carbohydrates,proteins,lipids,nucleic acids

1. The Raw Materials of Biotechnology
The Molecules of Cells
Sardar Hussain,
asst.prof.Biotechnology,
Gsc.cta
sardar1109@gmail.com

2. Molecular/atoms lowest
level of organization
 Entire organism
 System
 Tissue
 Cells
 Organelle
 Molecules
 Atoms

3.  Organic chemistry
 Chemistry of Carbon
 CHNOPS
◦ Carbon
◦ Hydrogen
◦ Nitrogen
◦ Oxygen
◦ Phosphorus
◦ Sulfur
◦ Several Trace Minerals

4. Forms a bond with
4 other atoms in which
electrons are shared forming
a covalent compound
C

5. H
H C H
H CH4

6. 
 H
H C OH
H
CH3OH

7. H H
H C C OH
H H
CH3CH2OH

8. O
H C H
CH2O

9. All are polymers
All are organic (C) compounds
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Nucleic Acids
Differ in terms of composition and function

10.  Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and
recognition
 Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure,
recognition, transport
pigments, signals, mov’t
 Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure
energy storage, signals
cellular metabolism (VitK..)
 Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein
information, energy,
signals

11.  Carbohydrates……. Polysaccharide..of simple
sugars
 Proteins……………..Polypeptide..of amino acids
 Lipids………………..Insoluble in water..although
common polymer glycerol
and fatty acid
 Nucleic Acids……….Polynucleotide..of
 nucleotides

13.  -OH Several OH (alcohol) groups
This group LOVES water
Makes sugars solids and water soluble
 C=O C with a double bond to an oxygen
Aldehyde or ketone
Joins w/an –OH to form a cyclic structure
The resulting C (C-1) has OH/H
Position of OH determines further
bonding

17. Open Chain Cyclic

18. Loss of H and -OH Loss of Water !!!!!

19.  Lactose = Milk Sugar
 Lactose = Glucose and
galactose
 Lactase = Enzyme that
digests lactose
 Most mammals express
lactase only as juveniles
 Adults are lactose
intolerant
 Once weaned = NO MILK!!!!!

20. Starch...bonds between
glucose can be digested
Amylose=plant Glycogen =animal
Cellulose…bonds
between glucose cannot
be digested by mammals

21.  Starch stores glucose
molecules for energy
 Amylose  Maltose
Amylase
 Maltose  2 Glucose
Maltase
 Good for providing
energy
 Cellulose is a rigid
molecule of support
 Cellulose  Cellobiose
 Cellulase
 Cellobiose  2Glucose
 Cellobiase
 Good for
making paper

22. Chitin

23. Benedict's …Chemical test for reducing sugars
To test for the presence of monosaccharides and reducing disaccharide sugars
in food, the food sample is dissolved in water, and a small amount of Benedict's
reagent is added.
During heating in a water bath, which is usually 4-10 minutes, the solution
should progress in the colors of blue (with no glucose present), green, yellow,
orange, red, and then brick red or brown (with high glucose present).
Lugol’s …Chemical test for starch
An indicator test for the presence of starches
Reacts by turning a dark-blue/black.
Stain starches due to iodine's interaction with the coil structure of the
polysaccharide

24. A Deeper Look
Billiard Balls, Exploding Teeth, and Dynamite—The Colorful History of Cellulose
Although humans cannot digest it and most people’s
acquaintance with cellulose is limited to comfortable
cotton clothing, cellulose has enjoyed a colorful and
varied history of utilization. In 1838, Théophile
Pelouze in France found that paper or cotton could be
made explosive if dipped in concentrated nitric acid.
Christian Schönbein, a professor of chemistry at the
University of Basel, prepared “nitrocotton” in 1845 by
dipping cotton in a mixture of nitric and sulfuric
acids and then washing the material to remove
excess acid. In 1860, Major E. Schultze of the
Prussian army used the same material, now called
guncotton, as a propellant replacement for
gunpowder, and its preparation in brass cartridges
soon made it popular for this purpose. The only
problem was that it was too explosive and could
detonate unpredictably in factories where it was
produced. The entire town of Faversham , England,
was destroyed in such an accident. In 1868, Alfred
Nobel mixed guncotton with ether and alcohol, thus
preparing nitrocellulose, and in turn mixed this with
nitroglycerine and sawdust to produce dynamite.
Nobel’s income from dynamite and
also from his profitable development of the Russian
oil fields in Baku eventually formed the endowment
for the Nobel Prizes.
In 1869, concerned over the precipitous
decline (from hunting) of the elephant population in
Africa, the billiard ball manufacturers Phelan and
Collander offered a prize of $10,000 for production
of a substitute for ivory. Brothers Isaiah and John
Hyatt in Albany, New York, produced a substitute for
ivory by mixing guncotton with camphor, then
heating and squeezing it to produce celluloid. This
product found immediate uses well beyond billiard
balls. It was easy to shape, strong, and resilient, and
it exhibited a high tensile strength. Celluloid was
used eventually to make dolls, combs, musical
instruments, fountain pens, piano keys, and a
variety of other products. The Hyatt brothers
eventually formed the Albany Dental Company to
make false teeth from celluloid. Because camphor
was used in their production, the company
advertised that their teeth smelled “clean,” but, as
reported in the New York Times in 1875, the teeth
also occasionally exploded!
Portions adapted from Burke, J., 1996. The Pinball Effect: How Renaissance Water Gardens Made the Carburetor
Possible and Other Journeys Through Knowledge. New York: Little, Brown, & Company.

