times the basal rate of secretion
Conditioned reflexes:
Visual, olphactoric, acoustic stimuli
Centers: salivatory nuclei (at the juncture of the medulla and pons):
superior – submandibular (70%), sublingual (5%)
inferior – parotid (serous saliva).
The gastrointestinal system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory exocrine glands. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, and the large intestine. The major accessory glands are the salivary glands, the liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas.
The major functions of the gastrointestinal system are assimilation of nutrients and excretion of waste products via the biliary system. Movement of food through the gastrointestinal system (motility) is carefully coordinated with the delivery of appropriate fluid and enzyme solutions (secretion) so that the macromolecules in food can be hydrolyzed (digestion) and the nutrient molecules, which are liberated, can be transported into the circulatory.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and their relationships, and physiology as the study of body functions. It discusses the basic life processes like metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction. It also introduces homeostasis as the body's process of maintaining equilibrium, and describes the different body fluids, including intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, and fluids of the eye. Key anatomical and directional terminology is also covered.
Presentation on the mechanism of HCl production in the stomachMahtabUddinMojumder
The document presents information on the mechanism of HCl production in the stomach. It discusses the three phases of gastric secretion regulation and the two pathways of acid secretion - the cAMP dependent pathway and the Ca2+ dependent pathway. In both pathways, parietal cells in the stomach secrete acid through the action of histamine and stimulation of the H+/K+ ATPase pump. HCl production allows for protein digestion and creates an inhospitable environment for bacteria in the stomach. Common drugs for treating acid reflux include proton pump inhibitors which block acid secretion and H2 receptor blockers which prevent histamine from stimulating acid release.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It examines the structure and function of biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids and how they are involved in metabolic pathways and genetic processes. Biochemistry has applications in medicine, nutrition, agriculture, and other fields. It seeks to understand living systems at the molecular level and provide insights into disease diagnosis and treatment.
The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs that aid in digestion include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Digestion involves the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food so that nutrients can be absorbed in the small intestine and remaining waste is eliminated as feces.
Reticulo endothelial system B.pharmacy 2 semesterKondal Reddy
In anatomy the term "reticuloendothelial system" (abbreviated RES), often associated nowadays with the
mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), was originally launched by the beginning of the 20th century to denote a system of specialized cells that effectively clear colloidal vital stains (so called because they stain living cells) from the blood circulation.
Introduction to HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYabhay joshi
THIS PRESENTATION INCLUDE THE INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. IT INCLUDE DEFINITATION, STRUCTURAL LEVEL ORGANIZATION, BASIC LIFE PROCESSES AND BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY.
This document provides an overview of general physiology concepts including:
- Physiology is the study of how cells, tissues, and organisms function
- Shivering occurs when we feel cold to help warm the body through involuntary muscle contractions
- The hypothalamus detects a fall in temperature and causes shivering to increase body temperature
- Homeostasis refers to maintaining a relatively constant internal environment through feedback mechanisms like negative feedback which acts to reverse changes and positive feedback which accelerates changes.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, summarizing each of the major endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pineal gland, gonads, pancreas, and thymus gland. For each gland, it outlines their location in the body, cellular structure, and the hormones produced as well as the functions of those hormones in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, calcium levels, stress response, and immune function.
The document provides an overview of human anatomy and physiology, describing the basic levels of organization in the human body from cells to organ systems, and covering the key functions and components of major body systems including the nervous, respiratory, muscular, skeletal, digestive, circulatory, lymphatic, integumentary, excretory, reproductive and endocrine systems. It also discusses basic life processes, homeostasis, and feedback systems that help maintain stable internal body conditions.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
Introduction to endocrine system and pituitary glanddina merzeban
This document provides information about endocrine glands and hormones. It discusses that endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate biochemical reactions and body processes. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas and gonads. The hypothalamus controls endocrine activity through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal system. Hormones can be proteins, steroids or amino acid derivatives. They act through receptors on or inside target cells to initiate biochemical reactions. The secretion of hormones is regulated by feedback loops and factors like blood glucose levels. Disorders of growth hormone secretion can cause dwarfism or gigantism.
