100 Site Analysis Essentials: An architect's guide

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© RIBA Publishing, 2024
Published by RIBA Publishing, 66 Portland Place, London, W1B 1AD
ISBN 9781915722058
The rights of Peter Farrall and Iain Jackson to be identified as the
Authors of this Work have been asserted in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 sections 77 and 78.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
prior permission of the copyright owner.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Commissioning Editor: Alex White
Assistant Editor: Flo Armitage-Hookes
Production: Jane Rogers
Designed by CHK Design
Typeset by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk
Printed and bound by Pureprint Group Ltd
Cover image: Illustration of canal running through central Manchester.
Produced by the Authors with all rights reserved to Peter
Farrall and Iain Jackson.
While every effort has been made to check the accuracy and quality
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www.ribapublishing.com
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ix
About the authors x
Introduction xi
Chapter 1:
Focus of the study 1
Case study 1
Chapter 2:
Context 9
Tips 1–42
Case study 2
Chapter 3:
Routes 100
Tips 43–52
Case study 3

100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S GUIDE
Chapter 4:
Environment 124
Tips 53–78
Case study 4
Chapter 5:
Groupings and usage 182
Tips 79–86
Case study 5
Chapter 6:
Interface 202
Tips 87–100
Case study 6
Case study 7
Afterword 238
Appendix 240
Worked example A
Worked example B

Glossary 251
Bibliography 254
Index 256
CONTENTS

CONTEXT TIP Key issues to consider
Historical 1 Investigate the layers of history.
2 Consider the stylistic diversity.
3 Explore the historical development with maps.
4 Study the pace of change.
5 Create your own Nolli Map.
Social and cultural 6 Research the social and economic landscape.
7 Investigate the type of people who live and work in the area.
8 Investigate the cultural influences and assets.
9 Use census data to produce your own diagrams.
10 Use census information to understand about local residents and housing
ownership.
11 Identify the local social hubs.
Economic 12 Consider the significance of land values.
13 Review the socio-economic demographics of an area.
14 Consider the influence of ownership and landlords.
Density and development 15 Review the density and plot size.
16 Consider the human density and household composition.
17 Consider competing future visions and other stakeholders.
18 Consider sustainability when exploring communities.
19 Explore if recent interventions can also provide opportunities.
Materiality and style 20 Consider the availability of locally sourced materials.
21 Research local styles and forms of construction.
22 Consider why the city looks the way it does.
Political 23 Who are the political influencers?
24 Review the Local Authority planning policies.
25 Is your site part of a conservation area?
Physical infrastructure 26 Explore types of places and spaces around the site.
27 Investigate why the city looks the way it does.
28 Identify monuments and nodes.
29 Review the scale of the street.
30 Review the physical infrastructure.
31 Identify neighbourhoods and districts in and around your site.
32 Identify the scale of the district.
33 Consider how historical backstory impacts on the urban grain.
34 Consider the district as part of the overall city.
35 How might the public realm influence your proposal?
36 Think vertically as well as horizontally;consider different programmes
at different levels.
37 Explore underlying city plans and structures.
Invisible city 38 Track movement to provide data on how people interact with the city.
39 Consider the impact of any underground services.
40 Consider traffic data and restrictions.
41 Download or build your own 3D model of the site.
42 Are there any literary references relating to your site?
ROUTES
Vehicular 43 Establish the hierarchy of routes affecting your site.
44 Identify bus and cycle routes.
Pedestrian 45 Experience the city by walking.
46 Explore the alternative routes.
47 Explore pathways based on desire lines.
Transport 48 Consider the bigger picture of transport infrastructure and accessibility.
49 Explore how well your site is served by transport terminals and bus stops.
50 How well is the site connected nationally?
Timeframe 51 Consider how special events impact the city.
52 Review how intensity of use varies over time.
CONTEXT
ROUTES

ENVIRONMENT TIP Key issues to consider
Climate 53 Assess sun paths, shading and daylight.
54 Establish the local wind paths and prevailing winds.
55 Consider how the microclimate affects the site.
56 Consider if tidal patterns or rising sea levels have an impact on your site.
Topographical 57 Survey site levels and features.
58 Determine the site boundary – it is not always clearly defined.
59 Investigate the ground conditions.
Natural features 60 Celebrate the natural features.
61 Consider the roots and crown of all trees within the site.
62 Conduct an environmental assessment of natural habitats.
63 Check flood risk data, especially in low-lying locations.
64 Explore the backstory of any formal landscapes.
Man-made features 65 Consider the existing streetscape.
66 How does street furniture impact on the site?
67 Consider the impact of telecommunications, masts and satellite dishes on
your site.
68 Consider the impact of artificial lighting.
69 Is your site impacted by noise?
Timeframe 70 Investigate how the site use varies over 24 hours.
71 Explore how site use changes over the course of a year.
Street hierarchies 72 Consider the proportion of pavement to road.
73 Consider the street’s height to width ratio.
Sustainability 74 Explore opportunities to utilise the site’s resources.
75 Consider opportunities to deploy local materials.
Phenomenology 76 Explore opportunities to create the sense of a journey
77 Consider the potential for an architectural promenade and mystery.
78 Be aware of historical connotations.
GROUPINGS AND USAGE
Site usage 79 Map out the various functional uses around your site.
80 How has the function of your site changed over time?
Around the site 81 Be aware of activities or functions associated with your site or brief.
82 Consider the proximity of key facilities.
83 Investigate the previous uses of the site.
84 Establish current usage categories locally.
Relationship to the wider
area
85 Investigate emerging types and planned developments.
86 Map repeating services, forms and types.
INTERFACE
Site boundary 87 Establish the extent and nature of the site boundary.
88 Assess the permeability of the site boundaries.
89 Undertake an accurate site survey to assess the site’s potential.
90 Consider thresholds where boundaries are poorly defined .
91 Research any legal restrictions impacting the site.
Views into the site 92 Make a sketch looking into the site.
93 How will your proposal impact the townscape?
94 Survey the adjacent properties.
Views out from the site 95 Make a sketch of the skyline.
96 Identify key axes and monuments.
Neighbours 97 Establish interface distances to adjacent properties.
98 How will rights of light impact your proposal?
Access 99 Consider the implications of any legal restrictions.
100 Consider legal restrictions on routes and rights of access.
ENVIRONMENT
GROUPINGS
INTERFACE

Iain Jackson: to Jo, Pippa and Dylan
Peter Farrall: to Nora

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We’d like to thank our colleagues and students at the University
of Liverpool School of Architecture, for their help and
encouragement, especially Alex Dusterloh, Lucretia Ray, Anna
Gidman and Nick Wilde. We would also like to acknowledge the
input from the architects who provided the case studies and
gave valuable insight into their design process. Specifically, we
would like to thank Jo Day, Alan Dunlop, Jim Eyre, Ian Ritchie,
Hans van der Heijden, Steven Hodder and Gurmeet Sian.
The overall structure of the book: Context, Routes,
Environment, Groupings and Interface (CREGI) was actually
discovered left on a blackboard at the University of Bristol
School of Architecture in the 1970s, but we have been unable to
find out who gave the lecture! The Head of School and professor
at that time was Ivor Smith and he invited some of the most
talented designers of the day to teach at the school, mostly from
London, and affectionally referred to as ‘Ivor’s flying circus’. This
approach to site analysis has been extremely useful over 40
years of practice and has also been developed over 20 years of
teaching, including the later addition of phenomenology.
Thank you too to our commissioning editor, Alex White, for his
support and encouragement.

x
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Peter Farrall is Senior Lecturer in Architecture at the
University of Liverpool, teaching in both the MArch and BA
programmes, as well as Professional Studies. Prior to this,
he was partner for 25 years in a multidisciplinary practice in
Chester, specialising in the education sector. He is a former
president of the Liverpool Architectural Society and served on
the National Council and Conduct Committee of the RIBA. Peter
is a lecturer and examiner on the RIBA Part 3 course and has
delivered lectures and webinars for RIBA CPD programmes. He
co-authored the RIBA Good Practice Guide: Fees with Professor
Stephen Brookhouse and is author of Feasibility Studies: An
Architect’s Guide.
Iain Jackson is an architect and professor at University of
Liverpool. Iain worked in practice on educational projects and
completed his PhD on the Rock Garden of Chandigarh in India.
He is the Research Lead for Architecture at the University of
Liverpool and Co-director of the Architecture Heritage and
Urbanism in Western Africa (AHUWA) research group. He is
currently researching the architecture of the United Africa
Company. Iain teaches architectural studio, architectural history
and supervises PhD students. He has co-authored several
biographies including Herbert Rowse and The Architecture of
Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew.