25. Biomolecule Role in Cell Monomer Distinguishing
Features
Carbohydrate Energy/Support Monosaccharide
•C=O, OH
group
•Substitute -OH
•The way they
are connected

26.  Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and
recognition
 Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure,
recognition, transport
pigments, signals, mov’t
 Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure
energy storage, signals
cellular metabolism (VitK..)
 Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein
information, energy,
signals

27.  Proteins (also known as polypeptides) are
organic compounds made of amino acids.
 Proteins are essential parts of organisms
 Proteins participate in virtually every process
within cells.
 Proteins make up half the dry weight of an
Escherichia coli cell (other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA
make up only 3% and 20%, respectively).
 Proteins have diverse functions due to their
ability to bind other molecules specifically
and tightly

28.  Structural…. Bones,skin, nails, hooves, hair
 Enzymatic… Digest sugar, makes DNA, makes fatty acids
 Transport… Carries oxygen and fats in blood, Ca2+/Cl-
 Contractile.. Muscles for movement, move chromosomes
 Hormone…. regulate blood sugar, increase heart rate
 Immunity... Antibodies fight foreign substance
 Pigment….. Pigment in skin, eyes
 Recognition. On cell surfaces—Other molecules (receptors)
 Toxins…… Stops nerve transmission, effects movement of
ions, enzymes that destroy red blood cells

29.  Polymer of many amino acids
Amino Acid
H O
H N C C OH
H R
Central Carbon
R group

30.  Twenty different amino acid
are found in proteins
 Most microorganisms and
plants can biosynthesize all
20
 Animals (including humans)
must obtain some of the
amino acids from the diet.
 The amino acids that an
organism cannot synthesize
on its own are referred to as
essential amino acids.
 Humans require 8 essential amino acids

31. Also called a
condensation reaction
An octapeptide

32.  The order in which
amino acids are bonded
is called the sequence
 The sequence of amino
acids determines the
primary structure of a
protein
 Determined by the
genetic code (sequence
of DNA)

33.  Some amino acid
groups are
attracted to each
others
 Some amino acid
groups are repelled
by each other
 http://www.biog11
05-
1106.org/demos/1
05/unit1/proteinstr
ucture.html

34.  Amino acid groups
determine the
overall shape of
protein
 Proteins are not
long straight
molecules, but are
usually folded into
a 3-D shape

35.  Structural proteins confer
stiffness and rigidity to
otherwise-fluid biological
components.
 Most structural proteins are
fibrous proteins.
 Polymerize to form long,
stiff fibers that comprise
the cytoskeleton, which
allows the cell to maintain
its shape and size

37. Central Dogma of
Molecular Biology
 DNA
 RNA
mRNA to be exact
Protein
 Angelman’s Syndrome
 Color Blindness
 Cystic Fibrosis
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy
 Hemophilia
 Sickle Cell Disease
 Tay Sacs
 Phenylketonuria
 Ataxia telangiectasia
 Gaucher disease
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
 Parkinson Disease
 Huntington Disease
 Alzheimer Disease
 Cancer (Breast, Colon, etc..
 And the list goes on and on and on

38. Gene Expression
 DNA
Transcription
 RNA
mRNA to be exact
Translation
Protein
Regulation of transcription
determines genes expressed (and
proteins produced)
Shortly after or even during
synthesis, the residues in a protein
are often chemically modified by
post-translational modification
Alters the physical and chemical
properties, folding, stability,
activity, and ultimately, the
function of the proteins.