Stages & regulation of pancreatic secretionrashidrmc
The document discusses the phases and regulation of pancreatic secretion. It describes three phases: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. In the cephalic phase, acetylcholine causes acinar cells to secrete enzymes via parasympathetic stimulation. In the gastric phase, secretion continues in the same way. However, the enzymes from these first two phases generally are not released into the intestine until the intestinal phase. In this third phase, the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin are released in response to acidic chyme and fats in the duodenum. They work to secrete bicarbonate and digestive enzymes through the pancreatic ducts. Together, the endocrine and nervous systems regulate
The document summarizes the three main processes involved in urine formation: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. It describes glomerular filtration in detail, including the characteristics of the filtration membrane that allow it to be highly selective. The normal glomerular filtration rate is 125 mL/minute, with the kidneys producing a total of about 180 L of filtrate per day. Glomerular filtration rate is regulated by several factors that influence the net filtration pressure across the glomerular membrane.
MAJOR FOODS: CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND PROTEINS
PROCESSES OF DIGESTION FOR ABSORPTION
MECHANISMS FOR ABSORPTION DIGESTIVE END PRODUCTS
DIGESTION OF VARIOUS FOODS BY HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES: LARGE POLYSACCHARIDES OR DISACCHARIDES
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES IN THE DIGESTIVE JUICES RETURN OH AND H IONS
White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are classified into two main groups: granular and agranular. Granular leukocytes include basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils which contain cytoplasmic granules. Their functions include fighting infection and mediating allergic reactions. Agranular leukocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes which do not contain granules. Lymphocytes mediate immune responses and develop antibodies, while monocytes phagocytose pathogens and become macrophages. Leukocytes are formed in bone marrow and lymph nodes to protect the body from microorganisms and disease.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can be steroid hormones or peptide hormones. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback loops that regulate hormone production and secretion.
This document outlines the course details for Human Anatomy and Physiology taught at the School of Medical and Allied Sciences. The course code is BMLS2004 and is taught by A. Vamsi Kumar. The course is divided into 6 units that cover topics such as cells and tissues, the musculoskeletal system, and body systems like the digestive and urinary systems. The goals are for students to gain knowledge of human anatomy and physiology, be able to discuss body structures and functions, and identify any anomalies. Reference materials and YouTube videos are provided to aid student learning.
The endocrine system involves communication between glands and target cells through chemical messengers called hormones. The pituitary gland located at the base of the brain regulates other endocrine glands through feedback loops. It has an anterior and posterior lobe. The thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which affect metabolism. Thyroxine is converted to the active T3 in target cells. The thyroid synthesizes these hormones by binding iodine to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin within its follicles.
Biomolecules and the cell MEMBRANE, TRANSPORT SYSTEMAreeba Ghayas
The document provides information on biomolecules and the cell. It discusses the six main elements that make up the human body - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. The cell is described as the basic structural and functional unit of life, with eukaryotic cells being larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The main organelles of the eukaryotic cell are then outlined, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytosol/cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of synapses, including their definition, structure, function, types of transmission (electrical vs. chemical), neurotransmitters, and various properties like synaptic delay, fatigue, summation, and more. It discusses excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and how convergence and divergence allow signals to be dispersed or combined. Clinical implications are that problems with synaptic transmission can cause diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
Main function: The GIT provides the body with a supply of water, nutrients, electrolytes,
vitamines.
Actions:
1) Digestion of the food
2) Absorption of the products of digestion
Ad 1) Digestive processes: - mechanical
- chemical
Mechanical methods: - mastication (chewing)
- swallowing (deglutition)
- movements of the GIT
(motor functions)
Chemical means (secretions): - saliva
- gastric juice
- pancreatic juice
- intestinal juice
- bile
PHYSIOLOGY OF MOUTH
Functions:
1/ Mechanical and chemical digestion of the food
2/ The source of the unconditioned reflexes
3/ Control of physical and chemical properties of the food
Ad 1 a Mechanical activity – mastication
The anterior teeth – a cutting action
The posterior teeth – a grinding action
Thee maximal closing force - incissors 15 kg
- mollars 50 kg
Inervations of the muscles of chewing – 5th, 8th, 12th cranial nerves
Centers – near the brain stem and cerebral cortex centers for taste
Act of mastication:
The movement of the lower jaw down:
- Contraction of m. biventer mandibulae (m.digastricus), m.
pterygoideus ext., m.m. infrahyoidei →
The movement – up: the drop initiates a stretch reflex
Contraction of m. masseter, m. temporalis, m. pterygoideus
Rebound of antagonists- inhibition – the jaw drops +
compression of the bolus of the food against the linings of the mouth - rebound – repetitive
actions.....
