1. The Cent r al Ner vous System

          
The Brain
1. Describe the development of the brain, and relate embryonic regions to the structures of the fully
developed brain.
2. Explain the arrangement of gray and white matter in the brain.
3. Identify the ventricles of the brain, and the interconnections between ventricles.
4. Describe the anatomy of the cerebral hemispheres, and the location of functional areas of the cerebral
cortex.
5. Name the structures and functions of cerebral white matter.
6. List the structures and functions of the diencephalon and brain stem.
7. Describe the anatomy of the cerebellum, its functional areas, and the mechanism of cerebellar
processing.
8. Describe the distribution and function of functional brain systems.
Higher Mental Functions
9. Explain what EEGs measure, and discuss normal brain wave patterns and uses of EEGs.
10. Define consciousness, and discuss how various levels of consciousness are defined.
11. Describe sleep, and discuss the patterns and importance of NREM and REM sleep.
12. Define memory, and discuss the differences between short - and long-term memory, and fact and skill
memory.
13. Discuss the physical effects of learning on the brain.
Protection of the Brain
14. Describe the structural and functional relationships of meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain
barrier to the brain.
15. Identify the causes and effects of homeostatic imbalances of the brain.
The Spinal Cord
16. Discuss the embryonic development of the spinal cord.
17. Indicate the anatomy of the spinal cord and its meninges within the vertebral column.
18. Explain the anatomy of gray matter, white matter, and spinal nerves of the spinal cord.
19. Describe the anatomy and function of the spinal tracts within the spinal cord.
20. List the causes and effects of spinal traumas and disorders.
Diagnostic Procedures for Assessing CNS Dysfunction
21. Name the techniques used to assess CNS function, and what each technique tests for.
Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System
21. Discuss the changes that occur throughout the prenatal period of growth and development.

2. 22. Describe how gender-specific areas develop in the brain.
23. Identify the causes and effects of congenital brain disorders.
24. Explain the age-related changes in brain function.
S u g g e s t e d L e c t u r e Ou t l in e
I. The Brain (pp. 431–456; Figs. 12.1–12.19)
A. Embryonic Development (pp. 431–433; Figs. 12.2–12.3)
 At three weeks’ gestation, the ectoderm forms the neural plate, which invaginates, forming the neural groove, flanked on either side by
neural folds.
2. By the fourth week of pregnancy, the neural groove fuses, giving rise to the neural tube,
which rapidly differentiates into the CNS.
3. The neural tube develops constrictions that divide the three primary brain vesicles: the
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain).
  

   
 

       
   
 

         
        
  

      
  

      
   

        
  
  

        
   

         
        


    
   

3. 
     
    

    
  

     

    

     

   

     
 

     
  

         
      

  
  

    
   
    
   
      
   

   
  

        
    
 

    
  

      


4. 
     
  

     
    
   

   
   

   
       

     
     

    
  

       
   
  

       
 

      
 

 The midbrain is comprised of the cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, and substantia nigra.
2. The pons contains fiber tracts that complete conduction pathways between the brain and
spinal cord.
3. The medulla oblongata is the location of several visceral motor nuclei controlling vital
functions such as cardiac and respiratory rate.
  

      
    

     
     
   

  
   

5. 
      
     
      
    


     
 

      
     
 

      
     
  
II. Higher Mental Functions (pp. 456–463; Figs. 12.20–12.23)
A. Brain Wave Patterns and the EEG (pp. 456–457; Fig. 12.20)

     
 

   
  

       
       
 
   

      
    
   
   
 Sleep patterns change throughout life, and are regulated by the hypothalamus.
3. NREM sleep is considered to be restorative, and REM sleep allows the brain to analyze
events or eliminate meaningless information.
    

    
   

     
 

6. 
    
   
      

   
     


  
     
 Learning causes changes in neuronal RNA, dendritic branching, deposition of unique proteins at LTM synapses, increase of
presynaptic terminals, increase of neurotransmitter, and development of new neurons in the hippocampus.
III. Protection of the Brain (pp. 463–470; Figs. 12.24–12.27)
A. Meninges are three connective tissue membranes that cover and protect the CNS, protect blood
vessels and enclose venous sinuses, contain cerebrospinal fluid, and partition the brain (pp. 463–
465; Figs. 12.24–12.25).

