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The document provides an overview of cellular respiration and its three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses how: 1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. 2. Pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrion where it is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and a small amount of ATP. 3. The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to the electron transport chain during oxidative phosphorylation, where they generate a large amount of ATP through chemiosmosis.

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BIOLOGY Campbell • Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd TENTH EDITION Global Edition Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick 10Cell Respiration
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Life Is Work a) Living cells require energy from outside sources b) Some animals, such as the giraffe, obtain energy by eating plants, and some animals feed on other organisms that eat plants
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.1
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat b) Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules, which are used in cellular respiration c) Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to generate ATP, which powers work
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.2 Light energy Organic molecules O2CO2 H2O+ Photosynthesis in chloroplasts Cellular respiration in mitochondria ECOSYSTEM ATP powers most cellular workATP Heat energy +
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd BioFlix: The Carbon Cycle
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.1: Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels a) Catabolic pathways release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules b) Electron transfer plays a major role in these pathways c) These processes are central to cellular respiration
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP a) The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic b)Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2 c) Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP d) Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than O2
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration b) Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar glucose C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction a) The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules b) This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Principle of Redox a) Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions b) In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized c) In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain a) In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down in a series of steps b) Electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme c) As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration d) Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.4 NAD+ 2 e− + 2 H+ 2[H] (from food) Nicotinamide (oxidized form) Reduction of NAD+ 2 e− + H+ NADH Nicotinamide (reduced form) Oxidation of NADH H+ H+ Dehydrogenase
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN04 Dehydrogenase
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain b) Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction c) O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy- yielding tumble d) The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.5 H2 + ½ O2 2 H + ½ O2 2 H+ 2 e− 2 e−2 H+ + H2O ½ O2 Controlled release of energy ATP ATP ATP Explosive release Cellular respirationUncontrolled reaction(a) (b) Freeenergy,G Freeenergy,G H2O
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview a) Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages a)Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate) b)The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose) c)Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN05 1. 2. 3. GLYCOLYSIS (color-coded blue throughout the chapter) PYRUVATE OXIDATION and the CITRIC ACID CYCLE (color-coded orange) OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: Electron transport and chemiosmosis (color-coded purple)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.6-1 Electrons via NADH ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Pyruvate
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.6-2 Electrons via NADH Electrons via NADH and FADH2 ATP ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level Substrate-level GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLEAcetyl CoAGlucose Pyruvate
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.6-3 Electrons via NADH Electrons via NADH and FADH2 ATP ATP ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (Electron transport and chemiosmosis) Acetyl CoAGlucose Pyruvate
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd BioFlix: Cellular Respiration
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration b) A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation c) For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32 molecules of ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.7 Enzyme Enzyme Substrate Product ATP ADP P
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.2: Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate a) Glycolysis (“sugar splitting”) breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate b) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two major phases a)Energy investment phase b)Energy payoff phase c) Glycolysis occurs whether or not O2 is present
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN06 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.8 Energy Investment Phase Glucose Energy Payoff Phase Net 2 ATP used 2 ADP + 2 P 4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed NAD+ 4 e−2 + + 4 H+ 2 H+2 NADH Pyruvate2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 H+H+ 4 4 Glucose Pyruvate ATPATP usedATP formed H2O NADH − 2 NAD+ + + + ++ + 2 H2O 4e−
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.3: After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules a) In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (in eukaryotic cells) where the oxidation of glucose is completed
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA a) Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle b) This step is carried out by a multienzyme complex that catalyses three reactions
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN07 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.10 CYTOSOL Pyruvate Transport protein MITOCHONDRION Acetyl CoANAD+ H+NADH + CO2 Coenzyme A 1 2 3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Citric Acid Cycle a) The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle, completes the break down of pyruvate to CO2 b) The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.11 PYRUVATE OXIDATION Pyruvate (from glycolysis, 2 molecules per glucose) NADH NAD+ CO2 CoA CoA + H+ CoA CoA CO2 CITRIC ACID CYCLE FADH2 FAD ATP ADP + P i NAD+ + 3 H+ NADH3 3 2 Acetyl CoA
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.11a PYRUVATE OXIDATION Pyruvate (from glycolysis, 2 molecules per glucose) NADH NAD+ CO2 CoA CoA + H+ Acetyl CoA
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.11b CoA CoA CO2 CITRIC ACID CYCLE FADH2 FAD ATP ADP + P i NAD+ + 3 H+ NADH3 3 2 Acetyl CoA