Mastication reflexive and voluntary
Function of the mastication: - grinding the food
- mixing with saliva
- prevention of excoriation of GIT
- makes easy swalowing
2
- aids subsequent digestion
SALIVATION
Ad 1 b) Adjustment of the food by the saliva
The salivary glands: - parotid
- submandibular
- sublingual
- buccal
Secretion of the saliva: - basal - 800 – 1500 ml/day
- during intake of food
Regulation of salivary secretion
– nervous - parasympathetic
- sympathetic
Unconditioned reflexes:
Taste and tactile stimuli increase 8-20 times the basal rate of secretion
Conditioned reflexes:
Visual, olphactoric, acoustic stimuli
Centers: salivatory nuclei (at the juncture of the medulla and pons):
superior – submandibular (70%), sublingual (5%)
inferior – parotid (serous saliva).
The gastrointestinal system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory exocrine glands. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, and the large intestine. The major accessory glands are the salivary glands, the liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas.
The major functions of the gastrointestinal system are assimilation of nutrients and excretion of waste products via the biliary system. Movement of food through the gastrointestinal system (motility) is carefully coordinated with the delivery of appropriate fluid and enzyme solutions (secretion) so that the macromolecules in food can be hydrolyzed (digestion) and the nutrient molecules, which are liberated, can be transported into the circulatory.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and their relationships, and physiology as the study of body functions. It discusses the basic life processes like metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction. It also introduces homeostasis as the body's process of maintaining equilibrium, and describes the different body fluids, including intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, and fluids of the eye. Key anatomical and directional terminology is also covered.
Presentation on the mechanism of HCl production in the stomachMahtabUddinMojumder
The document presents information on the mechanism of HCl production in the stomach. It discusses the three phases of gastric secretion regulation and the two pathways of acid secretion - the cAMP dependent pathway and the Ca2+ dependent pathway. In both pathways, parietal cells in the stomach secrete acid through the action of histamine and stimulation of the H+/K+ ATPase pump. HCl production allows for protein digestion and creates an inhospitable environment for bacteria in the stomach. Common drugs for treating acid reflux include proton pump inhibitors which block acid secretion and H2 receptor blockers which prevent histamine from stimulating acid release.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It examines the structure and function of biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids and how they are involved in metabolic pathways and genetic processes. Biochemistry has applications in medicine, nutrition, agriculture, and other fields. It seeks to understand living systems at the molecular level and provide insights into disease diagnosis and treatment.
The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs that aid in digestion include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Digestion involves the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food so that nutrients can be absorbed in the small intestine and remaining waste is eliminated as feces.
Reticulo endothelial system B.pharmacy 2 semesterKondal Reddy
In anatomy the term "reticuloendothelial system" (abbreviated RES), often associated nowadays with the
mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), was originally launched by the beginning of the 20th century to denote a system of specialized cells that effectively clear colloidal vital stains (so called because they stain living cells) from the blood circulation.
Introduction to HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYabhay joshi
THIS PRESENTATION INCLUDE THE INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. IT INCLUDE DEFINITATION, STRUCTURAL LEVEL ORGANIZATION, BASIC LIFE PROCESSES AND BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY.
This document provides an overview of general physiology concepts including:
- Physiology is the study of how cells, tissues, and organisms function
- Shivering occurs when we feel cold to help warm the body through involuntary muscle contractions
- The hypothalamus detects a fall in temperature and causes shivering to increase body temperature
- Homeostasis refers to maintaining a relatively constant internal environment through feedback mechanisms like negative feedback which acts to reverse changes and positive feedback which accelerates changes.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, summarizing each of the major endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pineal gland, gonads, pancreas, and thymus gland. For each gland, it outlines their location in the body, cellular structure, and the hormones produced as well as the functions of those hormones in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, calcium levels, stress response, and immune function.
The document provides an overview of human anatomy and physiology, describing the basic levels of organization in the human body from cells to organ systems, and covering the key functions and components of major body systems including the nervous, respiratory, muscular, skeletal, digestive, circulatory, lymphatic, integumentary, excretory, reproductive and endocrine systems. It also discusses basic life processes, homeostasis, and feedback systems that help maintain stable internal body conditions.
The document provides an overview of the major human body systems, including:
- The anatomy and physiology of each system and their basic functions. The systems covered include: respiratory, circulatory, digestive, endocrine, immune, lymphatic, musculoskeletal, nervous, reproductive, and urinary.
- Descriptions of key organs within each system and their roles in essential biological processes like gas exchange, nutrient transport, hormone production, defense against pathogens, fluid transport, movement, and waste removal.
