Scabies is a contagious skin infection caused by the Sarcoptes scabei mite. The female mite burrows into the skin where it lays eggs, causing intense itching that is worse at night. It spreads through direct skin-to-skin contact. Diagnosis is made by visualizing the mite, eggs, or feces under a microscope from a skin lesion. Treatment involves applying scabicide creams or lotions to the entire body from the neck down. Preventing spread requires washing clothing and bedding in hot water and treating all close contacts due to the mite's incubation period.
There are various ways to stay away from the risk of exposure. These include isolation and quarantine, Personal Protective Equipments, social distancing, sanitization, and hand hygiene.
https://www.cognibrain.com/safety-and-preventive-measures-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/
There are various ways to stay away from the risk of exposure. These include isolation and quarantine, Personal Protective Equipments, social distancing, sanitization, and hand hygiene.
https://www.cognibrain.com/safety-and-preventive-measures-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/
Hello friends i am BSc Nursing intern.This presentation of mine covers almost each and every aspect related to swine flu.Hope it will help you to increase your knowledge regarding the topic.Looking forward to your feedback.Thank you
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the airways that carry air to your lungs. It causes a cough that often brings up mucus. It can also cause shortness of breath, wheezing, a low fever, and chest tightness. There are two main types of bronchitis: acute and chronic.
Mumps is an acute viral infection of childhood that typically involves swelling of one or both parotid glands, although many different organs can be infected.
it is an acute highly contagious /infectious diseases caused by a varicella zoster virus. chicken pox is usually a mild self limiting illness and most healthy children recover with no complication.
Anyone who has had chickenpox in the past may develop shingles, you can only get shingles if you have previously had chicken pox as it is a recurrence or reactivation of the varicella zoster virus.it is not possible to develop shingles from exposure to a person with chickenpox it is possible however to develop chickenpox as a result of exposure to a person with shingles second attacks of chickenpox are rare but do occur.
the chain of infection, if we think of it as an actual chain , is made up of six different links: pathogen, reservoir, portal of exit, means of transmission, portal of entry and new host.
Hello friends i am BSc Nursing intern.This presentation of mine covers almost each and every aspect related to swine flu.Hope it will help you to increase your knowledge regarding the topic.Looking forward to your feedback.Thank you
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the airways that carry air to your lungs. It causes a cough that often brings up mucus. It can also cause shortness of breath, wheezing, a low fever, and chest tightness. There are two main types of bronchitis: acute and chronic.
Mumps is an acute viral infection of childhood that typically involves swelling of one or both parotid glands, although many different organs can be infected.
it is an acute highly contagious /infectious diseases caused by a varicella zoster virus. chicken pox is usually a mild self limiting illness and most healthy children recover with no complication.
Anyone who has had chickenpox in the past may develop shingles, you can only get shingles if you have previously had chicken pox as it is a recurrence or reactivation of the varicella zoster virus.it is not possible to develop shingles from exposure to a person with chickenpox it is possible however to develop chickenpox as a result of exposure to a person with shingles second attacks of chickenpox are rare but do occur.
the chain of infection, if we think of it as an actual chain , is made up of six different links: pathogen, reservoir, portal of exit, means of transmission, portal of entry and new host.
presentation about the communicable diseases (TB,malaria,filaria,leprosyand AIDS) their causative organs,prevention factors causes these diseases are clearly explained in these slides..
Communicable diseases, including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), malaria, viral hepatitis, sexually transmitted infections and neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), are among the leading causes of death and disability in low-income countries and marginalized populations.
Introduction to communicable and noncommunicable DCs.pptxOsmanHassan35
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. Definition
• Communicable diseases are those illnesses
which can transmit from man to man or
insect/ Animal to man.
• These Diseases are caused by living organisms
called germs. These germs are divided into
number of different groups i.e. Viruses,
Rickettisia, Bacteria and protoza etc.
3. Classification of Communicable
Diseases
• Communicable diseases differ from one
another in a manner of there spread and type
of prevention and control on this basis they
are classified into five groups.
1. Respiratory Diseases
• These diseases are transmitted from the
nose, the mouth, the throat or lungs of
infected individual in the form of droplets
are spread due to cough, sneeze or breath.