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) The citric acid cycle has eight steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme b) The acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate, forming citrate c) The next seven steps decompose the citrate back to oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle d) The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle relay electrons extracted from food to the electron transport chain
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN08 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-1 Acetyl CoA Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate CITRIC ACID CYCLE 1
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-2 Acetyl CoA H2O Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-3 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate NAD+ CO2 NADH CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2 3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-4 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2 4 3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-5 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 4 3 CoA-SH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-6 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 CoA-SH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-7 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate H2O Malate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 7 CoA-SH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.12-8 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate H2O Malate CITRIC ACID CYCLE + H+ NAD+ P i NADH Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 7 8 CoA-SH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.4: During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis a) Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH and FADH2 account for most of the energy extracted from food b) These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Pathway of Electron Transport a) The electron transport chain is in the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion b) Most of the chain’s components are proteins, which exist in multiprotein complexes c) The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons d) Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2, forming H2O
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN09 GLYCOLYSIS CITRIC ACID CYCLE PYRUVATE OXIDATION ATP OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.13 NADH e− 2 NAD+ FADH2 FAD2 e− FMN Fe•S Q Fe•S Cyt b Fe•S Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 e−2 (originally from NADH or FADH2) 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O Multiprotein complexesI II III IV 50 40 30 20 10 0 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.13a 50 40 30 20 10 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol) NADH e− 2 NAD+ FADH2 Fe•S e− FMN Fe•S Q Cyt b FAD I II FAD Multiprotein complexes III Fe•S Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 IV 2 e− 2
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.13b 30 20 10 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol) 0 Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 IV e− 2 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O (originally from NADH or FADH2)
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain b) Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including cytochromes (each with an iron atom) to O2 c) The electron transport chain generates no ATP directly d) It breaks the large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism a) Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space b) H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through the protein complex, ATP synthase c) ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP d) This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.14 INTERMEMBRANE SPACE Rotor H+ Stator Internal rod Catalytic knob ADP + P i MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Video: ATP Synthase 3-D Structure, Top View
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Video: ATP Synthase 3-D Structure, Side View
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.15 Protein complex of electron carriers (carrying electrons from food) ATP synthase Electron transport chain Chemiosmosis Oxidative phosphorylation 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O ADP + Pi H+ ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Cyt c Q I II III IV FADFADH2 NADH NAD+ 1 2
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.15a Protein complex of electron carriers 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O H+ NAD+ 1 H+ H+ NADH FADH2 Cyt cCyt c IV III II I FAD (carrying electrons from food) Electron transport chain Q
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.15b H+ 2 H+ ADP + P i ATP Chemiosmosis ATP synthase
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) The energy stored in a H+ gradient across a membrane couples the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis b) The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing its capacity to do work
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration a) During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence: glucose → NADH → electron transport chain → proton-motive force → ATP a) About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making about 32 ATP b) There are several reasons why the number of ATP is not known exactly
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.16 Electron shuttles span membrane CYTOSOL 2 NADH or 2 FADH2 2 NADH 2 FADH26 NADH MITOCHONDRION OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (Electron transport and chemiosmosis) CITRIC ACID CYCLE PYRUVATE OXIDATION 2 Acetyl CoA GLYCOLYSIS Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 ATP Maximum per glucose: About 30 or 32 ATP + about 26 or 28 ATP 2 NADH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.5: Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen a) Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP b) Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to operate c) In that case, glycolysis couples with anaerobic respiration or fermentation to produce ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport chain with a final electron acceptor other than O2, for example sulfate b) Fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Types of Fermentation a) Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis b) Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps a)The first step releases CO2 b)The second step produces ethanol b) Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.17 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP Glucose 2 NAD+ NADH2 + 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate CO22 2 Ethanol (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Lactate Lactic acid fermentation 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP GLYCOLYSIS NAD+ + 2 H+ NADH22 2 Pyruvate (b) GLYCOLYSIS Glucose
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.17a 2 ADP + 2 P i NAD+ + 2 H+ GLYCOLYSISGlucose 2 ATP 22 2 Ethanol 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Pyruvate (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 CO2 NADH
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.17b 2 ADP + 2 P i NAD+ + 2 H+ GLYCOLYSISGlucose 2 ATP 22 Lactate (b) Lactic acid fermentation NADH 2 Pyruvate 2
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Animation: Fermentation Overview