INTRODUCTION xi
INTRODUCTION
Conducting a site analysis is an essential part of the
architectural design process. By carefully examining, recording,
observing and documenting, you can cultivate a deeper
understanding of the place you are designing for. This will result
in a more considered and appropriate solution, crafted and
calibrated for that spot.
Site analysis is sometimes seen as the starting point that
leads to a design solution, but it is also an ongoing and integral
part of the design process. Site analysis can help with initial
feasibility studies, but it can also help refine the design intent
and brief, contribute to the design options and justification and
form part of a post-design review.
Architecture should respond and relate to the place where it
is built. It is a fixture and works best when calibrated to suit local
materials, skills, cultures and communities. Site analysis is an
investigation into these qualities. It must also consider climatic
data – such as sun and shadow paths, temperature and humidity
ranges – as well as society – with its complexity, competing
demands, contradictions and ongoing changes.
Architecture is often expected to (and should) last a long
time. It has a public face and impacts the town, neighbourhood
and street in much more profound ways than most other creative
endeavours and professional activities. Architecture forms part
of our habitat and our environment.
Architects have a duty to design buildings that serve their
clients and communities, and that enrich the lives of future
generations too. By considering the context of the design –
both what has been built in the immediate vicinity as well as
the wider cityscape – you can develop designs that respond
with sensitivity. This should allow you to produce designs of the
appropriate scale and materials, which both optimise the client’s
investment and ensure societal enjoyment of the work.

xii
Contextual design does not necessarily mean that everything
‘fits in’ or is deferential to what has gone before. It may be that a
contrast or reaction to what is already there becomes necessary
and appropriate.
Structure of the book
This book provides a series of lenses, strategies and ideas that
you can deploy to increase your understanding and knowledge
of a place. There are many other approaches, but in following
this method and producing your own ‘library’ of findings, you will
pick up the right tools to explore, rationalise and convince others
that your solution is valid, considered and appropriate.
At the end of each chapter is a series of case studies using
projects undertaken by prominent architects to demonstrate
their approach to site analysis and its impact on their design
proposals. These are followed by two examples that show
an incremental approach to site analysis leading to a set of
strategic design proposals.
Site analysis can be broken down into five main headings and
there is a chapter devoted to each of these. You can consider
these as a checklist to work through when conducting your
own site analysis but note that not every item will be relevant to
every project.
Context
This is concerned with the wider area around the site in
question. Consider the density of the neighbourhood, the size
of the city blocks and the historical development of the site.
This should take in a wide geographical range where possible.
Identifying key landmarks, cultural references and other
significant buildings in the area (such as schools, hospitals,
transport hubs, etc.) should also be done at this stage.
Beyond the physical context, this part of the analysis should
also consider the wider sociological and economic conditions
of the site. This data should be represented graphically to help
build a comprehensive picture of the site and any opportunities
for development.

INTRODUCTION xiii
Routes
How is the site connected to other places? What is the scale
and nature of these routes? What transport infrastructure
and facilities are available? Proximity to rail and mass-transit
infrastructure may have a major impact on the land value,
usage patterns and desirability of a site. Pedestrian links, the
streetscape and a well-connected urban form can all affect your
design solutions and the nature of the architectural proposal.
Environment
Responding to the climatic conditions of a site can enhance
most design proposals and have a significant impact on
the ongoing energy costs and interior comfort of a building.
A well-sited and properly orientated design can capture
sunlight whilst minimising solar gain, and create spaces that
are pleasurable to be in. Temperature, humidity and seasonal
change should also be considered. Wind, particularly around
tall structures and in coastal settings, needs special analysis.
Noise pollution can be problematic, but it can be mitigated with
a sensitive design proposal. Beyond climate conditions, consider
topography and natural features, such as animal habitats, trees,
rivers and sea levels.
Consider how the site ‘feels’ and the responses it may
provoke in the visitor. Perhaps the site holds a particular history,
myth or association that resonates with the population. Places
can become infamous or gain associations linked to a particular
event or memory. A plot that was once a religious site will have
a different feel and meaning to a place next to a famous sports
stadium, for example.
Not everything important can be measured and a
phenomenological approach can help to reconcile contradictory
or less tangible site attributes. Consider moving beyond what
you can see and begin to notice the noises, smells, textures
and feelings you can detect around the site. Do they have any
implications for your design choices?

xiv
Groupings and usage
What takes place in the vicinity of and within the site? Is it
devoted to a particular activity, for example, is it a residential site
or mixed-use office, a restaurant or apartments? Try to find out
how the wider district or neighbourhood is currently used and
how your site fits in with a wider planning agenda.
Interface
This is all about the immediate context and how the site abuts
its neighbours. As well as the physical boundaries around the
perimeter of the site, you need to consider the views in and
out. Consider how the site is accessed and how much of the
site will be built on. What affect will your proposal have on the
surrounding buildings and their occupants?

2
appropriate to the task. It is therefore important to focus on the
key issues affecting the project and ensure that the analysis is
communicated in a clear way.
Students sometimes carry out excellent analysis, but the
impact and findings of these studies are not evident in the
design proposition. Alternatively, the analysis goes into too much
detail and fails to focus on the key issues unique to the site.
Level of detail
After considering the brief it is important to decide how far to
progress with the site analysis. For example, a brief for a new
museum with national significance will require an understanding
of how the proposed site relates to other similar facilities around
the country and how accessible the site is by car and public
transport. Being able to respond to large visitor groups will also
be important. If the proposal is for a new village hall within a
conservation area, then understanding the needs of the local
community, the impact of the proposal on the local townscape
and how the hall might relate to other community facilities
nearby will be valuable.
You need to consider what is special or unique about the site.
If it’s in an exposed coastal location, then details of extreme
weather will be important, whereas a new visitor centre set in the
grounds of a heritage site will require an in-depth understanding
of the history, landscape and architecture of the site. The point is
to recognise and respond to the unique and specific attributes,
rather than attempting to cover everything in your site analysis.
Analysis and synthesis
Having gathered the data and recorded information about the
site, it is then necessary to analyse and consider which aspects
will impact the design. For example, you may have gathered
information about levels of employment, but what does this say
about an area and how does it compare with national averages?
Setting down the key findings of your investigations, and what
they mean to the project, provides a stepping stone towards
your design proposal.

4
in which case it may be necessary to revisit aspects of the site
analysis or modify the design proposals.
Importance of on-site recording
Throughout this book, we stress the importance of visiting
the site to gain a first-hand impression and feeling about the
area. The act of on-site sketching tends to achieve this in a
natural way. Whist sitting or standing to record a scene you
are inevitably absorbed; passers-by may chat to you and you
will take in the sounds and smells over a longer period. These
sketches may also trigger memories in a more significant way
than by simply taking a photograph on your phone. Often, these
recollections can be vivid, months or even years later. Even if you
do not consider yourself to be a great artist, the sketches you
produce tend to communicate something very personal about
the site and this can help when presenting proposals to a client
or in a design review.
Key takeaway
In summary, it is important to identify what is significant about
the site and how this complements the design brief.
Do not try to incorporate everything into your analysis.
Be prepared to revisit the site to test your observations and
findings. This may require you to return several times, even after
you have begun to develop the design proposals.
Draw and map your analysis so that you can communicate
your findings and ideas in a way that explains to others what
is important about the site. You also need to explain how your
site analysis informs your design proposal and ensure this is
communicated in an effective way using appropriate media.
The ‘Quick Start Chart’ breaks down site analysis into five
parts: context, routes, environment, groupings and usage and
interface. These are the key things to consider when analysing
a site and the subheadings help you to explore what might be
relevant to your specific project. The tips that follow give some
examples from actual sites and how they might influence design
proposals. It is unlikely that all of these subheadings will be

6
Cullen focuses on four ideas: serial vision, place, content
and functional tradition, and these ideas are explored using
sequential illustrations along a route.
Kevin Lynch’s The Image of the City (1960) analyses a city that
allows the viewer to orientate themselves using five elements:
• paths, such as streets, trails, canals and railways
• edges, such as boundaries, walls and the edge of a district
• districts, medium or large, identifiable by common
characteristics
• nodes, which are focal points in a city, junctions, crossing
or convergences in paths, breaks in transport routes, or key
areas people recognise
• landmarks, such as churches, public buildings, monuments or
unique and memorable features.
These are certainly great starting points, but also consider the
site beyond the physical characteristics – make sure you weave
in culture, history, politics and social conditions.
All the maps and other images in this book were hand drawn,
requiring the authors to interpret information to communicate
key messages. A variety of styles and techniques have been
used. We encourage you to do the same. Experiment with
different ways of drawing, use colours, diagrams and urban
sketching to document and enhance your thinking. Photographs
are wonderful, but a sketch can convey far more often with
a lot less. Find your own style to communicate and get your
message across.