- Reproductive cycles and gamete production in the male and female systems.
The document provides an overview of human anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of the body's structure and physiology as the study of how the body functions. It describes the different levels of structural organization in the human body from the chemical to the organism level. It then provides an overview of the major organ systems, including their main functions and examples of organs within each system. The digestive system is discussed in more detail, outlining the organs and processes involved in breaking down food for energy and growth.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It begins by defining anatomy as the study of structure and physiology as the study of function. It describes different methods of studying anatomy, including surface observation, dissection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion. It then discusses the hierarchy of biological complexity from molecules to cells to tissues to organs to organ systems. The document also defines and provides examples of organs, tissues, organelles, and molecules. It lists and describes the 11 major organ systems of the human body. Finally, it introduces some key anatomical concepts and terminology used to describe the human body.
Introduction and scope of anatomy and physiologyJaineel Dharod
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and physiology as the study of body functions. It describes the levels of structural organization from chemical to cellular to tissue to organ to system to organism. Key body systems include the digestive and circulatory systems. Basic life processes that distinguish living things from non-living things are also outlined, including metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction. Homeostasis and the body's feedback systems that maintain stable internal conditions are then discussed.
In summary, the human body is made of 11 important organ systems, including the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, nervous and endocrine systems. They also include the immune, integumentary, skeletal, muscle and reproductive systems. The systems work together to maintain a functioning human body
The human body contains several systems that work together to keep us alive. The main systems include the nervous system which senses the environment and coordinates the body's functions. The skeletal system provides structure and protection with bones and allows for movement with muscles. The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, waste and defenses through the blood. Other key systems are the digestive system which breaks down food, respiratory system which intakes oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, excretory system which removes waste, and reproductive system which produces offspring. All systems communicate and depend on each other to maintain health.
The human body is organized into four hierarchical levels: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function, and when cells perform similar functions they are organized into tissues like skin tissue. Organs are made up of combinations of tissues and perform vital functions like the heart pumping blood. Organ systems are groups of organs that work together, like the circulatory system which transports blood and nutrients around the body. Homeostasis refers to the dynamic maintenance of stable internal conditions in the body, which is essential for life.
The human body is made up of trillions of cells that are organized into tissues, organs, and systems. Cells are the basic unit of the body and come together to form tissues like muscle and bone. Multiple tissues combine to create organs such as the stomach and liver. Systems are groups of organs that work together, such as the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems, which work to transport nutrients, gases, and signals throughout the body.
The human body is made up of trillions of cells that are organized into tissues, organs, and systems. Cells are the basic unit of the body and come together to form tissues like muscle and bone. Multiple tissues combine to create organs such as the stomach and liver. Systems group several organs together to carry out important functions - examples include the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems. The human body contains 11 major organ systems that work together intricately to keep us alive.
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body via the heart, arteries and veins. The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that are absorbed in the small intestine. The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones released directly into the bloodstream from glands. The immune system defends the body against infections and diseases using white blood cells and antibodies.
The document discusses the structure and functions of the human body. It begins by defining anatomy and describing different levels of structural organization in the body, from cells to organ systems. It then outlines several key life processes including metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction, and homeostasis. It provides an overview of the 11 organ systems and their functions in maintaining homeostasis. It concludes by describing anatomical terminology used to communicate locations in the body.
The document provides an overview of the major systems in the human body. It describes the circulatory system which transports blood throughout the body via the heart, arteries and veins. The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients which are absorbed and the waste is eliminated. The immune system defends the body against infections and diseases through various response systems like the skin, inflammation and antibodies.
The document provides an overview of the human body's organization and systems. It discusses the different levels of structural complexity from atoms and molecules to cells, tissues, organs, and systems. The major body systems are described including musculoskeletal, digestive, urinary, reproductive, cardiovascular, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, integumentary, and their functions in maintaining homeostasis. Homeostasis involves control systems that use negative feedback to regulate internal variables like temperature, pH, and glucose levels. Imbalances can develop if control is poor and threaten health.
The document provides an overview of the 12 human organ systems and how they work together. It discusses each system individually, including the circulatory, respiratory, muscular, skeletal, nervous, digestive, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive systems. It notes how certain systems like the circulatory and respiratory, and digestive and circulatory systems work closely together. Maintaining homeostasis through the coordinated function of organ systems is highlighted as important for the overall health of the human body.
