The document provides an overview of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, covering the structure and development of the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as their functions. It discusses various stages of cellular activity during nervous system development and the specialization of brain regions for distinct functions, including motor control, sensory processing, and emotional regulation. Additionally, it highlights the regenerative capabilities of the peripheral nervous system compared to the central nervous system and the role of neural stem cells in brain repair.

1. NEUROANATOMY & NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
By
Dr. Ssebadduka Daniel

2. Introduction
• Anatomy
• Gross
• Microscopic-
– Cytology & Histology
• Neuroanatomy (fine structural & functional organization of
the brain and spinal cord)
• Developmental anatomy
• Embryology
• Surface anatomy
• Physiology
• Neurophysiology-physiology of the nervous system

3. Scope of Neuro anatomy and Neurophysiology
1. Overview of the general anatomy & physiology
( Skeletal, Muscular, Endocrine, GIT, Urinary, CVS, &
Reproductive Systems, Special senses, Physiology of the
immune system)
2. Neuro anatomy (structure of the CNS, Brain, Spinal Cord,
Application of Neuro anatomy)
3. Structure of the ANS, Parasympathetic & Sympathetic NS
4. Neurophysiology-Endocrine system, CNS, ANS, RAS,
Limbic system, application of Neurophysiology

5. Major Divisions of the NS

6. The Skull: Anterior View

7. Lateral View of the Skull

8. Posterior View of the skull

9. Superior View of the Skull

10. Base of Skull: Exterior View

11. Base of Skull: Interior View

12. • Afferent (Sensory)-Toward
• Efferent (Motor)- Away from
• Dorsal - toward the back
• Ventral - toward the stomach
• Anterior & Posterior
– Rostral & Caudal ~
• Medial - toward the midline
• Lateral - away from the midline
• Ipsilateral - same side
• Contralateral - opposite side
• Decussate - crossover ~
Terminology

13. Medial
Anatomical Reference
Dorsal
Ventral
Rostral/
Anterior
Caudal/
Posterior
Lateral
Ipsilateral &
Contralateral

14. Dorsal -
Ventral
-
In reference to the BRAIN
Anterior - Posterior -
Rostral Caudal
Inferior
Superior

15. Brainstem &
spinal cord
Ventral - Dorsal -
Rostral
Caudal
Anterior Posterior
Superior
Inferior

16. Development of the Nervous System
• Embryo has 3 layers
– endoderm ---> internal organs
– mesoderm ---> muscles & skeleton
– ectoderm ---> nervous system & skin
• Neural plate (~3 weeks)
– sheet of cells
– neural groove
– folds rostral to caudal ---> tube ~

17. Devt of the NS
• Neural tube
– CNS develops from walls
– as tube develops dorsal portion pinches off &
forms...
• Neural crest
– develops into all neurons of PNS
• Mesoderm
– somites ---> vertebrae & muscles ~

18. Early development of nervous system in embryo
Neural Plate  Neural Groove  Neural Tube
Fuse Dorsally
Rostral
Caudal
Prosencephalon
(forebrain)
Mesencephalon
(midbrain)
Rhombencephalon
(hindbrain)

19. Telencephalon
(2 cerebral
hemespheres)
Diencephalon
(between brain)
Mesencephalon
(Midbain)
Development of nervous system in embryo

20. Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Corpus Callosum
Cerebral Cortex
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Development of nervous system in embryo
Coronal Section
Lateral Ventricles &
Third Ventricle

21. Development of nervous system in embryo
Midbrain:
becomes Tectum (roof)
Tegmentum (floor)
Hindbrain:
becomes Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla

22. Stages of Cellular Activity
• 6 distinct stages
1. Neurogenesis
– mitosis
– nonneural cells
neurons do not divide
– develop into neurons or glia
glia produced throughout life ~

23. Stages of Cellular Activity
2. Cell migration
– to specific “brain” locations
– along radial glia
– later: along other neurons
3. Differentiation
– into specific neuron types
– by induction
influenced by surrounding cells
– or cell-autonomous ~

24. Stages of Cellular Activity
4. Synaptogenesis
– formation of synapses
– growth of axons & dendrites
growth cones
5. Neuronal cell death
– apoptosis: programmed cell death
– 20-80% of neurons in a region
– genetically programmed
– lack of neurotrophic factors ~

25. Stages of Cellular Activity
6. synaptic rearrangement
– elimination of synapse
– formation of new synapses
– dependent on neural activity ~

26. Differentiation
• Specialization of structures
• 3 primary vesicles
– rostral end of tube
– develops into brain
• Prosencephalon ---> forebrain
• Mesencephalon ---> midbrain
• Rhombencephalon ---> hindbrain ~

27. Prosencephalon
• Secondary vesicles form & separate
– optic ---> retinas
retina & optic nerve part of brain
not PNS
– telencephalic ---> telencephalon
– remainder ---> diencephalon ~

28. Other Primary Vesicles
• Mesencephalic ---> mesencephalon
– dorsal - tectum
– ventral - tegmentum
– tube - cerebral aqueduct
• Rhombencephalic
– rostral - metencephalon
– caudal - myelencephalon
– tube - 4th ventricle ~

29. Telencephalon
• Cortical areas
• Fiber systems
• Landmarks
– Fissures /Sulci
– Lobes
– Gyri ~

30. Superior surface
Longitudinal Fissure
(sulcus)

31. Central
Lateral

32. The Structures of the CNS
• The Cerebrum
• The Diencephalon
• The Mesencephalon
• The Spinal cord

36. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 48.20

37. cerebrum corpus
callosum
thalamus
cerebellum
medulla
oblongata
hypothalamus
pituitary
pons
spinal cord
Pineal gland

38. Cerebrum
• Involved with higher brain functions.
• Processes sensory information.
• Initiates motor functions.
• Integrates information.