39. Biuret test Other Tests
 Chemical test used for
detecting the presence of
peptide bonds.
 In a positive test, a
copper(II) ion is reduced to
copper(I)
 Forms a complex with the
nitrogen and carbon of the
peptide bonds in an
alkaline solution.
 A violet color indicates the
presence of proteins
 Alternative protein
assays include:
◦ UV spectroscopy
◦ Lowry protein assay
◦ Bicinchoninic acid protein
assay (BCA)
◦ Amido black protein
assay

40.  Venom released by the brown recluse spider contains a complex collection of
enzymes. Primarily protein-based, the brown recluse spider's venom has
antigenic and locally destructive properties. Among other subcomponents,
esterases, hyaluronidases and proteases have been isolated from recluse
spider venom through various purification techniques. Of these,
Sphingomyelinase-D has been identified as the primary substance with a
toxic effect on red blood cells.
 Sphingomyelinase-D directly causes hemolysis, which damages red blood
cell walls and leads to the leakage of the red, oxygen-bearing protein known
as hemoglobin. Anemia may result. After red blood cell casts are discarded,
they are filtered through the kidneys and can cause renal failure.
 Brown recluse venom triggers the aggregation of platelets and endothelial
swelling in order to combat harm caused to red blood cells. White blood cells
are brought to the area of the injury. However, instead of forming blood clots
where needed, these white blood cells form blood clots in capillaries,
resulting in necrosis.

41. Bio
molecule
Role in Cell Monomer Distinguishing
Features
Test
Carbo
hydrate
Energy/
Support
Mono-
saccharide
•C=O, OH
group
•Substitute -OH
•The way they
are connected
Benedict’s
Test
Lugol’s
Test
Protein Regulation/
support
Amino
Acid
Central C w/H
-NH2
-COOH
R groups
Biuret
Reagent

42.  Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and
recognition
 Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure,
recognition, transport
pigments, signals, mov’t
 Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure
energy storage, signals
cellular metabolism (VitK..)
 Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein
information, energy,
signals

43.  Sometimes used as a synonym for fats
Fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides
 Lipids are defined as molecules that are
hydrophobic or amphiphilic
◦ Hydrophobic..they don’t dissolve in water
◦ Amphiphilic nature = some lipids form structures
such as vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in a
water environment

44.  Broad group of
molecules that
includes:
 Fats Waxes
 Sterols
 Fat-soluble vitamin
(such as vitamins A, D, E and K),
 Monoglycerides,
 Diglycerides,
 Phospholipids,
 and others.
The main biological
functions of lipids
include:
 Energy storage
 Structural
components of cell
membranes
 Important signaling
molecules.

45. They Don’t like water…They Don’t like water..They don’t like water
 Made of mostly C-H
 Some oxygen
 Some phosphorus
 Might see nitrogen
 Made of mostly C-H
 That’s why they are
hydrophobic

46.  Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Steroids
Remember …mostly
carbon and
hydrogen!

47.  Animal fat and
plant oils
 Energy storage
molecules
 Composed of
glycerol and fatty
acids

48.  Saturated fats..All
C-C single bonds
 Molecules pack together
well—a solid –or fat--at
room temperature
 Unsaturated fats..A
few to many C = C
double bonds
 Molecules don’t pack
together—a liquid—or oil—
at room temperature

49. Phosphate = polar head
 Found primarily in cell
membranes
 Similar to triglycerides
except…these have a
phosphate group
 Makes the molecule
capable of interactions
with water

50.  Phosphate = A
negative charge
 Hydrophilic-phosphate
(head)
 Hydrophobic-fatty acid
(tail)
 Make membrane
bilayer in water
environment (like the
cell)

52.  Overlapping rings
of C-H
 Complex molecules
with many
functions
◦ Horomone
◦ Pigments
◦ Vitamins
◦ Cholesterol one of
most important

53. Testosterone

54.  Grease-spot test
for lipids has been
used for centuries.
 Produce a
translucent stain on
paper or fabric

55.  Consists of sodium or
potassium salts of fatty
acids
 Made by reacting common
oils or fats with a strong
alkaline solution (the base,
NaOH) in a process known
as saponification.
 The fats are split from
glycerol by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty
acids (crude soap) and
glycerol
 https://anitagrant.c
om/images/stories
/ingredients/SiteUp
dates/SAPprocess.g
if

56. Bio
molecule
Role in Cell Monomer Distinguishing
Features
Test
Carbo
hydrate
Energy/
Support
Mono-
saccharide
•C=O, OH
group
•Substitute -OH
•The way they
are connected
Benedict’s
Test
Lugol’s
Test
Protein Regulation/
support
Amino
Acid
Central C w/H
-NH2
-COOH
R groups
Biuret
Reagent
Lipids Energy
Support
Signaling
Glycerol
and fatty
acids?
Cholesterol
Mostly C-H
Insoluble in water
Grease
spot test

57.  Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and
recognition
 Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure,
recognition, transport
pigments, signals, mov’t
 Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure
energy storage, signals
cellular metabolism (VitK..)
 Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein
information, energy,
signals

58.  A nucleic acid is a
polymer composed of
chains of monomeric
nucleotides.
 The most common
nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA).
 Nucleic acids are
universal in living
things, as they are
found in all cells and
viruses
 Named for their role in
the cell nucleus

59.  DNA is responsible for the
long-term storage of
information
 DNA is often compared to a
set of blueprints
 DNA contains the
instructions needed to
construct other components
of cells, such as proteins
and RNA molecules.