8
the north side with gardens to the south. Areas where noise is
less of a problem, such as the swimming pool and activity areas,
are also located on the south side. Apartments located on an
adjacent site look directly onto the site from an elevated position
and so the roof was important and becomes the fifth elevation.
The analysis, briefing and design process took over a year,
including extensive liaison with stakeholders.

CONTExT 9
CHAPTER 2
CONTEXT
‘Context’ is the term given to the immediate area around
and abutting your site. It is the materials, styles and physical
infrastructure of our streets. But more than just the neighbouring
buildings, context is also about the wider area, the historical
background and the intangible aspects, such as the social and
economic influences on the area.
Ideally you should first view your site in person to absorb its
qualities. Then search for information online in the form of data,
maps, historical photographs and policies. The ‘invisible city’
and virtual environments are also becoming more important and
relevant as we enter the age of smart cities, data-driven design
and ever-increasing digital realms.
Your site has a collective memory. Traces of the past bleed
through to inform the future. Our buildings and places serve as
a kind of archive, or repository, for and of the community and
its heritage.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-2

10
Historical
When considering a proposal, it is often the historical context
that is the most important influence on how the site looks today.
What is the background of the site and the surrounding area,
and what is known about the layers of its history?
Social and cultural
The social and cultural make up of an area can determine what
is architecturally viable and appropriate. Who lives and works
in the surrounding area of your site? What is the social mix
and ethnicity? Where has the population come from? Is it a
harmonious neighbourhood?
There may be traditions, social norms or folk laws that impact
on the cultural identity and provide clues for future propositions.
A qualitative and quantitative review might involve interviewing
local people. An individual’s story can offer unique insights to
the broader perspective and offer a sounding board for future
interventions. Be wide-ranging in your community engagement.
Communicating effectively and sharing your ideas is essential.
Census data can also be useful in giving an objective ‘big
data’ framework within which to work. Just as your design will
be drawn at different scales, consider the ‘contextual scales’
moving from the wider district to the community and down to the
individual level.
When exploring a particular community, it is sometimes
helpful to establish who are the key stakeholders and primary
users of the facilities. Landlords, politicians and community
leaders can all bring a unique perspective too and will have
different concerns to residents and participants. Identifying key
community organisations and pressure groups can be important,
and it is often wise to seek consultation when developing a
proposal to ensure voices and concerns are heard.
Economic
Economics will often drive the viability and appropriateness of a
design within a particular area. Although the client may be able
to fund a project, the extent to which the proposal is appropriate

CONTExT 11
will be affected by the demographics and the economic
buoyancy of an area.
What are typical land values? Are they increasing? What
rental levels can be realised and what are the council tax rates?
Levels of unemployment will affect the prosperity of an
area, as will typical income levels and the spread from richest
and poorest. These issues are very different from the physical
context, but they still play a major role in what gets built
and where.
Density and development
The existing density – that is, the dwellings/buildings per hectare
and occupancy levels per dwelling – will provide important clues
as to what may be appropriate with a new development and will
also influence the ratio of open space to buildings. A high land
value tends to drive an increased density level to capitalise on
the value and to recoup the expense of building on that land. Of
course, the human density may change at different times of the
day/week/year depending on the type of population and activity
within the area, so it’s worth thinking about how this impacts
your design solution.
Materiality and style
As architects we are aware of the materials and styles used in
the buildings around the site, and it is often this aspect of the
urban grain that makes a place so distinctive. Analysing these
characteristics and what makes the area different to other
places will provide an important clue for your own proposal.
The aim is not to replicate or mimic; a contrast can be more
convincing than an attempt to fit in.
Don’t just think in terms of two dimensional plans; consider
the impact of volumetric scale and different massing in various
parts of the site.
Looking at street elevations, consider the scale and rhythm of
the architecture and what this might mean for your proposal. The
rhythm of the architecture might be expressed through window
patterns, material changes or through decorative patterns.

12
Political
Considering the political context at both a local and national
level provides an insight into the area and may have a big impact
on what can be achieved. Local authority planning restrictions
and national guidelines often dictate what level of development
is possible and what is not. When dealing with projects in a
professional context, these can be critical considerations.
Physical infrastructure
Considering the spaces between the buildings allows the scale
of the street to be assessed, and it is important to think vertically
as well as horizontally. When exploring the qualities of the ‘public’
or outside spaces, consider how successful they are used
along with any space left over after planning (SLOAP). When
investigating the physical infrastructure, consider the ‘solids’ and
‘voids’, the built-up and the spaces, the public and private. Finally,
how does the site fit within the existing street patterns? Is there
a rhythm or over-riding city layout, and how will this shape
your intervention?
Invisible city
The boundaries between the virtual and the real world are
increasingly blurred as online information becomes more
accessible and the virtual world more immersive. Street views,
models of entire cities and virtual reality are all changing how we
interact with, and think about, the built environment. We can use
these tools to test and share our ideas with a global audience.
Our built environment is becoming ‘smart’ – it can respond
to changing conditions and events in real time. Cyber cities,
virtual environments and Google maps can all relay retail and
commercial data informing how we design and can test the
impact of our ideas on the existing cityscape.

Assessment of a site within Clifton conservation area

14
TIP 1
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
INVESTIGATE THE LAYERS OF HISTORY.
What you can see
The ‘cross’ or central crossroads at Chester is offset so that the
church forms the end of the vista from Bridge Street leading
south to the river.
What does this mean?
The reason for this is that the original Roman plan had a
principia at this location and the later Christian church was built
in the same place.
How might it affect your proposal?
Understanding the history of the city and the reasons behind
the planning allows you to work with what is already there and
to be sensitive to the underlying story. Unwrapping the layers of
history can sometimes give clues as to how to move forward.
Tip links with 2, 3, 20, 21, 22, 27, 78, 83 and 90.

16
TIP 2
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
CONSIDER THE STYLISTIC DIVERSITY.
What you can see
This street in Chester contains buildings constructed in many
different architectural styles and materials, built at different times
over a span of 500 years. Even so, the overall arrangement of
medieval ‘Rows’, or two-storey shops, is maintained.
Each building says something about the period from which it
dates. They use materials and architectural styles considered
most appropriate at the time they were constructed.
Cities are living things, not museums. In the case of Chester,
the variety of styles and eras of building might also give a clue
to what a modern intervention might consist of. Your design can
also be contemporary, using materials that are appropriate for
our times where sustainability is an important consideration.
Cities can be an amalgamation of many different eras
of development.
Tip links with 1, 3, 18, 19, 20, 21 22, 25 and 73.

18
TIP 3
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
EXPLORE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT WITH
MAPS.
What you can see
The top map from the mid-nineteenth century shows the location
of a new park with surrounding cottages, agricultural land and
new brickyards in advance of the planned development that was
to follow. The second map shows the same park 50 years later,
now surrounded by housing development and urbanisation.
The park was set out to aid the development and increase
land value. The housing plots around the park’s perimeter were
auctioned off for large housing development with the prices
elevated due to the close proximity and amenity of the park.
Looking at historical maps of your site can help you to
understand how, why and when development took place. We can
gain a better understanding of a place when we can see how it
was made and how it has changed over time. The old roads from
the nineteenth century, field boundaries and so on continue to
influence and determine how the land is used today.
Tip links with 1, 24 and 29.

20
TIP 4
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
STUDY THE PACE OF CHANGE.
What you can see
The older map shows a crossroads at a small settlement in
1910. The new map from the 1990s shows the development of
housing estates.
Note how some things remain, whilst others change. Our built
environment may seem static, but it is in a constant state of
flux and renewal. Equally, some older features persist and bleed
through into the present. For example, on these plans note how
the small triangular woodland has remained.
The places in which we design are not tabula rasa (clean slate).
There are always traces of past human activity that shape our
design options.
The built environment is not fixed; it is constantly changing,
renewing and evolving. We may not notice these changes,
but over time they may radically alter a place. How has your
site changed during the last year, decade and century? What
features (such as trees, public footpaths and boundaries) have
been preserved or changed during this time?
Tip links with 1, 3, 24 and 29.