4. Examples of Respiratory
diseases
a) Common Cold
b) Sore Throat
c) Meningitis
d) Pneumonia
e) Tuberculosis of lungs
f) Mumps
g) Measles
h) Whooping Cough
i) Diphtheria
j) Covid-19
5. 2. Intestinal Diseases
• Theses diseases are usually transmitted by food or water
that has been contaminated with germ or bacteria
bearing feces or urine of an infected individual or
animals, bacteria go into the body with infected food,
milk or water.
Examples
a) Typhoid
b) Cholera
c) Dysentery
d) Intestinal T.B
e) Infectious Hepatitis
6. 3. Venereal Diseases
• These diseases are transmitted from person to
person by sexual activities
Examples
- AIDS
- Gonorrhoea
- Syphilis
7. 4. Insect Borne Diseases
• These diseases transmitted from One person to
another person by insect
Example
- Malaria
- Typhus
- Yellow Fever
8. 5. Miscellaneous Diseases
• These diseases are included which do not fall
in previous four diseases
Examples
a. Tetanus
b. Scabies
c. Rabies
d. Foot Rot
9. Mode of Transmission of
Communicable Diseases
Chain of Infection
1- Source of infection
• Source of infection may be a case or a carrier
or an animal / insect.
• A person who is actually ill with disease is
called a Case.
• A person who carries germs of disease but does
not himself suffer from it is called a Carrier.
10. 2- Means of Transmission (Vehicle)
• Disease are transmitted by direct or indirect
method
i. Direct Transmission
• In this method transmission of organisms or
germs pass directly from person to person by
a. Physical Contacts
• These Diseases spread by actual physical contact
alone
Example
- Syphilis, gonorrhea, AIDS
11. b. Droplet Infection
• This type of infection occurs when droplets
spreads in coughing, sneezing or even talking
by infected individuals are picked up by
others.
Example
- Common Cold, Sore throat, T.B, Pneumonia
12. 2. In Direct Transmission
• In this method infection take place without
close contact by means of various agents.
a) Insects
b) Flies
c) Mousquetoes
d) Ticks
e) Lies
f) Disease spread from man to insect then to man
13. b) Water and Food
• Diseases which are transmitted by water and
food has become contaminated by faeces,
urine or other infectious material from a
patient or carrier, intestinal diseases are
usually transmitted by contaminated food,
milk or water.
14. c) AIR
• Some of the organisms that are spelled from
the respiratory track of an infected individual
are extremly small and light in weight,
Inhalation of these organisms by other
individual can cause illness.
Example: T.B, Common Cold, Pneumonia
15. d) Fomites
• These are objects or articles which become
contaminated with disease organisms from
infected individual e.g.: Clothing, Bed linen,
eating utensils, handkerchief, toys etc.
16. 3. Susceptible Individuals
• Is that person who has little or no resistance
against a particular organism and who, if
exposed to this organism is liable to contact
the disease.
18. COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
“An infectious disease transmissible
(as from person to person) by direct
contact with an affected individual or
the individual's discharges or by
indirect means (as by a vector)”
25. MEASLES
Measles is a leading cause
deaths in developing countries
of childhood
Annually around 30 million cases of
Measles are seen and about 9 lakh
children die because of Measles
Measles still kills about million people, annually
26. MEASLES (contd)
Next disease amenable for eradication
Challenges in elimination: Weak
immunization system High infectious
nature Inaccessible population
Increasing refusal of immunization
Changing epidemiology
Gaps in human and financial resources
29. CHARACTERISTICS OF RASH
Initial symptoms : high fever (103-105°F) & skin rash
Followed by cough, runny nose, and/or conjunctivitis
Rash usually appears about 14 days
after exposure and lasts 5 - 6 days
It beginsat the hairline, then involves
the face and upper neck
Over next 3 days, rash gradually proceeds
downward
& outward, reaching hands & feet – becomes confluent
33. 1. R
espiratory
Otitis media, pneumonia, sec. bact. pneumonia
Laryngitis, croup, bronchitis
2. CNS
Encephalitis – head ache, convulsions, coma
SSPE – slow, months after, MR
3. Gastro-intestinal
Gastro-enteritis, Heapatitis, mescentric adenitis.
Complications of Measles
34. 23
by 50%)
Treatment of Measles
• Isolation for 7 days after the onset of rash
• No specific antiviral treatment.
• Supportive care: good nutrition, adequate fluid intake
and treatment of dehydration.
• Antibiotics: to treat eye and ear infections, and
pneumonia.
• All children diagnosed with measles should receive two
doses of vitamin A supplements, given 24 hours apart.