39. • The
cerebrum is
divided into
frontal,
temporal,
occipital,
and parietal
lobes.
Regions of the cerebrum are
specialized for different functions

40. • Frontal lobe.
– Contains the primary motor cortex.
• Parietal lobe.
– Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

41. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 48.25

42. • Integrative Function of the Association Areas.
–Much of the cerebrum is given over to
association areas.
• Areas where sensory information is integrated
and assessed and motor responses are
planned.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

43. • The brain exhibits plasticity of function.
–For example, infants with intractable
epilepsy may have an entire cerebral
hemisphere removed.
• The remaining hemisphere can provide the
function normally provided by both
hemispheres.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

44. • Lateralization of Brain Function.
–The left hemisphere.
• Specializes in language, math, logic operations, and
the processing of serial sequences of information, and
visual and auditory details.
• Specializes in detailed activities required for motor
control.
–The right hemisphere.
• Specializes in pattern recognition, spatial relationships,
nonverbal ideation, emotional processing, and the
parallel processing of information.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

45. • Language and Speech.
–Broca’s area.
• Usually located in the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe
• Responsible for speech production.
–Wernicke’s area.
• Usually located in the right hemisphere’s temporal lobe
• Responsible for the comprehension of speech.
–Other speech areas are involved
generating verbs to match nouns, grouping
together related words, etc.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

46. • Emotions.
– In mammals, the limbic system is composed
of the hippocampus, olfactory cortex, inner
portions of the cortex’s lobes, and parts of the
thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Mediates basic emotions (fear, anger), involved in
emotional bonding, establishes emotional memory
– For example,
the amygdala
is involved in
recognizing
the emotional
content of
facial expression.

47. • Memory and Learning.
–Short-term memory stored in the frontal
lobes.
–The establishment of long-term memory
involves the hippocampus.
• The transfer of information from short-term to
long-term memory.
– Is enhanced by repetition (remember that when you are
preparing for an exam).
– Influenced by emotional states mediated by the
amygdala.
– Influenced by association with previously stored
information.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

48. –Different types of long-term memories are
stored in different regions of the brain.
–Memorization-type memory can be rapid.
• Primarily involves changes in the strength of
existing nerve connections.
–Learning of skills and procedures is slower.
• Appears to involve cellular mechanisms similar
to those involved in brain growth and
development.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

49. • Human Consciousness.
–Brain imaging can show neural activity
associated with:
• Conscious perceptual choice
• Unconscious processing
• Memory retrieval
• Working memory.
–Consciousness appears to be a whole-
brain phenomenon.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

50. • The mammalian PNS has the ability to repair
itself, the CNS does not.
–Research on nerve cell development and
neural stem cells may be the future of
treatment for damage to the CNS.
Research on neuron development
and neural stem cells may lead to
new approaches for treating CNS
injuries and diseases
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

51. • Neural Stem Cells.
–The adult human brain does produce new
nerve cells.
• New nerve cells have been found in the
hippocampus.
• Since mature human brain cells cannot
undergo cell division the new cells must have
arisen from stem cells.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

52. Thalamus
• Relay center for sensory tracts
from the spinal cord to the
cerebrum.
• Contains centers for sensation
of pain, temperature, and touch.
• Involved with emotions and
alerting or arousal mechanisms.

53. • The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.
–The reticular activating system (RAS) of
the reticular formation.
• Regulates sleep
and arousal.
• Acts as a
sensory filter.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 48.21

54. –Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns
of electrical activity in the brain that can be
recorded as an electroencephalogram
(EEG).
• Most dreaming
occurs during
REM (rapid
eye movement)
sleep.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 48.22b-d

55. Hypothalamus
• autonomic control center- blood pressure,
rate and force of heart contraction, center
for emotional response and behavior
• body temperature
• water balance and thirst
• sleep/wake cycles
• appetite
• sexual arousal
• control of endocrine functioning:
Acts on the pituitary gland through the
release of neurosecretions.
Regulates:

56. Hypothalamus

57. Pituitary

58. • Cerebellar peduncles
• Tectum
• Superior colliculi
• Inferior colliculi
• Substantia nigra
• Red nuclei
Midbrain
thalamus
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
Posterior
Anterior

59. Midbrain
• Contains ascending and descending
tracts to the cerebrum and
thalamus.
• Reflex center for eye muscles.
• Also involved with processing visual
and auditory information (connects
head movements with visual and
auditory stimuli).

60. Pons
• Connects the two
halves of the
cerebellum.
• Regulates breathing.

61. Medulla Oblongata
• Composed of nerve tracts
to and from the brain
(these tracts cross over
left to right and right to left)
• May be regarded as an
extension of the spinal
cord
• Almost all of the cranial
nerves arise from this
region

62. Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for
many subconscious
activities
• Respiratory rate
• Heart rate
• Arteriole constriction
• Swallowing
• Hiccupping
• Coughing
• Sneezing

63. Cerebellum
• Controls and coordinates
muscular activity.
• Important in equilibrium,
posture and movement.