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 b) Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt c) Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration a) All use glycolysis (net ATP = 2) to oxidize glucose and harvest chemical energy of food b) In all three, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) The processes have different mechanisms for oxidizing NADH: a)In fermentation, an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) acts as a final electron acceptor b)In cellular respiration electrons are transferred to the electron transport chain b) Cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.18 Glucose Glycolysis CYTOSOL Pyruvate No O2 present: Fermentation O2 present: Aerobic cellular respiration Ethanol, lactate, or other products MITOCHONDRION Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis a) Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used glycolysis long before there was oxygen in the atmosphere b) Very little O2 was available in the atmosphere until about 2.7 billion years ago, so early prokaryotes likely used only glycolysis to generate ATP c) Glycolysis is a very ancient process
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Concept 10.6: Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways a) Gycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major intersections to various catabolic and anabolic pathways
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd The Versatility of Catabolism a) Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into cellular respiration b) Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates c) Proteins must be digested to amino acids; amino groups can feed glycolysis or the citric acid cycle
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd a) Fats are digested to glycerol (used in glycolysis) and fatty acids (used in generating acetyl CoA) b) Fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation and yield acetyl CoA c) An oxidized gram of fat produces more than twice as much ATP as an oxidized gram of carbohydrate
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.19-1 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.19-2 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P PyruvateNH3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.19-3 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA NH3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.19-4 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE NH3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.19-5 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION NH3
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways) a) The body uses small molecules to build other substances b) These small molecules may come directly from food, from glycolysis, or from the citric acid cycle
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms a) Feedback inhibition is the most common mechanism for metabolic control b) If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration speeds up; when there is plenty of ATP, respiration slows down c) Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic pathway
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd Figure 10.UN17

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10 ge lecture presentation

  • 1.
    BIOLOGY Campbell • Reece• Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd TENTH EDITION Global Edition Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick 10Cell Respiration
  • 2.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Life Is Work a) Living cells require energy from outside sources b) Some animals, such as the giraffe, obtain energy by eating plants, and some animals feed on other organisms that eat plants
  • 3.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.1
  • 4.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat b) Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules, which are used in cellular respiration c) Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to generate ATP, which powers work
  • 5.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.2 Light energy Organic molecules O2CO2 H2O+ Photosynthesis in chloroplasts Cellular respiration in mitochondria ECOSYSTEM ATP powers most cellular workATP Heat energy +
  • 6.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd BioFlix: The Carbon Cycle
  • 7.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.1: Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels a) Catabolic pathways release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules b) Electron transfer plays a major role in these pathways c) These processes are central to cellular respiration
  • 8.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP a) The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic b)Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2 c) Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP d) Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than O2
  • 9.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration b) Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar glucose C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
  • 10.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction a) The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules b) This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP
  • 11.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Principle of Redox a) Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions b) In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized c) In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)
  • 12.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain a) In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down in a series of steps b) Electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme c) As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration d) Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
  • 13.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.4 NAD+ 2 e− + 2 H+ 2[H] (from food) Nicotinamide (oxidized form) Reduction of NAD+ 2 e− + H+ NADH Nicotinamide (reduced form) Oxidation of NADH H+ H+ Dehydrogenase
  • 14.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN04 Dehydrogenase
  • 15.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain b) Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction c) O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy- yielding tumble d) The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
  • 16.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.5 H2 + ½ O2 2 H + ½ O2 2 H+ 2 e− 2 e−2 H+ + H2O ½ O2 Controlled release of energy ATP ATP ATP Explosive release Cellular respirationUncontrolled reaction(a) (b) Freeenergy,G Freeenergy,G H2O
  • 17.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview a) Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages a)Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate) b)The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose) c)Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
  • 18.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN05 1. 2. 3. GLYCOLYSIS (color-coded blue throughout the chapter) PYRUVATE OXIDATION and the CITRIC ACID CYCLE (color-coded orange) OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: Electron transport and chemiosmosis (color-coded purple)
  • 19.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.6-1 Electrons via NADH ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Pyruvate
  • 20.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.6-2 Electrons via NADH Electrons via NADH and FADH2 ATP ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level Substrate-level GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLEAcetyl CoAGlucose Pyruvate
  • 21.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.6-3 Electrons via NADH Electrons via NADH and FADH2 ATP ATP ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (Electron transport and chemiosmosis) Acetyl CoAGlucose Pyruvate