Vitamin A can help prevent eye damage and blindness.
(Vitamin A supplements reduces the deaths from measles
35. 35
Prevention of Measles
Immunization:
•Eradication can be achieved by immunization rate of
atleast 96% under one year of age
•Ongoing immunization against measles
•Measles vaccination: live attenuated, subcutaneous,0.5
ml, at 9-12 months, life long immunity in 90-99%;
Reactions: Mild fever
•MMR vaccine
•Immunoglobulin(human):with in 3-4 days of exposure
36. 36
Measles outbreak control
• Isolation for 7 days after the onset of rash
• Active Immunization of contacts within 2 days of
exposure (or passive immunization within 3-4
days)
• Prompt immunization at the beginning of outbreak
37. CONTROL OF AN OUTBREAK
• Isolation of cases for 7 days after rash
• Active Immunization of contacts within 2
days of exposure (or passive
immunization within 3-4 days)
• Immunization at the beginning of an
epidemic
39. Mumps
More than 85% of children become susceptible
to mumps by the age of 9-12 months
and continue to be so in the first 5 years of life
It is estimated that about 8.5 - 9 lakh cases
of mumps occur in our country every year.
41. Obvious sign of mumps is swelling of
parotid region, because of Acute parotitis.
Swelling usually lasts for 10 days with fever,
Ear-ache, difficulty to talk, eat, open the mouth
for 1-6 days.
ovaries (females), pancreas, breast and joints
The symptoms- signs of Mumps
Affects various organs like salivary glands -
Parotid glands, kidneys, testicles (Males),
42.
43. Source : Adapted from Mims et al. Medical Microbiology, 1993, Mosby
43
44. 44
Complications of Mumps
Frequent but not serious:
•Orchitis (25-40%): 7-10 days after parotitis,with high fever
(Unilateral in 75% orchitis cases, Most common extra-salivary gland
manifestation in adults)
•Epididymitis
•Pancreatitis(4%)
•Mild form of meningitis
•Thyroiditis, Neuritis, Hepatitis,Ovaritis,
•Oophoritis (5% adult women)
•Spontaneous abortion(25% in pregnancy)
Rare:
Hearing loss, Polyarthritis, Encephalitis, Cerebellar ataxia
45. 45
Management of Mumps
• Supportive
• Case should be isolated till symptoms subside
• Contacts should be kept under surveillance
50. What are contact
diseases
• “These are diseases caused by microorganisms
that are spread by person-to-person contact or
indirect contact with contaminated objects.”
51. Direct contact
Infectious diseases are often spread through direct contact.
Types of direct contact include:
1. Person-to-person contact
Transmission occurs when an infected person touches or
exchanges body fluids
STDs can be passed from mother to baby during childbirth.
2. Droplet spread
Coughing and sneezing can spread an infectious disease.
Indirect contact
Infectious diseases can also be spread indirectly through the
air and other mechanisms. For example:
1. Airborne transmission
Some infectious agents can travel long distances and remain
suspended in the air for an extended period of time. You can
catch a disease like measles by entering a room after someone
with measles has departed.
2. Contaminated objects
52. 3. Food and drinking water
E. coli
Clostridium botulinum, which can lead to botulism.
4. Animal-to-person contact
The Toxoplasma gondii parasite can be found in cat feces.
Pregnant women and people with compromised immune
systems should take extra care (disposable gloves and good
hand washing) when changing cat litter, or avoid it altogether.
5. Animal reservoirs
a. Anthrax (from sheep)
b. Rabies (from rodents and other mammals)
c. West nile virus (from birds)
d. Plague (from rodents)
6. Insect bites (vector-borne disease)
These include mosquitos, fleas, and ticks.
Malaria, West Nile virus, and Lyme disease
53. 7. Environmental reservoirs:
Soil, water, and vegetation containing infectious organisms
can also be transferred to people. Hookworm, for example, is
transmitted through contaminated soil. Legionnaires’ disease
is an example of a disease that can be spread by water that
supplies cooling towers and evaporative condensers.
54. PREVALENCE
• HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, neglected tropical
diseases (e.g., visceral leishmaniasis) and viral
hepatitis affect billions of people around the
world, and cause more than 4 million deaths
each year
55. HOST
•Age
•Genetic susceptibility
•Nutritional status
•Previous exposure
•Immunization status
•General physical condition
ENVIRONMENT
•Shelter
•Altitude
•Humidity
•Sanitation
•Food supply
•Water supply
•Temperature
•Overcrowding
•Essential services
AGENT
•Virulence
•Infectious dose
•Susceptibility to drugs
•Mode of transmission
•Ability to adapt to change
VECTOR
Equilibrium Between the Population, Infectious Agent, and the
Environment
56. SCABIES:
• Scabies is a skin problem caused by a
bug called a mite.