      
   
 The arachnoid mater is the middle meninx that forms a loose brain covering.
3. The pia mater is the innermost layer that clings tightly to the brain.
 

      
    
 CSF gives buoyancy to the brain, protects the brain and spinal cord from impact damage, and is a delivery medium for nutrients and
chemical signals.
C. The blood-brain barrier is a protective mechanism that helps maintain a protective environment for
the brain (p. 467).
D. Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain (pp. 467–470)

    
   

    
    

    
 

     
      
  

7. 
    
  
IV. The Spinal Cord (pp. 470–481; Figs. 12.28–12.35; Tables 12.2–12.3)
A. Embryonic Development (p. 470)
      

      
  

      
  
   

         
    
   

       
      

       
   

       
    
 
  

    
 

      
   

      
     

        


     


     

8.     
 

         


       
      

     


      
 

        


    
 

     
       
   
    

   
  

     


    
     
 
V. Diagnostic Procedures for Assessing CNS Dysfunction (p. 481)
A. Pneumoencephalography is used to diagnose hydrocephalus, and allows X-ray visualization of the
ventricles of the brain.
B. A cerebral angiogram is used to assess the condition of cerebral arteries to the brain in individuals
that have suffered a stroke or TIA.
C. CT scans and MRI scanning techniques allow visualization of most tumors, intracranial lesions,
multiple sclerosis plaques, and areas of dead brain tissue.
D. PET scans can localize brain lesions that generate seizures and diagnose Alzheimer’s disease.
VI. Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System (pp. 481–485; Fig.
12.36)

9. A. The brain and spinal cord grow and mature throughout the prenatal period due to influence from
several organizer centers.
B. Gender-specific areas of the brain and spinal cord develop depending on the presence or absence
of testosterone.
C. Lack of oxygen to the developing fetus may result in cerebral palsy, a neuromuscular disability in
which voluntary muscles are poorly controlled or paralyzed as a result of brain damage.
D. Age brings some cognitive decline but losses are not significant until the seventh decade.
C r o s s R e f e r e n c e s
A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n t o p i c s c o v e r e d i n C h a p t e r 1 2 c a n
b e f o u n d i n t h e c h a p t e r s l i s t e d b e l o w .
1. Chapter 13: Spinal nerves and peripheral nervous system function; the relationship between the
peripheral nervous system and gray and white matter of the spinal cord; different brain areas and
neural integration
  Chapter 14: Spinal nerves and peripheral nervous system function; the relation-ship between the peripheral nervous system and gray and white
matter of the spinal cord
3. Chapter 15: Role of the thalamus in the special senses; role of the cerebral cort ex and cerebellum in
integration of sensory information
4. Chapter 16: Hypothalamus and hormone production
5. Chapter 18: Role of the medulla in cardiac rate regulation
6. Chapter 19: Capillaries of the brain (blood-brain barrier); medulla and regulation of blood vessel diameter (vasomotor center); hypothalamus and
blood pressure regulation
7. Chapter 22: Respiratory centers in the medulla and pons; cortical and hypothalamic involvement in
respiration
8. Chapter 23: Central nervous system involvement in the reflex activity controlling digestive processes
9. Chapter 24: Role of the hypothalamus in body temperature regulation
10. Chapter 26: Role of the hypothalamus in regulation of fluid electrolyte balance
11. Chapter 27: Testosterone and development of the brain
L a b o r a t o r y C o r r e l a t io n s
1. Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Cat and Fetal Pig Versions. Eighth
Edition Updates. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.
     
     
         
  Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Main Version. Seventh Edition
Update. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.
Exercise 19: Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves
Exercise 20: Electroencephalography
Exercise 21: Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Autonomic Nervous System
Hi s t o lo g y S l id e s f o r t h e L i f e S c i e n c e s

10. A v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h B e n j a m i n C u m m i n g s , a n i m p r i n t o f P e a r s o n
E d u c a t i o n , I n c . T o o r d e r , c o n t a c t y o u r l o c a l B e n j a m i n
C u m m i n g s s a l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
Slide 73 Myelinated Nerve Cross Section—Myelin Sheaths.
   