  • 22.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd BioFlix: Cellular Respiration
  • 23.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions
  • 24.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration b) A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation c) For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32 molecules of ATP
  • 25.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.7 Enzyme Enzyme Substrate Product ATP ADP P
  • 26.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.2: Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate a) Glycolysis (“sugar splitting”) breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate b) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two major phases a)Energy investment phase b)Energy payoff phase c) Glycolysis occurs whether or not O2 is present
  • 27.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN06 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION ATP
  • 28.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.8 Energy Investment Phase Glucose Energy Payoff Phase Net 2 ATP used 2 ADP + 2 P 4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed NAD+ 4 e−2 + + 4 H+ 2 H+2 NADH Pyruvate2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 H+H+ 4 4 Glucose Pyruvate ATPATP usedATP formed H2O NADH − 2 NAD+ + + + ++ + 2 H2O 4e−
  • 29.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.3: After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules a) In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (in eukaryotic cells) where the oxidation of glucose is completed
  • 30.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA a) Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle b) This step is carried out by a multienzyme complex that catalyses three reactions
  • 31.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN07 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION
  • 32.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.10 CYTOSOL Pyruvate Transport protein MITOCHONDRION Acetyl CoANAD+ H+NADH + CO2 Coenzyme A 1 2 3
  • 33.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Citric Acid Cycle a) The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle, completes the break down of pyruvate to CO2 b) The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn
  • 34.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.11 PYRUVATE OXIDATION Pyruvate (from glycolysis, 2 molecules per glucose) NADH NAD+ CO2 CoA CoA + H+ CoA CoA CO2 CITRIC ACID CYCLE FADH2 FAD ATP ADP + P i NAD+ + 3 H+ NADH3 3 2 Acetyl CoA
  • 35.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.11a PYRUVATE OXIDATION Pyruvate (from glycolysis, 2 molecules per glucose) NADH NAD+ CO2 CoA CoA + H+ Acetyl CoA
  • 36.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.11b CoA CoA CO2 CITRIC ACID CYCLE FADH2 FAD ATP ADP + P i NAD+ + 3 H+ NADH3 3 2 Acetyl CoA
  • 37.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) The citric acid cycle has eight steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme b) The acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate, forming citrate c) The next seven steps decompose the citrate back to oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle d) The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle relay electrons extracted from food to the electron transport chain
  • 38.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN08 GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION ATP
  • 39.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-1 Acetyl CoA Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate CITRIC ACID CYCLE 1
  • 40.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-2 Acetyl CoA H2O Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2
  • 41.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-3 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate NAD+ CO2 NADH CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2 3
  • 42.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-4 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE Isocitrate 1 2 4 3
  • 43.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-5 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 4 3 CoA-SH
  • 44.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-6 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 CoA-SH
  • 45.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-7 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate H2O Malate CITRIC ACID CYCLE P i Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 7 CoA-SH
  • 46.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.12-8 Acetyl CoA H2O + H+ Oxaloacetate CoA-SH Citrate -Ketoglutarate CoA-SH NAD+ CO2 NADH CO2 NAD+ NADH + H+ Succinyl CoA ATP ADP GTP GDP Succinate FAD FADH2 Fumarate H2O Malate CITRIC ACID CYCLE + H+ NAD+ P i NADH Isocitrate 1 2 5 6 4 3 7 8 CoA-SH
  • 47.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.4: During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis a) Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH and FADH2 account for most of the energy extracted from food b) These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
  • 48.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Pathway of Electron Transport a) The electron transport chain is in the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion b) Most of the chain’s components are proteins, which exist in multiprotein complexes c) The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons d) Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2, forming H2O
  • 49.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN09 GLYCOLYSIS CITRIC ACID CYCLE PYRUVATE OXIDATION ATP OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYL- ATION
  • 50.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.13 NADH e− 2 NAD+ FADH2 FAD2 e− FMN Fe•S Q Fe•S Cyt b Fe•S Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 e−2 (originally from NADH or FADH2) 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O Multiprotein complexesI II III IV 50 40 30 20 10 0 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol)
  • 51.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.13a 50 40 30 20 10 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol) NADH e− 2 NAD+ FADH2 Fe•S e− FMN Fe•S Q Cyt b FAD I II FAD Multiprotein complexes III Fe•S Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 IV 2 e− 2
  • 52.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.13b 30 20 10 Freeenergy(G)relativetoO2(kcal/mol) 0 Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 IV e− 2 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O (originally from NADH or FADH2)
  • 53.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain b) Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including cytochromes (each with an iron atom) to O2 c) The electron transport chain generates no ATP directly d) It breaks the large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts
  • 54.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism a) Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space b) H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through the protein complex, ATP synthase c) ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP d) This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work
  • 55.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.14 INTERMEMBRANE SPACE Rotor H+ Stator Internal rod Catalytic knob ADP + P i MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX ATP