22
TIP 5
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL
CREATE YOUR OWN NOLLI MAP.
What you can see
A figure-ground plan of central Liverpool, also known as a Nolli
Map, after Giambattista Nolli’s drawing of Rome from 1748.
The aim here is to omit everything from the plan apart from
the buildings.
The plan reveals the spatial configurations and relationships of
the built and unbuilt spaces. It reveals patterns, development
formations, typology and scale. By erasing everything and
removing data we are able to see certain aspects of the city
more clearly. You can also ‘invert’ the drawing and show the
buildings in white and the spaces in black.
The Nolli Map reveals how your site fits into the wider city plan
– it shows the relationships between public spaces, transport
routes and the built environment. The density of the site can be
examined and the connectivity and permeability of the cityscape
explored. It is a simple technique, but surprisingly revealing, and
often brings about clarity as a result.

24
TIP 6
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
RESEARCH THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
LANDSCAPE.
What you can see
The city of Chester comprises of several distinct districts each
with their own special character.
Each district has its own character and a different social and
economic status.
The economic backdrop can have a big influence on land
values and therefore the viability of what interventions and
developments might be feasible. The social and cultural
landscape can make a difference to the sorts of proposals that
would be attractive and that are likely to thrive in the area.
Tip links with 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 24, 33 and 79.

26
TIP 7
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
INVESTIGATE THE TYPE OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE AND
WORK IN THE AREA.
What you can see
This is Barry ‘The Beekeeper’ Chang. He tends over 30 beehives
in Liverpool and collects the honey to sell. He is also a champion
for the UK’s oldest Caribbean Centre and campaigns to keep it
running for the good of the community.
It’s a good idea to seek out people, like Barry, who can give you
valuable insights into the community. Talk to them and listen to
their stories.
Local residents, shopkeepers and personalities can become
advocates for your ideas and proposals, or else provide crucial
feedback on how the proposal might be improved to resonate
more with the community.

28
TIP 8
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
INVESTIGATE THE CULTURAL INFLUENCES AND
ASSETS.
What you can see
This is the Cathedral Quarter of Chester, which incorporates
a Georgian square with offices and living accommodation.
For most of the time it provides tranquil space away from the
main bustle of the city. Every four years the city hosts the
medieval mystery plays and the area is transformed into a
performance space.
Many areas of the country have traditions and festivals that form
an important part of their heritage and calendar.
Being aware of festivals and traditions may influence your design
proposals. There can be practical issues, such as occasional
access and legal rights, as is the case with open markets.
Sometimes, long-standing traditions and folk law can provide a
clue as to how to approach a design proposal, giving it additional
depth and meaning.
Tip links with 1, 4, 19, 28, 52, 65 and 78.

30
TIP 9
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
USE CENSUS DATA TO PRODUCE YOUR OWN
DIAGRAMS.
What you can see
This is a map of Litchfield showing the various parts of the
city categorised according to their features and attributes. It is
called Classification of Multidimension Open Data Morphology
(MODUM). Here you can see the city arranged according
to eight broad categories: ‘Suburban’, ‘Railway’, ‘Old Town’,
‘Victorian Terraces’, ‘Waterside’, ‘Countryside’, ‘High Street’ and
‘Central Business District’.
To understand a place, try describing its dominant features and
categorising its different parts. This will allow for broad analysis
and it will help you to understand the constituent parts. It can
also help to inform the identity of particular districts.
These tools can help build up a picture of how a neighbourhood
is organised and fits into a larger settlement pattern. Using
eight categories is a crude, but surprisingly useful, mode of
beginning to describe a place. It will help you to communicate
quickly with others and provide a system for comparison and
further investigation.
Tip links with 5, 16, 17, 25 and 34.

CONTExT 31
Suburban
Railway
Old Town
Victorian Terraces
Waterside
Countryside
High Street
Central Business District

32
TIP 10
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
USE CENSUS INFORMATION TO UNDERSTAND
MORE ABOUT LOCAL RESIDENTS AND HOUSING
OWNERSHIP.
What you can see
This is a map of Litchfield showing the percentage of social
rented properties in each area. The higher percentages of social
housing are located in the northern parts of the city and within
the old town area. South of the railway track there is only a very
small amount of social housing.
This may impact how a place is perceived, the land valuations
and the scale and scope of ongoing development. Affordable
housing is a major issue for many today.
Who are the stakeholders and people with an interest/concern
with your site? How are the communities formed and arranged?
What kinds of needs and services might they require? How
is social provision arranged and distributed? How might
this impact on perceptions of your site? Make use of freely
available information and census data to form new maps and
interpretations of your site.
Tip links with 9, 11, 13, 16, 24 and 32.

CONTExT 33
90% or more social rented housing
60%–90% social rented housing
20–30% social rented housing
0–10% social rented housing

34
TIP 11
CONTEXT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
IDENTIFY THE LOCAL SOCIAL HUBS.
What you can see
This city map shows the location of primary schools in the city
of York.
Primary schools tend to serve a very local population. They often
form the hub of the community, not only for the families of the
children who attend the school, but also for other people who
use the facilities for after-school clubs and activities.
Where major developments create more dwellings, it can
sometimes mean that local schools have insufficient capacity to
accommodate the new children coming into the area. Sometimes
local authorities require a financial contribution to help with the
provision of new or extended schools. Where populations are
reducing, the opposite is the case and difficult decisions must be
made regarding which schools might close. Understanding the
location of the schools and their proximity to populations and
influence is important.

36
TIP 12
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
CONSIDER THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LAND VALUES.
What you can see
This map of Liverpool shows property values across the city,
which also give a good indication of land values.
Land and property prices affect what might be economically
viable in an area. In the case of Liverpool, some previously
predominantly industrial zones are becoming used for offices,
entertainment and gallery spaces. This change of use pattern
can be beneficial for investors as it increases the value.
However, it may present a problem for established businesses
and community users as they may no longer be able to afford
increased rents.
Being aware of land and property values gives an indication of
what types of proposal might be economically viable. Looking
at future trends can sometimes provide an opportunity for
innovation. Taking risks tends to be what developers do, but of
course, these ventures do not always pay off. Predicting the
future can be tricky.
Tip links with 12 and 24.

CONTExT 37
£100,000
£150,000
£250,000
£400,000

38
TIP 13
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
REVIEW THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEMOGRAPHICS
OF AN AREA.
What you can see
This map of Liverpool shows areas of deprivation using multiple
deprivation ratings provided by the City Council in 2013.
The map shows that a significant part of Liverpool’s population
experiences multiple deprivation and social exclusion. In terms
of social disadvantage, around 50% of Liverpool’s lower-level
output areas are classified as being in the bottom 10% nationally
for multiple deprivation.
Depending upon your brief, these statistics can either
demonstrate a need to add a specific type of facility to support
the community, or they might be an indication that a particular
type of development or outlet would be inappropriate within the
local area because the local population might not be able to
afford to use it.

CONTExT 39
1% most deprived
2–5% most deprived
6–10% most deprived

40
TIP 14
CONTEXT
ECONOMIC
CONSIDER THE INFLUENCE OF OWNERSHIP AND
LANDLORDS.
What you can see
This map shows a large portion of the city under the ownership
of a single landlord (highlighted in blue).
This major landowner will have a significant affect on how the
shops and other types of accommodation are let and may
restrict the types of businesses that can operate within the city.
Being aware of restrictions on ownership and control allows
you to understand the potential viability of different uses.
Opportunities for independent traders may be restricted, either
because rental levels are too high, or because the landlords
want to restrict the types of shops and businesses operating
in the town. In some instances, whole streets may be in private
ownership and what appears to be in the public realm is within
the control of the landowner.

42
TIP 15
CONTEXT
DENSITY AND DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW THE DENSITY AND PLOT SIZE.
What you can see
A map of Manchester showing different scales of plot size and
street patterns. On the left is the Cathedral (in red), alongside
large-scale museums and shopping centres, which occupy vast
plots. On the right-hand side is the Northern Quarter containing
a series of former smaller warehouses and showrooms.
Density can be measured in many different ways (e.g. population
per hectare; building height to street width ratio; ratio of building
area to street area). The height of construction is often the
greatest determinant of density, but the scale of the building’s
footprint relative to the site area and surrounding open space is
equally important.
Consider how your site fits within the wider urban context and
examine how the scale of the plot aligns with the surrounding
streets, neighbouring sites and wider district. A large building
set within a vast site and surrounded by large roads will have a
completely different feel (and lower density) compared to a small
plot with a narrow street.