• A female mite lays eggs under the skin
of a human and stays inside until she
dies.
• We cannot see scabies because they are
very small.
57. • Over 300 million cases each year
• Infectious disease caused by a mite that
burrows in skin
• Leads to sores
• Very common in nursing homes and assisted-
living facilities
• Contagious
58. • An itchy skin condition
• Caused by mite- Sarcoptes Scabei
• Mite buries itself in skin
• After several weeks, intense itching occurs
59. • Skin-to-skin contact
• Anyone can get scabies
• Spreads easier in crowded areas
• Spread from family member to family member
through contact
60. Pathophysiology
• The female mite burrows into the
epidermis of the host using her jaws and
front legs, where she lays up to 3 eggs per
day for the duration of her 30-60 day
lifetime.
• An affected host harbors approximately 11
adult female mites during a typical
infestation. The eggs hatch in 3-4 days.
• The larvae leave the burrow to mature on
the skin. Fewer than 10% of the eggs laid
result in mature mites.
61. Pathophysiology
• A delayed type IV hypersensitivity reaction
to the mites, their eggs, or scybala
(packets of feces) occurs approximately 30
days after infestation.
• This reaction is responsible for the intense
pruritis, which is the hallmark of the
disease.
• Individuals who already are sensitized from
a prior infestation can develop symptoms
within hours.
62. Symptoms
• Scabies only affects the skin, outside the body.
• Scabies causes extreme itching, which is usually worse
at night.
• Rashes, blisters, or bumps may appear.
• Rashes and itching may last for 2-3 weeks, even after
being treated.
66. Diagnosis
• Definitive diagnosis of scabies is made
by direct visualization of the mite,
eggs, or feces.
• Diagnosis can be confirmed by
demonstrating, under a microscope the
parasite obtained from a lesion
67.
68. • Sulphur ointment applied from neck down to
cover entire body
• Antihistamines help relieve itching
69. • Need prescription medicine in order to cure
scabies
• Dose of ivermectin has been shown to cure
scabies
Image from Harden MD
70. • A bath is preferable and benzyl benzoate 20%-
25% emulsion in water
• Tetmosol (tetraethylthiuram monosulphide)
71. • Clean sheets and clothing
• Treat people in close contact with infected
person because of the incubation period
• Wash and disinfect house
• Keep infected area covered with clothing and
avoid contact with others
72. Prevention cont.
• Wash bedding in hot water and dry at high
temperatures (130 degrees Fahrenheit) for
at least 20 minutes.
• If you are not able to wash something,
sealing it in a plastic bag will kill the bugs.
• After reporting of cases; frequent
inspections, proper treatment of causes
and prophylaxis of contacts.
73. Tetanus
Cause:
•Caused by Clostridium tetani, an anaerobic, gram-positive, endospore-
forming rod.
Transmission:
•Associated with skin wounds. Any break in the skin can allow C. tetani spores
to enter. (if environment is exposed to its spores)
Infection:
•If oxygen tension is low, spores germinate and release the neurotoxin
tetanospasmin.
•Tetanospasmin is an endopeptidase that selectively cleaves the synaptic
vesicle membrane protein synaptobrevin.
•This prevents its release from the cell and also of inhibitory neurotransmitters
(gamma-aminobutyric acid and glycine) at synapses within the spinal cord
motor nerves.
•The result is uncontrolled stimulation of skeletal muscles (spastic paralysis). A
second toxin, tetanolysin, is a hemolysin that aids in tissue destruction.
74. Course of disease:
• Causes tension or cramping and twisting in skeletal muscles surrounding
the wound
• Tightness of the jaw muscles. With more advanced disease, there is trismus
(“lockjaw”), an inability to open the mouth because of the spasm of the
masseter muscles.
• Facial muscles may go into spasms, producing the characteristic expression
known as risus sardonicus.
• Spasms or contractions of the trunk and extremity muscles may be so severe
that there is board like rigidity, painful tonic convulsions, and opisthotonos.
• Death usually results from spasms of the diaphragm and intercostal
respiratory muscles.