The document provides an overview of the 12 human organ systems and how they work together. It discusses the circulatory system, respiratory system, muscular system, skeletal system, nervous system, digestive system, urinary system, endocrine system, and male and female reproductive systems. It explains how the circulatory system works closely with the respiratory system to provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the body. It also notes that homeostasis is maintained as the body systems work together to regulate internal stability and balance.
The document summarizes the major human body systems, including:
- The nervous system which includes the central and peripheral nervous systems and neurons.
- The integumentary system which includes skin, hair, and nails to protect the body.
- The respiratory system which allows for intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide through the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea and lungs.
- The digestive system which converts food into nutrients through the organs of the gastrointestinal tract.
- Other systems summarized include excretory, skeletal, muscular, circulatory, endocrine, reproductive, and lymphatic.
The document describes the major organ systems of the human body. It outlines 12 systems: circulatory, digestive, endocrine, integumentary, muscular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, reproductive, urinary, lymphatic, and circulatory. Each system is briefly described in one to three sentences explaining its main functions and key organs involved.
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Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
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3. This system is the study of external covering
of the body, or the skin, including the hair
and fingers: INTEGUMENTARY
Other term of Armpit: AXILLARY
This study of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts: ANATOMY
This study of how the body and its parts work
or function: PHYSIOLOGY
This system control the body activities:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
5. What is the difference between anatomy and
physiology
What are the difference level of organization
Explained the anatomical body position,
directional terms used for locations of a body
organ in relation to other organ
6. ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY
Study of human body
structure
Greek words meaning
to cut “ TOMY” while
ANA is apart
Gross anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
The study of the
human body function
EX:
Neuro physiology
Cardiac physiology
9. ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy has a
numerous subfield:
Systemic anatomy
Regional anatomy
Surface anatomy
Physiology has a
numerous subfield:
classification has
usually to reference
to the organ or organ
system that being to
be studied
Neuro physiology
Cardio physiology
10. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
TO DETERMINE THE SIX LEVELS OF
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
TO DETERMINE THE ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE
BODY
TO IDENTIFY AND CLASSIFY BY ORGAN SYSTEM
ALL ORGANS DISCUSSED
11.
12. Integumentary system
Skeletal system
Muscular system
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Cardiovascular system
Lymphatic system
Respiratory system
Digestive system
Urinary system
Reproductive system
13. largest organ of the
body
forms a physical barrier
between the external
environment and the
internal environment
that it serves to protect
and maintain. The
Integumentary
system includes the
epidermis, dermis,
hypodermis,
associated glands, hair,
and nails
14. your body's central
framework
Its primary functions
include supporting the
body, allowing motion,
and protecting vital
organs.
Musculoskeletal system
The cavities of the
skeleton are the site where
the blood cells are formed.
The hard substances of
bones acts storehouse for
minerals
17. The muscular system is an
organ system consisting of
skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles.
THE SKELETAL MUSCLE
FORM MUSCULAR SYSTEM
permits movement of the
body, maintains posture and
circulates blood throughout the
body.
The muscular system is
composed of specialized cells
called muscle fibers. Their
predominant function
is contractibility.
Mobility. The muscular
system's main function is
to allow movement.
Stability. Muscle tendons
stretch over joints and
contribute to joint stability.
Posture
Circulation
Respiration
Digestion
Urination
Childbirth
18. FAST-ACTING CONTROL
SYSTEM OF THE BODY;
RESPONDS TO INTERNAL
AND EXTERNAL CHANGE
BY ACTIVITAING
APPROPRIATE MUSCLE
AND GLANDS
19. CONTROL BODY ACTIVITIES
chemical substances produced in the body that regulate
the activity of cells or organs.
HORMONES
sexual development and function
The major glands that make up the endocrine system
are
hypothalamus.
pituitary.
thyroid.
parathyroids.
adrenals.
pineal body.
the ovaries.
the testes.
20. Blood vessels transport
blood which carrier
oxygen, nutrient,
hormones, carbon
dioxide wastes product;
the heart pump the
blood
21. Heart and the blood vessels
simply the circulatory, system
the white blood cells and chemicals in the blood helps to
protect the body from such foreign invaders as bacteria,
viruses and tumor cells
The heart propels blood out of its chambers into blood
vessels to be transported to all body tissues.
There are five classes of blood vessels:
arteries and arterioles (the arterial system), veins and
venules (the venous system), and capillaries (the
smallest bloods vessels, linking arterioles and venules
through networks within organs and tissues)
22. Picks up fluid leaked
from blood vessels and
returns it to blood;
dispose of debris in the
lymphatic stream;
houses white blood cells
involved in immunity
23. a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work
together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph
back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream).