CONTExT 43
The medieval cathedral
New large-scale shopping centres, museums and galleries
Victorian commercial retail district
Showrooms, warehouses and workshops

44
TIP 16
CONTEXT
CONSIDER THE HUMAN DENSITY AND HOUSEHOLD
COMPOSITION.
What you can see
A map of Birkenhead showing the average quantities of single-
person households. More people are living alone, resulting
in a major impact on housing provision, development and
associated services.
In which areas are people likely to be living in single-
occupancy households and why? As demographic trends move
towards smaller household sizes there is an impact on our
housing provision.
Changing demographics might mean a different design
approach, especially in terms of housing layouts and design.
What kind of homes should we be making to adequately serve
the next generation and society’s changing requirements?
It is also useful to overlay this with other maps to look for
correlations with healthcare, schools, social housing and access
to transportation. There isn’t one map that can ever give a
full picture.

CONTExT 45
Average of 60% single occupancy households

46
TIP 17
CONTEXT
CONSIDER COMPETING FUTURE VISIONS AND
OTHER STAKEHOLDERS.
What you can see
A map of old docklands and a former industrial area. The
site sits between major road and rail links and forms a key
regeneration site. The entire site is owned by a single developer
– Peel Holdings.
The developer will have a strategy and vision for its future use.
Any proposals adjacent to the site, and even in the wider region,
will need to be mindful of what is taking place here. Often large
projects like this will have multiple architectural and design
teams working on distinct portions of the site, requiring careful
communication and coordination between the various projects.
The site you’re allocated to work on might be part of a much
larger project and vision funded by a major developer over many
years. The context in which your building sits may not exist yet.
Effective communication and clear masterplanning objectives
are essential for larger scale development and working on this
urban scale.

CONTExT 47
Parkland
Former industrial site owned by one developer
Sites impacted by the regeneration
River and docklands
Railway and stations
Ferry

48
TIP 18
CONTEXT
CONSIDER SUSTAINABILITY WHEN EXPLORING
COMMUNITIES.
What you can see
This map of the village of Willaston in Cheshire West shows
potential areas of the greenbelt that could be released
for housing.
Local authorities must consider how to meet the housing need.
Often this is done by using ‘brown field’ sites within a city. In
some instances, land previously designated as ‘greenbelt’ is
released for housing developments. In this way it is sometimes
argued that an increase in population, particularly if it is for
affordable housing, will help the sustainability of a village in terms
of schools and shops.
Being aware of the local plan and any changes that are being
considered is important because they might affect your
proposals. These can provide an opportunity where previously
development would not have been possible. However, it can
also be a threat to the existing properties values if the houses
previously enjoyed the amenity of the countryside with views
across open fields.

50
TIP 19
CONTEXT
EXPLORE IF RECENT INTERVENTIONS CAN ALSO
PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES.
What you can see
This is the Shakespeare North Playhouse in Prescot. The
oak-framed traditional performance space is contained within a
building of contemporary design, which provides hospitality and
technical support facilities.
The town of Prescot planned the new theatre to attract visitors
and provide a catalyst for the regeneration of the area. The
masterplan includes infrastructure improvements to ensure that
visitors can have easy access and good transport links to other
parts of the UK.
Being aware of developments may allow your proposals to
benefit from the potential economic uplift of an area and take
advantage of any associated environmental improvements.

52
TIP 20
CONTEXT
MATERIALITY AND STYLE
CONSIDER THE AVAILABILITY OF LOCALLY
SOURCED MATERIALS.
What you can see
Nantwich is a small market town in Cheshire East. This street
has a variety of houses from different eras, but there is a
consistency in the use of materials, which gives the street a
sense of harmony.
In many areas of the country there is a predominant use of
certain materials because they are available locally and it makes
economic sense to use them. Sometimes this means that
specialist skills are developed to use these materials.
Being aware of what materials are commonly used can inform
what your building might be constructed of. Considering what
type of brick or stone is available locally will allow you to
create something that not only fits into its context, but is also
sustainable, because the materials do not have to be transported
over long distances.

54
TIP 21
CONTEXT
RESEARCH LOCAL STYLES AND FORMS OF
CONSTRUCTION.
What you can see
These buildings in Chipping Campden are constructed in
local Cotswold stone with stone slabs forming the roof finish.
Although there are differences in the scale and form of the
buildings, there is a constancy of traditional details to the gables,
chimneys and around the windows.
There can often be a particular style of architectural detailing
in an area, either because there is the traditional way of doing
things, or because the buildings forms part of a larger estate
where the architect chose a specific style and pallet of materials.
The example shown here is from a rather special Cotswold
village. It is often the case, with less iconic examples, that there
is a particular architectural style in an area or estate, and this
can sometimes provide a clue as to how to approach your
design. It is best to avoid a simple copy or pastiche, but perhaps
reinterpret what is already there in some way as part of your
own contemporary design.

56
TIP 22
CONTEXT
CONSIDER WHY THE CITY LOOKS THE WAY IT DOES.
What you can see
These buildings on Bold Street in Liverpool have a variety of
styles, heights and materials. The street currently has many
independent shops, as well as bars and restaurants. The lively
nature of the architecture suits the different types of users.
The buildings on the street were built in the Victorian era and all
at roughly the same time. The development of the individual plots
allowed the designs to reflect the aspirations of their owners. It
is an animated ensemble, revealing that variety and contrast is
an effective design approach.
If an opportunity came up to develop one of these sites, the
varied nature of the frontages allows considerable latitude in
terms of architectural handling, materials and scale. Picking up
on the lively nature of the street would also be important, as
would perhaps instilling a sense of fun.

58
TIP 23
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
WHO ARE THE POLITICAL INFLUENCERS?
What you can see
This map shows the location of the combined and regional
authorities across England. These are attempts to devolve
power to the larger urban centres under the leadership of a local
mayor representing several local authorities.
The political landscape may not seem important to an individual
project, but the administration of a region – and particularly
that of a larger urban area – can have a significant impact on
investment, development and ambition. Being aware of this (and
where the boundaries of administration and responsibility lie) is
part of our wider understanding of place, site and the context in
which we design.
Large projects and regeneration schemes benefit from political
endorsement and support. Regional mayors and city regions
will have a future vision for their city and its environs. How does
this align with your project and site? What can your project
contribute to the ambition for the city region and its future?

CONTExT 59
Devolved administrations and metro regions in England

60
TIP 24
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
REVIEW THE LOCAL AUTHORITY PLANNING
POLICIES.
What you can see
This map shows central Manchester and surrounding districts.
The City Council wrote a planning policy document to set out
its 10-year strategy for the city. This included specific policy
targeting dwelling construction at certain ‘large sites and
development opportunity areas’. Other areas were highlighted in
the policy for smaller and medium dwelling sites.
The political vision for the city shaped the planning policies and
approaches to regeneration. The council identified strategic
areas that it wanted to develop in particular ways. It shaped
policy and sought out partnerships and commercial allegiances
to deliver these goals.
Planning policy and regional planning strategy documents can
have dramatic impacts on the built environment. Whether it is
through permitted developments, relaxations of planning rules
or the release of land and compulsory purchases, the political
vision for a place is always worth examining. How does your
proposal align or country wide policy and development goals?

CONTExT 61
Harperhey
Wythenshawe
City Centre
Large sites and development opportunities
Range of medium sites
Areas in Manchester identified for large sites and
development opportunities.

62
TIP 25
CONTEXT
POLITICAL
IS YOUR SITE PART OF A CONSERVATION AREA?
What you can see
This is a map of Liverpool’s conservation areas. Each zone has
been identified as having an important and unique character
worthy of preserving. Whilst individual buildings may receive
statutory protection through ‘listing’, conservation areas are
concerned with wider characteristics and values that extend to
streetscapes, landscapes and collections of structures.
Proposals within conservation areas receive additional scrutiny
and are expected to respect and respond to the unique values
and characteristics of that area. Planners, local pressure groups,
residents and other concerned parties will pay particular
attention to any new proposals that might be seen to damage or
dilute these important qualities.
If your site sits within a conservation area (or even abuts one),
then special care and design justification will be required. It is
not necessary to ‘fit in’ or produce an historical pastiche, but it is
important to provide clear justification for your design proposals,
and to explain how your design will enhance and contribute to
the conservation area.