60. All used in protein synthesis All encoded in the DNA
RNA includes:
 mRNA (messenger)
 tRNA (transfer)
 rRNA (ribosomal)
 mRNA roles is the
transcribed genetic
information from
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 rRNA acts as assembly site
for protein synthesis in
complexes or protein and
RNA known as ribosomes,
 tRNA serves as an essential
carrier molecule for amino
acids to be used in protein
synthesis.

61.  The monomers from which
nucleic acids are
constructed are called
nucleotides.
 A sequence of nucleotides
forms a polymeric chain
that has the ability to
interact with another chain
or other parts of the chain
 A double-stranded nucleic
acid consists of two single-
stranded nucleic acid chains
held together by hydrogen
bonds, such as in the DNA
double helix.
 RNA is usually single-
stranded, but any given
strand may fold back upon
itself to form secondary
structure as in tRNA and
rRNA.

63. Each nucleotide consists
of three components:
 A carbon to carbon ringed
structure with nitrogen
◦ Called a nitrogenous base
◦ Either a purine or a pyrimidine
 A 5-carbon sugar and
 A phosphate group.

64. That OH makes RNA less
stable---easily degraded
RNA is a transient
molecule..
 DNA contains
2-deoxyribose
 RNA contains ribose
 The only difference is
the presence or absence of a a
OH (hydroxyl group) on the
second carbon

65. DNA = A T C G RNA = A U C G
 Adenine, cytosine, and
guanine are found in both
RNA and DNA
 Thymine only occurs in DNA
and uracil only occurs in
RNA.

66.  Phosphate – as found
in phospholipids
 HPO4
 Found between two
adjacent nucleotides in
a polypeptide
 Sugar – phosphate
backbone

67.  The addition of a
nucleotide requires a
nucleotide tri-
phosphate………the
energy necessary to
create the bond
between adjacent
nucleotide is found in
the phosphates that
leave

68. Adenine pairs with
Thymine (or Uracil in
RNA)
Cytosine pairs with
Guanine
 Making a new DNA or
RNA polynucleotide
requires a DNA
molecule to be copied.
 DNA is copied by
matching
complementary bases

69. Resulting DNA molecule:
 Two chains of twisted
nucleotides
(two strands-a double helix)
 Arranged anti-parallel
 Just enough room for a purine
(double ring) and a pyrimidine
(single ring)…….This
determines the match

70.  Two chains are held
together by a weak
interaction between
the bases
 C= G A=T
 The bond holding the
nucleotides together
within the strand is
very strong

71.  Order of bases on the
polynucleotide chain is
called the DNA
sequence
 This determines the
message encoded by
the molecule
 ATTCGCTTGAACT…..
Although DNA is
represented by a
sequence of letters, it
is important to
remember that each
nucleotide has a sugar
and a phosphate

72.  Uses uracil instead of
thymine
 -OH group on the
second carbon of the
sugar
(its ribose—not deoxyribose)
 Single stranded

73. How is RNA Translated?
 DNA
Transcription
 RNA
mRNA to be exact
Translation
Protein
TACCGTCTCGAA
AUGGCAGAGCUU
mRNA to be exact
Amino Acids….

74.  AUGGCAGAGCUU
 AUG GCA GAG CUU
 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
amino acid amino acid amino acid aacid
 Met Ala Glu Leu

76.  Electrophoresis
with dyes that bind
DNA
 Best is Ethidium
Bromide
 Sybersafe with
comparable
sensitivity

77. Bio
molecule
Role in Cell Monomer Distinguishing
Features
Test
Carbo
hydrate
Energy/
Support
Mono-
saccharide
•C=O, OH
group
•Substitute -OH
•The way they
are connected
Benedict’s
Test
Lugol’s
Test
Protein Regulation/
support
Amino
Acid
Central C w/H
-NH2
-COOH
R groups
Biuret
Reagent
Lipids Energy
Support
Signaling
Glycerol
and fatty
acids?
Cholesterol
Mostly C-H
Insoluble in water
Grease
spot test
Nucleic
Acids
Information
Energy,
Signaling
Nucleotide Sugar
Phosphate
Cyclic N-Base
Ethidium
bromide
Sybersafe
Methylene
Blue