   
   
L e c t u r e Hin t s
1. Study of the central nervous system is difficult for most students. The complexity of the material can
overwhelm practically anyone. Present the material from an overall conceptual perspective, then
progress into greater levels of detail. In this way, students are less likely to get lost.
 
      
      
      
  
 
       
  
 
   
 
  Emphasize that the meningeal protection of the brain and spinal cord is continuous, but that the spinal cord has an epidural space, whereas the brain
does not.
A c t i v i t i e s / D emo n s t r a t io n s
1. Audio-visual materials listed under Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab.
 
    
     
  
 
      
 
 
    

 
     
  
      
       

11. C r i t i c a l T h in k in g / D i s c u s s io n T o p i c s
1. Discuss the difference between encephalitis and meningitis.
 
    
    
 
        
        
 
    
       
     
 
     
        

 
     
  

L ib r a r y R e s e a r c h T o p i c s
1. What techniques are currently used to localize and treat tumors of the brain?
 
      
     
   
 
        
  
 
      
       

     
      
Mu l t ime d i a in t h e C l a s s r o om a n d L a b
Online Resources for Students
w w w . a n a t o m y a n d p h y s i o l o g y . c o m w w w . m y a a n d p . c o m
The following shows the organization of the Chapter Guide page in both the Anatomy & Physiology Place and MyA&P™. The Chapter Guide
organizes all the chapter-specific online media resources for Chapter 12 in one convenient location, with e-book links to each section of the textbook.

12. Please note that both sites also give you access to other general A&P resources, like InterActive Physiology®, PhysioEx 6.0™, Anatomy 360°,
Flashcards, a Glossary, a Histology Tutorial, and much more.
Objectives
Section 12.1 The Brain (pp. 431–456)
Art Labeling Activity: Lobes and Fissures of the Cerebral Hemispheres (Fig. 12.6, p. 435)
Art Labeling Activity: Functional and Structural Areas of the Cerebral Cortex (Fig. 12.8a, p. 437)
Art Labeling Activity: Basal Nuclei (Fig. 12.11, p. 444)
Art Labeling Activity: Midsagittal Section of the Brain, Part 1 (Fig. 12.12, p. 445)
Art Labeling Activity: Midsagittal Section of the Brain, Part 2 (Fig. 12.12, p. 445)
Art Labeling Activity: Selected Structures of the Diencephalon (Fig. 12.13, p. 445)
Art Labeling Activity: Relationship of the Brain Stem and the Diencephalon, Ventral View (Fig.
12.15a, p. 448)
Art Labeling Activity: Relationship of the Brain Stem and the Diencephalon, Left Lateral View (Fig.
12.15b, p. 448)
Art Labeling Activity: Relationship of the Brain Stem and the Diencephalon, Dorsal View (Fig.
12.15c, p. 448)
Art Labeling Activity: Important Brain Stem Nuclei, Midbrain (Fig. 12.16a, p. 450)
Art Labeling Activity: Important Brain Stem Nuclei, Pons (Fig. 12.16b, p. 450)
Art Labeling Activity: Important Brain Stem Nuclei, Medulla Oblongata (Fig. 12.16c, p. 450)
Memory: Brain Structure
Section 12.2 Higher Mental Functions (pp. 456–463)
Section 12.3 Protection of the Brain (pp. 463–470)
Art Labeling Activity: Meninges (Fig. 12.24a, p. 464)
Art Labeling Activity: Location and Circulatory Patterns of CSF (Fig. 12.26, p. 466)
Case Study: Cerebrovascular Accident
Case Study: Parkinson’s Disease
Section 12.4 The Spinal Cord (pp. 470–481)
Art Labeling Activity: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord, Cross Section (Fig. 12.31a, p. 473)
Art Labeling Activity: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord, Three-Dimensional View (Fig. 12.31b, p. 473)
Memory: Major Nerves of the Central Nervous System
Case Study: Nervous System
Section 12.5 Diagnostic Procedures for Assessing CNS Dysfunction (p. 481)
Section 12.6 Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System (pp. 481–484)
Chapter Summary
Self-Study Quizzes
Art Labeling Quiz
Matching Quiz
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level I)
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level II)
True-False Quiz
Crossword Puzzles
Crossword Puzzle 12.1
Crossword Puzzle 12.2