64
TIP 26
CONTEXT
PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
EXPLORE TYPES OF PLACES AND SPACES AROUND
THE SITE.
What you can see
This journey through the old part of Amsterdam moves through a
sequence of spaces, which include some narrow, dark alleyways
and wide, open canals.
Cities are experienced by moving through them, normally on
foot. The variety of space and light, as well as the unexpected,
creates a dynamic journey. In this example, the visitor leaves the
wide tree-lined Geldersekade and enters the narrow alleyways
before coming across the unexpected wide canal basin and onto
a quiet backwater with warehouses.
Being aware of the theatrical nature of a city and how people
move through it allows you to develop a masterplan and place
your proposal in context. This means that you can either build on
what is already there or grasp a new opportunity by exploiting
the unique aspects of a particular site to create incident
and interest.

66
TIP 27
CONTEXT
INVESTIGATE WHY THE CITY LOOKS THE WAY IT
DOES.
What you can see
These two maps of Ipswich show how the settlement has
developed from a medieval market town to its current layout. The
river crossing and civic square are still in the same location.
Understanding the history of a city allows you to make sense of
the urban grain, its roads and squares. At Ipswich, the original
layout of roads is still visible, but the inner ring road for vehicular
traffic tends to create a barrier and makes the medieval street
pattern less obvious when moving around the town. The
connection between the river crossing and the civic square
is lost.
Try to understand how and why a city has developed into its
current form. Aim to be sensitive to earlier layouts whilst also
trying to help unify the city, improve connectivity and reinforce
the urban grain.

68
TIP 28
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY MONUMENTS AND NODES.
What you can see
The city of Edinburgh has many important monuments. The
Royal Mile has the castle at one end and the parliament
building at the other with several other structures of cultural
and historical significance between. Here it shows St Mary’s
Cathedral, Usher Hall, Edinburgh Castle, the Scottish National
Gallery, the Scott Monument, Edinburgh Waverley station, the
National Gallery of Scotland and the Scottish Parliament building.
Understanding the history of a city allows you to make sense
of the urban grain. The roads, monuments and nodes are all
important elements to a city and they allow you to orientate
yourself and find your way.
When working within a city, it is important to respect the existing
infrastructure, history and culture. Views to monuments and
other structures may become design drivers and it is likely that
there will be rules associated with the scale of the development
when your site is close to an important building.

Section through the Royal Mile
CONTEXT 69

70
TIP 29
CONTEXT
REVIEW THE SCALE OF THE STREET.
What you can see
This is a view of a narrow medieval street in York with buildings
overhanging the narrow passageway.
Streets are places of encounter, exchange and possibility.
They are the shared spaces where the life of a town or city is
encountered or, in a smaller settlement, where the community
can gather.
Think about how your design might contribute to the
streetscape. Consider how wide the street is in relation to the
height of the buildings. What is the relationship between the road
width and the pavement? How is the pavement (or wider public
realm) going to be used and how does the street façade interact
with this domain?

72
TIP 30
CONTEXT
REVIEW THE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE.
What you can see
This map shows a historic walled city with later developments
outside the wall.
Structures such as old city walls and similar boundaries still
feature in layouts of towns and cities today (even if the wall
has been demolished or dramatically altered). The density and
street pattern will have been determined by these features, and
different districts and parts of the city will have been determined
by their presence.
Density, building plot sizes, access and heritage considerations
need to be considered in your proposal, and these may be
impacted by the historic layout of the town including features
such as city walls and significant historic structures. Look for
shifts in planning density within and outside these structures.
Consider how your proposal might respond to its location within
the older and more tightly arranged districts or the more formal
grid patterns of later expansions.

74
TIP 31
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY NEIGHBOURHOODS AND DISTRICTS IN
AND AROUND YOUR SITE.
What you can see
This map shows central Manchester with the large university
buildings and facilities flanking Oxford Road. On the right is the
residential neighbourhood of Brunswick.
There are often sharp divisions and distinct boundaries between
certain districts reflected in the different scale of the buildings
and how these places are used. Some districts become more
prominent because of their public function and scale, whilst
others may seem to nestle almost invisibly within the city fabric.
As the university continues to expand, what will the impact be on
the surrounding houses and the communities who live there?
Make sure you venture beyond the site boundaries of your
project and explore the neighbouring areas. You may begin to
notice different communities, usage patterns and architectural
approaches. How might your proposal impact these places and
the current communities?

CONTExT 75
The university along Oxford Road
Inner-city housing of Brunswick

76
TIP 32
CONTEXT
IDENTIFY THE SCALE OF THE DISTRICT.
What you can see
This map of the north-west of England indicates the relative
scale of the cities of Chester, Liverpool and Manchester. It also
shows the motorway links connecting these cities.
A city the size of Chester can only support certain types of
facilities and residents tend to go to Manchester or Liverpool for
major sporting events, cultural activities or specialist services.
Depending on your brief, some types of facility require a
minimum critical mass of population in order to sustain them.
Understanding the scale of the proposal relative to the local
district allows you to understand how sustainable it might be.

CONTExT 77
Manchester
Liverpool
Chester

78
TIP 33
CONTEXT
CONSIDER HOW HISTORICAL BACKSTORY IMPACTS
ON THE URBAN GRAIN.
What you can see
This view of the Georgian Quarter of Bath shows The Circus and
Royal Crescent forming the most impressive residences.
The development of Bath in the eighteenth century as a spa
town created the most exclusive and desirable residences with
the Bath Assembly Rooms providing the focus for gatherings
and events. The layout of the roads and squares were designed
to impress and provide a clear hierarchy. This was a set piece
design, imposed without any regard to the context at that time.
This part of Bath is an extreme example of a legacy from one
particular era. This area is now designated as a conservation
area and any future development and alterations are governed
by strict rules. You need a strong argument to support any
changes or departure from the existing townscape. Even
when working in more everyday settings, it is important to be
aware of the historical grain as well as any legislation affecting
development and to acknowledge it in your design proposals.

80
TIP 34
CONTEXT
CONSIDER THE DISTRICT AS PART OF THE OVERALL
CITY.
What you can see
The conurbation around Birmingham is a collection of smaller
districts, each with its own distinct character and history.
The history of each area, why it developed and how each relates
to the other is important in understanding why they are as they
are. The social and economic story of the Midlands is quite
different to other parts of the UK and has strong traditions and a
unique industrial heritage.
Considering the wider context for your site allows you to see the
big picture, how your site fits into its district and how that area
relates to the wider geographical area. Identifying the distinct
character of your district can provide important clues as to the
appropriateness and direction of your own proposal.
Tip links with 1, 3, 5, 6, 12, 13, 23, 25, 27 and 85.

CONTExT 81
Selly Oak
Mosely
Perry Barr
Edrington
Handsworth
Ashton
Rotten Park Washwood
Market Hall
Edbaston Yardley
Harbourn
Acock’ Green
Selly Oak Mosely
Sparkhill
Northfeild
Kings Northon
1731 1838 1863 1913

82
TIP 35
CONTEXT
HOW MIGHT THE PUBLIC REALM INFLUENCE YOUR
PROPOSAL?
What you can see
This is a drawing of a market space and cathedral square in
Ghent, Belgium. The historic square is now home to a new
market hall suitable for a variety of gatherings and events
throughout the year.
Historical and sensitive sites are capable of new and innovative
uses that can enhance the spaces and quality of the public
realm. The new market hall helps to reinforce the boundaries
of the public square whilst also serving as a sheltered arcade
for gatherings.
Consider the spaces around your site: how can your proposal
enhance the public realm? Landscaping, shade, places to
sit, habitats for wildlife, colour from planting, protection from
the weather and spaces for people to come together and
meet with friends, are all part of creating a successful and
welcoming cityscape.

84
TIP 36
CONTEXT
THINK VERTICALLY AS WELL AS HORIZONTALLY;
CONSIDER DIFFERENT PROGRAMMES AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS.
What you can see
A sectional drawing through a medieval street showing how
buildings have different functions at different levels, including
high-level walkways as shown highlighted here.
Cities and streets must be considered vertically as well as
through the simple plan drawing. By cutting sectional drawings
through a street you can explore a much richer set of uses and
demands on the site and the surrounding area.
Do not rely on plan drawings alone to show how a place works
and is used. Cut a section to show how the programmes might
change when regarded vertically. Housing, retail, offices, leisure
and food outlets all need to be carefully mapped through the
section drawing to understand how the streetscape is used and
by whom.