The lymphatic system is our body's 'sewerage
system'. It maintains fluid levels in our body
tissues by removing all fluids that leak out of our
blood vessels. The lymphatic system is important for
the optimal functioning of our general and specific
immune responses.
Inside the lymph nodes are white blood cells, also
called lymphocytes. These white blood cells attack
and break down bacteria, viruses, damaged cells or
cancer cells. The lymph fluid carries the waste
products and destroyed bacteria back into the
bloodstream. The liver or kidneys then remove these
from the blood.
24. Keeps blood constantly
supplied with oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide; the
gaseous exchange occur
through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
25. Your lungs are part of the respiratory system, a group
of organs and tissues that work together to help you
breathe. The respiratory system's main job is to
move fresh air into your body while removing
waste gases
These are the parts:
Nose.
Mouth.
Throat (pharynx)
Voice box (larynx)
Windpipe (trachea)
Large airways (bronchi)
Small airways (bronchioles)
Lungs.
26. BREAKS FOOD DOWN INTO
ABSORBABLE NUTRIENTS
THAT ENTER THE BLOOD FOR
DISTRIBUTION TO BODY
CELLS; INDIGESTIBLE
FOODSTUFF ARE ELIMINATED
27. Digestion is important for breaking down
food into nutrients, which the body uses for
energy, growth, and cell repair. Digestion
works by moving food through the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Digestion begins in
the mouth with chewing and ends in the
small intestine.
Motility, digestion, absorption and
secretion are the four vital functions of the
digestive system. The digestive system
breaks down the foods we eat into energy
our bodies can use.
29. The urinary system's function is to filter blood and
create urine as a waste by-product. The organs of
the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis,
ureters, bladder and urethra. The body takes
nutrients from food and converts them to energy.
Their function is to:
Remove waste products and medicines from the body.
Balance the body's fluids.
Balance a variety of electrolytes.
Release hormones to control blood pressure.
Release a hormone to control red blood cell
production.
Help with bone health by controlling calcium and
phosphorus.
31. The organs involved in producing offspring.
In women, this system includes the ovaries,
the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix,
and the vagina. In men, it includes the
prostate, the testes, and the penis.
32. Which organ system includes the trachea,
lungs, nasal cavity and bronchi?
Which system function removes wastes and
helps regulates pressure?
What is the largest organ of the body?
33. Learning objectives:
To determine the eight
function of human must
perform to maintain
life.
To know the five
survival needs of the
human body.
34. List 8 functions that humans must perform to maintain life.
Digestion - Process of breaking down ingested food into
simple molecules that can be absorbed in the blood.
Excretion - Elimination of carbon dioxide by the lungs and
elimination of nitrogenous wastes by the kidneys.
Growth - Occurs when constructive activities occur at a
faster rate than destructive activities
Maintenance of boundaries - At the cellular level,
membranes; for the whole organism, the skin
Metabolism - All chemical reactions occurring in the body
Movement - Walking, throwing a ball, riding a bicycle
Responsiveness - Ability to react to stimuli; a major role of
the nervous system
Reproduction - Provides new cells for growth and repair
35. Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so
that its internal environment (inside) remains distinct
from the external environment surrounding it
(outside).
In single-celled organisms, the external boundary is a
limiting membrane that encloses its contents and
admits needed substances while restricting entry
of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.
Similarly, all the cells of our body are surrounded by
a selectively permeable membrane. Additionally, the
body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the
integumentary system, or skin, which protects our
internal organs from drying out (a fatal change),
bacteria, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight,
and an unbelievable number of chemicals in the
external environment.
36. includes the activities promoted by the muscular
system, such as propelling ourselves from
one place to another by running or swimming,
and manipulating the external environment with
our nimble fingers.
The skeletal system provides the bony framework
that the muscles pull on as they work. Movement
also occurs when substances such as blood,
foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through
internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive,
and urinary systems, respectively. On the
cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move
by shortening is more precisely called
contractility.
37. is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the
environment and then respond to them. For
example, if you cut your hand on broken glass, a
withdrawal reflex occurs—you involuntarily
pull your hand away from the painful stimulus
(the broken glass). It is not necessary to think
about it; it just happens! Likewise, when carbon
dioxide in your blood rises to dangerously high
levels, chemical sensors respond by sending
messages to brain centers controlling
respiration, and your breathing rate speeds
up.Because nerve cells are highly irritable and
communicate rapidly with each other via
electrical impulses, the nervous system is most
involved with responsiveness. However, all body
cells are irritable to some extent.