Prevention:
• Active immunization with toxoid.
• Proper care of wounds contaminated with soil.
• Prophylactic use of antitoxin.
• Administration of penicillin.
75. Disease Prevention And Control
of Communicable Diseases
• Wash your hands often.
• Get vaccinated.
• Use antibiotics sensibly.
• Stay at home if you have signs and
symptoms of an infection.
• Be smart about food preparation.
• Pay special attention to cleaning the 'hot
zones' in your home.
76. Disease Prevention And Control
• Don't share personal items.
Use your own
• Toothbrush
• Comb
• Razor blade
• Avoid sharing drinking glasses or dining utensils
• Travel wisely
• Keep your pets healthy.
77. ROLE OF DOCTORS IN PREVENTING
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
a. Controlling the reservoir
a. Early Diagnosis
Precise treatment
Epidemiological Investigation- study time place &
person
Distribution of the disease and
For institution of prevention and control measures.
b. Notification
c. Isolation
d. Quarantine
78. ROLE OF DOCTORS IN PREVENTING
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
b) Interruption of transmission
“Breaking the chain of Transmission”
c) Susceptible Host
a. Active immunization.
b. Passive Immunization
c. Combined Active and passive immunization.
d) Non-specific measures
Better housing, water-supply, sanitation.
nutrition and education.
Legislative measures- to formulate and
effective implementation of measures.
79. What is a Vaccine?
It is an immuno-biological substance
designed to produce specific protection
against a given disease
80. •IMMUNIZATION:
“Procedure by which the body is
prepared to fight against a specific
disease vaccine ”
•VACCINATION:
“Injecting of vaccine into the body”
81. Aims & Objectives of
Immunization
• Prevention of serious diseases and their
complications
• Protection of individuals and communities
• Containment of outbreaks
• Elimination of certain diseases, e.g. tetanus
• Eradication of diseases,
e.g. smallpox (1980) & polio (target date 2006)
82. Antigen
Molecules from a pathogen or foreign
organism that provoke a specific
immune response.
Antibodies
Proteins that recognize and bind to a
particular antigen with very high specificity
Made in response to exposure to the antigen
Belong to a group of serum proteins called
immunoglobulins (Igs)
83. Active Immunity
Immunity developed after contacting
pathogens inside the body
Natural Immunity Artificial Immunity
•Passive Immunity
• Immunity provided by antibodies or
antitoxins provided from outside the
body
e.g. Injection of attenuated live /
killed organism or toxoid
e.g. Infection
Natural Immunity Artificial Immunity
e.g. Injection of antibodies or
antitoxin
e.g. Antibodies from
mother
84. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION
• When dead or alive attenuated antigen is given to
body to produce antibodies
• Vaccines include inactivated toxins, killed
microbes, attenuated microbes
PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION
• When already prepared antibody are given to body
• Antisera / Gamma globulin
86. EXAMPLES OF VACCINES:
Killed or Attenuated organisms
vaccines
Microbial Fragments Vaccines
Modified Toxins to Toxoid vaccines
Anti- idiotype antibodies & DNA
vaccines
87. Live –Attenuated Vaccines:
Advantages-
• One initial dose is
usually sufficient but
additional boosters
doses may be required
• Causes less allergic
reactions than KV
products
• More rapid protection
than KV products
• Tend to be less
expensive
Disadvantages
• Must be handled and
mixed with additional
care
• Potential for excessive
immune response
• Some risk of causing
abortion or transient
infertility
• Potential to mutate to a
virulent form
89. • Inactivation of
toxins is the most
effective and
successful
bacterial toxins
• Tetanus and
diphtheria
vaccines are based
on this method
90.
91. Killed vaccines (KV) and Toxoids
Disadvantages
Advantages
Slower onset of immunity
More stable in storage
Likely to cause allergic
reactions
Available for a wide variety
of diseases
More expensive than live-
attenuated vaccines
No risk of reverting to
virulent form
May not produce as strong or
as long lasting immunity as
the live-attenuated products
Excellent stimulant of passive
Abs in colostrum
92.
93. Factors that affect vaccine effectiveness:
1- Induction of the right sort of immunity
2- Be stable on storage
3- Have sufficient immunogenicity
Q: What is an adjuvant?