86
TIP 37
CONTEXT
EXPLORE UNDERLYING CITY PLANS AND
STRUCTURES.
What you can see
This is a plan of Glasgow showing the grid pattern of streets and
city blocks.
There is often an urban grain that can be observed in our cities.
This relates to the size of the city block in relation to the street
size and pattern. Certain projects may break or flex this pattern
but most projects will align with the plots available. Be aware
that the plan does not reveal gradients, and what may appear as
a grid layout in plan will have a very different feel when visited in
person – as is the case in Glasgow.
How does your site align with the rhythm and structure of
the cityscape? Is there a city pattern, grid or underlying
planning device that is dictating the urban form? If not, can you
discern any typical plot sizes or other arrangements that have
determined the urban grain and plot structure of your site?

CONTExT 87
Typical city block
Park at the city block scale

88
TIP 38
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
TRACK MOVEMENT TO PROVIDE DATA ON HOW
PEOPLE INTERACT WITH THE CITY.
What you can see
This map of part of the Liverpool University campus shows the
movement of people using phone tracking data.
This exercise was carried out by a group of architectural
students to understand how people move around the campus,
the natural gathering areas and pinch points. The large number
of students crossing Brownlow Hill, the road at the top of the
drawing, is particularly noticeable.
Understanding how people move around the site can provide
clues for the location of key interventions and the impact of
any new developments on the masterplan. In the case of this
exercise, the team proposed the pedestrianisation of Brownlow
Hill, an idea that is actually viable and is now being considered
by the local authority.

90
TIP 39
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF ANY UNDERGROUND
SERVICES.
What you can see
This university campus in Liverpool has a strip of undeveloped
land running diagonally through its centre.
The main railway line linking Liverpool to London runs through a
tunnel beneath the campus, making development very restrictive.
Being aware of substructure services in the vicinity of your
site, including sewers, gas and electricity supplies, is important
because there may be rules about how the site can be
developed. Restrictions associated with building close to train
lines can be particularly onerous, whether they are beneath or
adjacent to your site.

92
TIP 40
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
CONSIDER TRAFFIC DATA AND RESTRICTIONS.
What you can see
To control the volume of traffic entering the city, York has a
park-and-ride scheme, with car parks around the perimeter
located on the major routes into the city.
The City Council’s strategy for managing its visitors means that
traffic and buses are directed along designated routes with key
set-down points within the city. This may also affect visitors’
shopping habits.
Being aware of the key transport nodes and routes might
impact on your proposal, since it may provide an opportunity
for your site to benefit from the increased volume of pedestrian
traffic. The route between bus set-down points and other major
attractions may also mean that those outlets and services are at
a premium.

94
TIP 41
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
DOWNLOAD OR BUILD YOUR OWN 3D MODEL OF
THE SITE.
What you can see
A computer model of part of London.
Whilst maps are useful diagrams, increasingly we have access
to virtual models of our major towns and cities. We can use
these to explore and view our cities. These models can
contain information about transport, services and planning
applications, as well as providing useful details about our site
and its neighbourhood.
You can use virtual city models to test your ideas and insert
your own computer models. This will help you to visualise the
proposal and to see how it fits into the wider area. The virtual
city models can also enable you to ‘explore’ the district and to
generate a greater understanding of how it works. The virtual
model should not be seen as a replacement for your own
physical models but rather as an enhancement and additional
insight into the city.
Tip links with 42.

96
TIP 42
CONTEXT
INVISIBLE CITY
ARE THERE ANY LITERARY REFERENCES RELATING
TO YOUR SITE?
What you can see
Nicholas Hawksmoor’s churches in London provided the
inspiration for Peter Ackroyd’s novel Hawksmoor.
Have you ever walked down an unfamiliar street yet felt you
had been there before? Perhaps it was the setting for a TV
programme or film? The imaginary and fictional can shape how
we perceive and experience a place.
Perhaps the site you are researching featured in a particular
documentary, sit-com or film set? If so, how does that
association shape how you, and others, view that place and how
does it impact your design response? Does the site sit within
our cultural memory? This might impact tourism, future filming
schedules and even listing protection and heritage policy.

98
CASE STUDY 2
NEW BODLEIAN,
WESTON LIBRARY
WILKINSON EYRE
What you can see
The Weston Library (outlined in red) is one of Oxford’s most
important institutions. The original Giles Gilbert Scott design was
remodelled in 2015 by Wilkinson Eyre to create better storage
and research facilities with an improved entrance to the south.
By changing the way in which the south elevation works, the
building relates much better to the public realm, providing an
active frontage and welcoming visitors. The original plinth has
been removed and replaced with steps and ramped access.
What the architect says
The project offered an opportunity to boost the library’s
relationship with its urban setting by addressing Broad Street
and the main Bodleian Library building opposite. The design knits
the library more closely into its context by extending the axis
created by the Radcliffe Camera, the ‘Old Schools Quadrangle’
and the Clarendon Building, a logical move to encourage the
public inside. The design works with, rather than against, Scott’s
robust design.

CONTExT 99
Weston Library
Broad Street
Clarendon Building
Bodleian Library/
Old Schools Quadrangle
Radcli-e Camera
University Church of
St Mary the Virgin

100
CHAPTER 3
ROUTES
The way in which the site is connected to the surrounding area
can have an important influence on the viability and form of
the proposal. How the site is accessed and where visitors are
coming from can affect how the scheme is laid out and who is
permitted to access. The organisation of primary and secondary
routes allows you to understand the significance of design
decisions and can help to develop an appropriate strategy.
For many places, the main arterial routes define the city and
its districts with the secondary routes determining the urban
grain within these zones. In rural areas, the roads and paths
sometimes have a history going back many centuries. Working
within this framework is important if you are to preserve what is
special about a place.
Vehicular
Vehicular routes include those for cars, buses, trucks and
bicycles. Depending on the proposed function, knowing how
accessible the site is to major roads and motorways can be
important. At a more local level, understanding restrictions on
vehicle access will allow you to plan accordingly.
Cycle routes are becoming increasingly important and in
some parts of Europe it is possible for an inexperienced cyclist
or child to access the centre of a city in complete safety,
100 SITE ANALYSIS ESSENTIALS: AN ARCHITECT’S
GUIDE
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-3

ROUTES 101
segregated from the main vehicular traffic routes. Understanding
existing and proposed routes allows you to consider how
accessible your site is.
Pedestrian
Exploring a city on foot provides a different perspective and
pace. Looking at the routes around or through the site allows
you to consider the human scale. Where are people coming from
and how might your proposal benefit from what is happening
around the site? Pedestrian access to the site can be a
determining factor in your design strategy and feasibility. In some
cases, there may be a public right of way across the site or an
opportunity to create a new link.
Transport
How well the site is served by public transport and what form
this takes can be important. Depending on the function of the
proposal, the use of public transport may be important to allow
stakeholders to use the facility. Bus stops and metro or train
stations can make the site more accessible and therefore more
sustainable. For certain projects, the proximity of airports or
other major transport hubs can be critical. Different areas will
have different transport services and sometimes it is important
to pick up on the availability and frequency of these services.
Timeframe
When assessing how the existing routes work, it is important to
consider how busy they are at different times of the day, month
or year. Certain roads are very busy at rush hour and some
pedestrian routes linking, say, a university campus to the city
centre, may become very quiet during the holidays.
Movement
Exploring the intensity of use allows you to establish the
significance of certain routes, and this may be important in some
commercial situations where the footfall can be a major factor in
establishing viability.

102
TIP 43
ROUTES
VEHICULAR
ESTABLISH THE HIERARCHY OF ROUTES AFFECTING
YOUR SITE.
What you can see
The city of Ipswich has a perimeter ring road. Within the town
there are then principal routes and minor roads serving the
local areas.
Within every city there is a hierarchy of roads from busy urban
expressways to quiet backstreets. The urban grain is often
affected by serving the needs of vehicular traffic and this
can sometimes be to the detriment of the city. Nevertheless,
how an area is served is important in order to establish its
development potential.
Understanding the way in which the roads work allows you to
put your site in context. If it is on a major route it will be well
served and accessible. Smaller streets can be difficult for large
vehicles to negotiate and also less easy to find if your customers
are coming by car.

ROUTES 103
Primary roads
Secondary roads
Minor roads

104
TIP 44
ROUTES
VEHICULAR
IDENTIFY BUS AND CYCLE ROUTES.
What you can see
Chester has a network of cycle routes using old railway lines
and canal towpaths. Buses are excluded from the main four
pedestrianised streets of the historic centre.
Discouraging car use has required designated bus lanes and
cycle ways that provide safe routes right into the centre of the
city as well as a sustainable transport network.
Pedestrianised areas can place restrictions on the operation
and service of sites within the city. Carrying out construction
activities can be especially difficult with deliveries only possible
at certain times. Being aware of the transport infrastructure will
allow you to grasp the opportunities. If cycling is a major thing,
then providing space for bikes to be parked can be important.
In certain circumstances, what appears to be a backwater can
actually have great commercial potential due to the volume of
cyclists and pedestrians.