38. is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs
to simple molecules that can be absorbed
into the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is
then distributed to all body cells by the
cardiovascular system. In a simple, one-
celled organism such as an amoeba, the cell
itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the
multicellular human body, the
digestive system performs this function for
the entire body.
39. is a broad term that includes all chemical
reactions that occur within body cells. It
includes breaking down substances into their
simpler building blocks (more specifically
called catabolism), synthesizing more complex
cellular structures from simpler substances
(anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, the
energy-rich molecules that power cellular
activities. Metabolism depends on the digestive
and respiratory systems to make nutrients and
oxygen available to the blood and on
the cardiovascular system to distribute these
needed substances throughout the body.
Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones
secreted by endocrine system glands.
40. is the process of removing excreta or wastes,
from the body. If the body is to operate as we
expect it to, it must get rid of non useful
substances produced during digestion and
metabolism. Several organ systems participate in
excretion. For example, the digestive system
rids the body of indigestible food residues
in feces, and the urinary system disposes of
nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, such as
urea, in urine. Carbon dioxide, a by-product of
cellular respiration, is carried in the blood to the
lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled air.
41. can occur at the cellular or organismal level. In cellular
reproduction the original cell divides, producing two
identical daughter cells that may then be used for body
growth or repair. Reproduction of the human organism, or
making a whole new person, is the major task of the
reproductive system. When a sperm unites with an egg, a
fertilized egg forms, which then develops into a baby
within the mother’s body. The reproductive system
is directly responsible for producing offspring, but its
function is exquisitely regulated by hormones of the
endocrine system. Because males produce sperm and
females produce eggs (ova),
there is a division of labor in the reproductive process, and
the reproductive organs of males and females are different
Additionally, the female’s reproductive structures provide
the site for fertilization of eggs by sperm, then protect and
nurture the developing fetus until birth.
42. > is an increase in size of a body part or the
organism. It is usually accomplished by
increasing the number of cells. However,
individual cells also increase in size when not
dividing. For true growth to occur,
constructive activities must occur at a faster
rate than destructive ones.
43. The ultimate goal of all body
systems is to maintain life.
However, life is
extraordinarily fragile and
requires that several factors
be present.
44. taken in via the diet, contain the
chemical substances used for energy and
cell building. Most plant-derived foods
are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals, whereas most animal foods are
richer in proteins and fats. Carbohydrates
are the major energy fuel for body cells.
Proteins, and to a lesser extent fats, are
essential for building cell structures. Fats
also provide a reserve of energy-rich
fuel. Selected minerals and vitamins are
required for the chemical reactions that
go on in cells and for oxygen transport in
the blood. The mineral calcium helps to
make bones hard and is required for
blood clotting.
45. Because the chemical reactions that
release energy from foods are oxidative
reactions that require oxygen, human
cells can survive for only a few minutes
without oxygen. Approximately 20% of
the air we breathe is oxygen. It is made
available to the blood and body cells by
the cooperative efforts of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems.
46. accounts for 60–80% of body weight and
is the single most abundant
chemical substance in the body. It
provides the watery environment
necessary for chemical reactions and the
fluid base for body secretions and
excretions. Water is obtained chiefly
from ingested foods or liquids and is lost
from the body by evaporation from the
lungs and skin and in body excretions.
47.
48. must be maintained. As body
temperature drops below 37°C (98.6°F),
metabolic reactions become slower and
slower, and finally stop. When body
temperature is too high,
chemical reactions occur at a frantic
pace and body proteins lose their
characteristic shape and
stop functioning. At either extreme,
death occurs. Most body heat is
generated by the activity of the muscular
system.
49.
50.
51. he force that air exerts on the
surface of the body.
Breathing and gas exchange
in the lungs depend on
appropriate atmospheric
pressure.
52. At high altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is
lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may
be inadequate to support cellular metabolism. The
mere presence of these survival factors is not
sufficient to sustain life. They must be present in
appropriate amounts; excesses and deficits may be
equally harmful. For example, oxygen is essential,
but excessive amounts are toxic to body cells.
Similarly, the food we eat
must be of high quality and in proper amounts;
otherwise, nutritional disease, obesity, or starvation
is likely. Also, while the needs listed above are the
most crucial, they do not even begin to encompass all
of the body’s needs. For example, we can live
without gravity if we must, but the quality of life
suffers.