13. Me d i a
S e e G u i d e t o A u d i o - V i s u a l R e s o u r c e s i n A p p e n d i x A f o r k e y t o
A V d i s t r i b u t o r s .
Video
1. The Addicted Brain (FHS; 26 min., 1987). Documentary explores drug use and the effects on the brain.
Shows the latest developments and research in the biochemistry of addiction and addictive behavior.
For classroom discussion.
  Anatomy of the Human Brain (FHS; 35 min., 1997). Neuropathologist Dr. Marco Rossi dissects and
examines a normal human brain.
3. Decision (FHS; 28 min., 1984). This exceptional program from The Living Body series shows how the
brain coordinates functions to make a simple but lifesaving decision.
4. The Human Brain in Situ (FHS; 19 min., 1997). Neurobiologist Susan Standring conducts a basic
anatomical examination of the human brain and its connections in the skull. Standring identifies parts
of the brain and skull.
5. The Human Nervous System: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Videotape (BC; 28 min., 1997). This
video by Rose Leigh Vines and Rosalee Carter, California State University, Sacramento, links nervous
system structures and functions.
6. The Human Nervous System: The Spinal Cord and Nerves Videotape (BC; 29 min., 1997). Illustrations
and figures help students learn the organization of the spinal nerves into complicated plexuses. Major
nerves arising from these plexuses are traced on the cadaver as they course through the upper and
lower extremities.
7. Inside Information: The Brain and How it Works (FHS; 58 min., 1990). This program explains
research on the brain’s processes. Includes interviews with the foremost researchers in the field.
8. Men, Women, and the Brain (FHS; 57 min., 1998). In this program, specialists from the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and other institutions define and explore
differences between the brains of men and women. These differences can affect aging, reading ability,
spatial skills, aggression, depression, schizophrenia, and sexuality.
9. Pathology Examples in the Human Brain (FHS; 24 min., 1997). Neuropathologist Dr. Marco Rossi
examines different human brain specimens and presents evidence of trauma or disease.
10. The Seven Ages of the Brain (FHS; 58 min., 1994). This program focuses on how a brain grows from a
fertilized egg and how our brains change with age.
11. Spinal Surgery (FHS; 45 min., 1995). In this program, spinal surgery is performed on a 15-year-old
gymnast who has popped a vertebra out of place, leaving her neck unstable.
12. Stress, Trauma, and the Brain (FHS; 57 min., 1999). In section one of this program, doctors from
Harvard Medical School and other institutions study the stress of modern living in light of the innate
fight-or-flight mechanism. In section two, a pioneer in brain imaging technology and experts from MIT
describe revolutionary imaging techniques and their application to brain tumor surgery. In the third
section medical professionals investigate brain trauma.
Software
1. A.D.A.M.® InterActive Anatomy® 4.0 (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
  A.D.A.M.® MediaPro (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
3. A.D.A.M.® Anatomy Practice (see p. 86 of this guide for full listing).
4. Bodyworks (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
5. Interactive Nervous System (IM; Windows). This two CD-ROM set explores the structure, functions,
and processes of the nervous system. It studies reaction to stimuli, neurons, reflexes, and senses.

14. 6. The Ultimate Human Body (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
L e c t u r e E n h a n c eme n t Ma t e r i a l
T o v i e w t h u m b n a i l s o f a l l o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r C h a p t e r 1 2 ,
s e e A p p e n d i x B .
T r a n s p a r e n c i e s I n d e x / Me d i a Ma n a g e r
Figure 12.1 Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm.
    