  • 56.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Video: ATP Synthase 3-D Structure, Top View
  • 57.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Video: ATP Synthase 3-D Structure, Side View
  • 58.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.15 Protein complex of electron carriers (carrying electrons from food) ATP synthase Electron transport chain Chemiosmosis Oxidative phosphorylation 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O ADP + Pi H+ ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Cyt c Q I II III IV FADFADH2 NADH NAD+ 1 2
  • 59.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.15a Protein complex of electron carriers 2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O H+ NAD+ 1 H+ H+ NADH FADH2 Cyt cCyt c IV III II I FAD (carrying electrons from food) Electron transport chain Q
  • 60.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.15b H+ 2 H+ ADP + P i ATP Chemiosmosis ATP synthase
  • 61.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) The energy stored in a H+ gradient across a membrane couples the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis b) The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing its capacity to do work
  • 62.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration a) During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence: glucose → NADH → electron transport chain → proton-motive force → ATP a) About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making about 32 ATP b) There are several reasons why the number of ATP is not known exactly
  • 63.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.16 Electron shuttles span membrane CYTOSOL 2 NADH or 2 FADH2 2 NADH 2 FADH26 NADH MITOCHONDRION OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (Electron transport and chemiosmosis) CITRIC ACID CYCLE PYRUVATE OXIDATION 2 Acetyl CoA GLYCOLYSIS Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 ATP Maximum per glucose: About 30 or 32 ATP + about 26 or 28 ATP 2 NADH
  • 64.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.5: Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen a) Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP b) Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to operate c) In that case, glycolysis couples with anaerobic respiration or fermentation to produce ATP
  • 65.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport chain with a final electron acceptor other than O2, for example sulfate b) Fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP
  • 66.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Types of Fermentation a) Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis b) Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
  • 67.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps a)The first step releases CO2 b)The second step produces ethanol b) Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking
  • 68.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.17 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP Glucose 2 NAD+ NADH2 + 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate CO22 2 Ethanol (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Lactate Lactic acid fermentation 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP GLYCOLYSIS NAD+ + 2 H+ NADH22 2 Pyruvate (b) GLYCOLYSIS Glucose
  • 69.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.17a 2 ADP + 2 P i NAD+ + 2 H+ GLYCOLYSISGlucose 2 ATP 22 2 Ethanol 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Pyruvate (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 CO2 NADH
  • 70.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.17b 2 ADP + 2 P i NAD+ + 2 H+ GLYCOLYSISGlucose 2 ATP 22 Lactate (b) Lactic acid fermentation NADH 2 Pyruvate 2
  • 71.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Animation: Fermentation Overview
  • 72.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 b) Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt c) Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce
  • 73.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration a) All use glycolysis (net ATP = 2) to oxidize glucose and harvest chemical energy of food b) In all three, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis
  • 74.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) The processes have different mechanisms for oxidizing NADH: a)In fermentation, an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) acts as a final electron acceptor b)In cellular respiration electrons are transferred to the electron transport chain b) Cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
  • 75.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.18 Glucose Glycolysis CYTOSOL Pyruvate No O2 present: Fermentation O2 present: Aerobic cellular respiration Ethanol, lactate, or other products MITOCHONDRION Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE
  • 76.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis a) Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used glycolysis long before there was oxygen in the atmosphere b) Very little O2 was available in the atmosphere until about 2.7 billion years ago, so early prokaryotes likely used only glycolysis to generate ATP c) Glycolysis is a very ancient process
  • 77.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Concept 10.6: Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways a) Gycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major intersections to various catabolic and anabolic pathways
  • 78.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd The Versatility of Catabolism a) Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into cellular respiration b) Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates c) Proteins must be digested to amino acids; amino groups can feed glycolysis or the citric acid cycle
  • 79.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd a) Fats are digested to glycerol (used in glycolysis) and fatty acids (used in generating acetyl CoA) b) Fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation and yield acetyl CoA c) An oxidized gram of fat produces more than twice as much ATP as an oxidized gram of carbohydrate
  • 80.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.19-1 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids
  • 81.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.19-2 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P PyruvateNH3
  • 82.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.19-3 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA NH3
  • 83.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.19-4 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE NH3
  • 84.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.19-5 Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids GLYCOLYSIS Glucose Glyceraldehyde 3- P Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CITRIC ACID CYCLE OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION NH3
  • 85.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways) a) The body uses small molecules to build other substances b) These small molecules may come directly from food, from glycolysis, or from the citric acid cycle
  • 86.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms a) Feedback inhibition is the most common mechanism for metabolic control b) If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration speeds up; when there is plenty of ATP, respiration slows down c) Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic pathway
  • 87.
    © 2015 PearsonEducation Ltd Figure 10.UN17