4- Safety
5- Cost
94. SMALL POX
• The last
known
natural
case
was in
Somalia
in 1977
95. EPI
o Expanded Programme on immunization (EPI)
was initiated in Pakistan in 1978 with the aim
to prevent the mothers from tetanus and their
children against six deadly diseases that
include tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria,
pertussis , measles and tetanus
o The Expanded Programme on Immunization
(EPI) unit aims to build a Region free from
vaccine-preventable diseases
97. AGE VACCINE
At birth BCG
OPV 0
At 6 weeks Pentavalent I, PCV I, OPV 1,
Rotavirus I
At 10 weeks Pentavalent II, PCV II, OPV II,
Rotavirus II
At 14 weeks Pentavalent III, PCV III, OPV III,
IPV
At 9 months Measles
12-15 months
(booster)
Measles II
99. VACCINE DOSAGE ROUTE OF
ADMINISTRATION
BCG 0.05 ml Intradermal (Upper
right arm)
OPV 0.5 ml Oral
Pentavalent 0.5 ml Intramuscular - vastus
lateralis (Anterolateral
aspect of mid-thigh
LEFT)
Pneumococcal 0.5 ml Intramuscular (Ant.
Lat. Site of Mid thigh
RIGHT)
Measles 0.5 ml Subcutaneously
100. VACCINE ADVERSE EFFECT
BCG Local reaction, Suppurative adenitis,
Lupus or osteitis, Generalized B.C.G. inf.
OPV (Live
attenuated Sabin)
Paralysis, Killed vaccine is harmless. Live
causes paralysis in vaccinated persons
Pentavalent Redness, swelling, pain, Fever > 38⁰C
and death
Pneumococcal Pain at site of shot, Redness or swelling
where the shot is given, Irritation where
the shot is given, Headache, Feeling tired
or weak, Muscle pain
Measles Moderate fever (101ºF -105ºF) with or
without rash, local reaction with redness,
101. • Infants born to mothers who are sputum positive (for
AFB) should be given primary prophylaxis with INH 5
mg/Kg body weight for a minimum period of 3
months and then vaccinated with BCG, if tuberculin
negative at 3 months (not at birth as in
normal infants). If tuberculin positive then treat for 6
months in all
102. SHAKE TEST
• DPT, hepatitis B and tetanus toxoid vaccines can all
be damaged by freezing. By shaking two vials, side-
by-side, one that might have been frozen and one
that has never been frozen, health workers can
determine if a vaccine has spoiled
103. Vaccine vial monitor
• Every vial is also shipped with a temperature-
sensitive label, that health workers monitor during
vaccination sessions
104. COLD CHAIN
• They must be stored in correct cold
temperature, o’c-8’c
• 0°C TO+8°C = OPV, MEASLES, MMR, BCG
• +2° TO +8°C = DPT, DT, DT, TT& HB,HIB
• Kept cold during transport by using vaccine
carrier
• Polio vaccine is the most sensitive vaccine to
heat
• Live attenuated vaccines are allowed to be
frozen (OPV, MEASLES, MMR AND BCG).
• Inactivated vaccines must not be frozen (
Pentavalent, PCV, DPT, DT, DT , TT AND HB)
form flakes in shaking test
105. Resistance a population acquires as a whole to
infectious disease
When 70% of individuals in a population are
immune, the propagation from individual to
individual is not sustained and epidemics do not
occur
106. SWOT Analysis of EPI Program
Strengths
Commitment of political leadership
Understanding and priority in civil/field
operations
A network of manpower and cold chain
Sanctioned reach in the farthest areas
Consensus on fighting preventable diseases
Reinforcement through NIDs
Opportunities
18th Amendment empowering provinces
Willingness of international community to
Help
Commitment of future funds/budget
Willingness of communities to help
operations
Private sector’s willingness and ability to help
Weaknesses
No regular monitoring, evaluation & feedback
Heterogeneous service capacity across
provinces
Lapses in budgetary releases
Poor synergies with other health sector NIDs
hindering routine immunization
Non-customized public awareness campaigns
Weak grievance redressal system
Threats
Lack of accountability framework
Natural disasters, conflicts and IDPs Norms
preventing access
Missing birth records, lack of population
census
Lack of motivation and incentives for ground
staff
Lacunas in vaccines stock management
17
107. Evidence suggests that underachievement of
the EPI is due to a combination of factors
including;
• Inadequate performance in the areas of service
delivery
• Program management
• Monitoring and evaluation
• Logistics control
• Human resources management and financing,
as well as community health-seeking behaviors
and other demand-side issues