   
     
  
    
   
    
   
 
 

       

     

   

     
 
  
 
  
    
  
  
 
 
   
   
   
    
  
 
   
     

15. 
      
 
    
    
  
   
    
           
            
       
        
 
*Indicates images that are on the Media Manager only.
A n s we r s t o E n d - o f - C h a p t e r Qu e s t io n s
M u l t i p l e C h o i c e a n d M a t c h i n g Q u e s t i o n a n s w e r s a p p e a r i n
A p p e n d i x G o f t h e m a i n t e x t .
S h o r t An s w e r E s s a y Q u e s t i o n s
12. See Fig. 12.2 for a diagram of the primary embryonic brain vesicles and the resulting brain structure.
13. a. Convolutions increase the cortical surface area, which allows more neurons to occupy the limited
space. (p. 433)
 
   
     
14. a. See Fig. 12.8 for a drawing of the functional areas of the brain.

    

    

 Somatosensory association area—Acts to integrate and analyze different somatosensory inputs, such as temperature, touch, pressure, and
pain. (pp. 439–440)
Primary somatosensory cortex—Receives all somatosensory information from receptors located
i n t h e s k i n a n d f r o m p r o p r i o c e p t o r s i n m u s c l e s ;
i d e n t i f i e s t h e b o d y r e g i o n b e i n g s t i m u l a t e d . ( p . 4 3 9 )
Visual area—Receives information that originates in the retinas of the eyes. (p. 440)
Auditory area—Receives information that originates in the hearing receptors of the inner ear. (p.
440)
Prefrontal cortex—Mostly involved with elaboration of thought, intelligence, motivation, and
personality. It also associates experiences necessary for the production of abstract ideas, judgment,
planning, and conscience, and is important in planning motor activity. (p. 441)
Wernicke’s area—Speech area involved in the comprehension of language, especially when the
word needs to be sounded out or related. (p. 441)

16. Broca’s area—Previously called the motor speech area; now known to be active in many other
activities as well. (p. 439)
  Specialization of cortical functions. The “dominant” hemisphere excels at language and mathematical skills. The nondominant hemisphere is
better at visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and appreciation of art and music. (p. 441)
b. Both hemispheres have perfect and instant communication with each other so there is tremendous
integration; therefore neither side is better at everything. However, each hemisphere does have
unique abilities not shared by its partner. (pp. 441–443)
16. a. Initiate slow and sustained movement; help to coordinate and control motor activity. (p. 443)
    (p. 443)
c. Caudate nucleus (p. 443)
17. a. Three paired fiber tracts (cerebellar peduncles) connect it to the brain stem. (p. 448)
b. The cerebellum has a convoluted surface with gray matter on the outside and white on the inside
with deeply situated nuclei. It has two hemispheres with overlapping functions. (pp. 452–454)

       
     
   

    
 

  
          

   
   


       
  

        
    


     
  
  
 
      
  

    
 

     

17.     


       

 
     
      
 

     
      
 

     
      
   

   
 
 
        
   
  
 
        
      
     
   
     
      
       
       
   
 
 
    
         
  
         
  


    
       
 
   

18. 
      
    
 

     
   

      
   
    1 and L1 that causes paralysis of
both lower limbs. (p. 479)
Hemiplegia—damage, usually in the brain, that causes paralysis of one side of the body. (p. 479)
Quadriplegia—damage to cord in cervical area affecting all four limbs. (p. 479)
36. a. CVA, also known as stroke, occurs when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and vital brain
tissue dies. A new hypothesis targets the release of glutamate by oxygen-starved neurons (and
subsequent entry of excess Ca2+) as the culprit. (pp. 467–468)

     
    
      
  
 
      

   
C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g a n d C l i n i c a l Ap p l i c a t i o n
Q u e s t i o n s
1. a. The only likely diagnosis is hydrocephalus. (p. 466)
    

          
are not affected. If arachnoid villi are obstructed, all CSF areas will be enlarged. (pp. 464–466)
   
 
    
 
 
       
     
  
   
     
    

19.  
    
         
      
    
       
     
      
           
      
      

 
     
        
    
 
        
      
   
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