ROUTES 105
Cycle routes
Shared routes
Bus routes
Bus terminal

106
TIP 45
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPERIENCE THE CITY BY WALKING.
What you can see
A schematic plan of Rome showing the main tourist sites,
walking routes and metro stations.
You can draw and represent cities in a variety of ways to show
different situations or events. It is useful to know how a city is
traversed and experienced – especially along the main roads and
routes. You can add additional layers, such as public transport
hubs and connections, to begin to understand how the city is
used and experienced.
Think about how you can represent your site and the
surroundings in a diagrammatic way. You can create alternative
maps that are not figurative or to scale. Through the diagram,
you can depict complex ideas through simple means and remove
all unnecessary information to stress a single idea with clarity.

ROUTES 107
Vatican
Pantheon
Borghese
Gallery
Spanish Steps
Trevi
Fountain
Colosseum
Campo
Di Fiori
Trastevere
Skyline

108
TIP 46
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPLORE THE ALTERNATIVE ROUTES.
What you can see
A canal and towpath that cuts through central Manchester, it is
flanked with trees and industrial heritage buildings and leads to
an old wharf.
City maps are often produced with road and rail transportation
in mind; it is these things that have often determined the layout
of our cities. However, there may be other lesser-known routes
and pathways through the city. Here are some paths from the
city’s industrial heritage that now form a walking and cycle route
through the city.
Look out for these often hidden paths through the city, as
they can provide rare spaces of tranquility as well as effective
connections and spaces for walking, leisure and wildlife. How
might you integrate such spaces within your own work and how
can we ensure all parts of the city contribute to better urban
realms with accessible transport options?

110
TIP 47
ROUTES
PEDESTRIAN
EXPLORE PATHWAYS BASED ON DESIRE LINES.
What you can see
On the left is a prescribed footpath with hard surfacing and on
the right is a track made by people taking the shortest, or more
desirable, route instead.
Despite the best intentions of designers and planners, people
will not always follow the paths and routes that are set out for
them. If there is a ‘better’ or more useful route then people will
tend to carve out a new pathway. Once that route becomes
established and forms a new path it will always be used. The
illustration shows that even a relatively small saving in time will
still be preferred.
When laying out a large campus, parkway or landscape, try
to predict the most direct, shortest routes between the key
destinations and lay a path along that route. Alternatively (and
this is not always possible) wait for the ‘desire lines’ to become
established and then install the hard paving and landscaping
to suit.

112
TIP 48
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
CONSIDER THE BIGGER PICTURE OF TRANSPORT
INFRASTRUCTURE AND ACCESSIBILITY.
What you can see
The city of Liverpool has canal, train, bus and ferry links, as well
as an airport.
The radial pattern of roads is particularly pronounced and
provides good links for buses and cars across the city. The train
lines tend to follow the estuary as well as providing links inland.
The airport is not actually connected to the train infrastructure
and requires a bus link.
How well your site is connected to other parts of the city, and
also to the wider geographical area, will make a difference to
how accessible it is to different groups of people. The viability of
your proposal may be affected by how easily it is serviced or, if
it is a major attraction or sports venue, how many thousands of
people can visit it within 30 minutes of their home.

ROUTES 113
Road
Rail
Ferry
Canal

114
TIP 49
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
EXPLORE HOW WELL YOUR SITE IS SERVED BY
TRANSPORT TERMINALS AND BUS STOPS.
What you can see
This map of York shows the location of bus stops, the bus
terminal and rail stations. The location of the main hospital and
medical centre are shown in yellow.
Accessing healthcare facilities using public transport is
important for patients, staff and visitors. In York they are well
served with rail stations and bus stops nearby.
When considering the viability of a proposal, proximity of public
transport is important, not only from a viability point of view
but also in terms of sustainability. Facilities, such as sports and
leisure arenas, as well as workplaces, need to be accessible
without requiring a car. Very occasionally a new station is
provided to support a new development, but this is expensive
and only a major initiative would warrant this sort of investment.

ROUTES 115
Healthcare facility
Bus stop
Bus terminal
Rail station

116
TIP 50
ROUTES
TRANSPORT
HOW WELL IS THE SITE CONNECTED NATIONALLY?
What you can see
A map showing the motorway networks and major airports
within England.
Different parts of the country are connected through a variety
of infrastructure and transportation networks that impact
commercial decisions, distribution systems and regional
economic patterns.
Whilst most analysis is undertaken at a local level, it can be
useful to switch scales and consider a regional, or even national,
position. Consider how your site is connected to a much larger
system of infrastructure. How do these networks of rail, road,
flight paths and docks impact the place you are designing for,
and how might this connectivity shape your clients’ decision to
invest and build in that area?

118
TIP 51
ROUTES
TIMEFRAME
CONSIDER HOW SPECIAL EVENTS IMPACT THE CITY.
What you can see
The Chester races are a popular event and many of the
attendees arrive at the rail station and then walk across the city.
In the evening the reverse journey takes place, with more of a
party atmosphere.
Chester is a very different place on race days, much busier with
all the shops, bars and restaurants full to capacity. Other cities
may have other facilities generating large crowds, such as sports
stadiums or event arenas.
Special events, festivals and major performances can be a
challenge for a city but also a great opportunity. If your site
is close to the main route leading to the venue there will be
potential to develop the design in such a way to be able to
cope with both quiet days and busy times. Allowing flexibility of
function can avoid facilities being underused for large parts of
the year. In some circumstances the risks associated with large
numbers of people has to be managed and this can impact on
infrastructure and the design of the townscape.
Tip links with 8, 12, 40, 44, 45, 52, 71 and 82.

120
TIP 52
ROUTES
TIMEFRAME
REVIEW HOW INTENSITY OF USE VARIES OVER
TIME.
What you can see
The Knowledge Quarter of Liverpool is linked to the city centre
via two roads: Mount Pleasant and Brownlow Hill. The main rail
station is also shown in red.
During termtime these routes are busy with students and the
shops and cafes do good business. During the summer break
things quieten down considerably.
Seasonal differences can make a big difference to the viability
of businesses and other facilities. The Christmas period can be
brilliant for pop-up markets and bars that are not sustainable at
other times. Some towns rely on holiday trade but are quiet at
other times. Considering the broader picture over a 12-month
period can sometimes be useful.

122
CASE STUDY 3
MERCER WALK
RITCHIE STUDIO
What you can see
This mixed-use development is in the heart of London’s Covent
Garden, a sensitive conservation area. The client was interested
in long-term sustainability and economic viability, so quality
was important.
The scheme transformed a group of old warehouse buildings
and cluttered service yards to create a completely new public
realm space. A new pedestrian route links Mercer Street and
Langley Street to form a new piazza at the heart of this formally
inaccessible site. Mercer Walk uses a new architectural language
that picks up on the existing, creating new spaces with similar
proportions and human scale to that of the surrounding area.
What the architect says
You need to understand the adjoining streets and the historical
fabric; take a snapshot from above and consider what the public
room is like. Look at massing and how openings are articulated
in the elevations. Consider the building’s orientation in relation
to the rising and falling of the sun. What space can be created?
What are the benefits of the routes created? It’s important to
make them work and to communicate the ideas in a way that
can be understood by both the client and the public.

124
CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENT
The term ‘Environment’ covers climate as well as topographical
features and townscape. The microclimate of your site may be
the starting point for a sustainable proposal and being aware of
the localised effects of sun, wind and rain should allow you to
work with the elements, rather than against them. When dealing
with live projects, a topographical or building survey is often the
starting point. Even when carrying out initial option appraisals,
some sort of accurate site plan with approximate levels is
required. Whether the site is in the city or a more rural location,
the physical environment within which it is located will have a
bearing on the proposals. Gathering the information, so that it is
readily available during the design process, will allow you to be
reminded of the key design influences.
Climate
Climate data and the ‘yellow banana diagram’, indicating the
sun’s movement across the site, is often used. Wind rose charts
are also popular, showing the direction and frequency of the
wind distribution for an area. However, the data gathered is only
useful if it provides information that is relevant to the specific
site location and will make a difference to the design proposal.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003485988-4

100 Site Analysis Essentials: An architect's guide

100 Site Analysis Essentials: An architect's guide

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