53. OBJECTIVES:
TO DETERMINE HOMEOSTASIS, AND
EXPLAINED ITS IMPORTANCE.
TO DETERMINE THE NEGATIVE AND
POSITIVE , AND DESCRIBE ITS ROLE IN
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS AND NORMAL
BODYFUNCTION
54. (ho!me-o-sta"sis) to describe its ability to
maintain relatively stable internal conditions
even though the outside world changes
continuously.
In general, the body is in homeostasis when
its needs are adequately met and it is
functioning smoothly.
Adequate blood levels of vital nutrients must be
continuously present, and heart activity and
blood pressure must be constantly monitored
and adjusted so that the blood is propelled to all
body tissues. Also, wastes must not be allowed
to accumulate, and body temperature must
be precisely controlled.
55. Receptor
Control center
Effector
Negative feed back and positive feed back
The regulation of glucose concentration in the blood illustrates
how homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. After a
meal, the absorption of glucose (a sugar) from the digestive tract
increases the amount of glucose in the blood. In response,
specialized cells in the pancreas (alpha cells) secrete the
hormone insulin, which circulates through the blood and
stimulates liver and muscle cells to absorb the glucose. Once
blood glucose levels return to normal, insulin secretion stops.
Later, perhaps after heavy exercise, blood glucose levels may
drop because muscle cells absorb glucose from the blood and use
it as a source of energy for muscle contraction. In response to
falling blood glucose levels, another group of specialized
pancreatic cells (beta cells) secretes a second hormone,
glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver to release its stored
glucose into the blood. When blood glucose levels return to
normal, glucagon secretion stops.
58. A screening mammogram
is an X-ray of the breast
used to detect breast
changes in women who have
no signs or symptoms of
breast cancer. It usually
involves 2 X-rays of each
breast. Using a mammogram,
it is possible to detect a
tumor that cannot be felt.
59. Bone densitometry, also
called dual-energy x-ray
absorptiometry, DEXA or
DXA, uses a very small dose
of ionizing radiation to
produce pictures of the
inside of the body (usually
the lower (or lumbar) spine
and hips) to measure bone
loss.
60. A procedure that uses high-
energy sound waves to look at
tissues and organs inside the
body. The sound waves make
echoes that form pictures of the
tissues and organs on a
computer screen (sonogram).
Ultrasonography may be used to
help diagnose diseases, such as
cancer.
61. A positron emission tomography
(PET) scan is an imaging test
that can help reveal the
metabolic or biochemical
function of your tissues and
organs. The PET scan uses a
radioactive drug (tracer) to show
both normal and abnormal
metabolic activity.
62. scan combines a series of X-
ray images taken from
different angles around your
body and uses computer
processing to create cross-
sectional images (slices) of
the bones, blood vessels and
soft tissues inside your body.
CT scan images provide
more-detailed information
than plain X-rays do
63. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) is a medical imaging
technique that uses a magnetic
field and computer-generated
radio waves to create detailed
images of the organs and
tissues in your body. Most MRI
machines are large, tube-shaped
magnets
64. Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) measures the
small changes in blood flow that
occur with brain activity. ... fMRI
may detect abnormalities within
the brain that cannot be found with
other imaging techniques.
65. By using precise anatomical
terminology, we eliminate
ambiguity. Anatomical terms
derive from ancient Greek
and Latin words. Because
these languages are no
longer used in everyday
conversation, the meaning
of their words does not
change. Anatomical terms
are made up of roots,
prefixes, and suffixes.
66.
67.
68.
69. A body cavity is a fluid-filled space inside
the body that holds and protects internal
organs. Human body cavities are separated
by membranes and other structures. The two
largest human body cavities are the ventral
cavity and dorsal cavity. These two body
cavities are subdivided into smaller body
cavities.
70. The dorsal cavity is a continuous cavity
located on the dorsal side of the body.
It houses the organs of the upper central
nervous system, including the brain and
the spinal cord. The meninges is a multi-
layered membrane within the dorsal cavity
that envelops and protects the brain and
spinal cord
71. The ventral body cavity is a human
body cavity that is in the anterior
(front) aspect of the human body.
It is made up of the thoracic cavity,
and the abdomino pelvic cavity. The
abdominal cavity contains digestive
organs, the pelvic cavity contains the
urinary bladder, internal reproductive
organs, and rectum.
72.
73.
74.
75. The wrist is _______to the hand
The breastbone is _______ to the spine
The brain is _________ to the spinal cord
The thumb is ________ to the fingers