Network Address Translation

Network Address Translation
Network Address Translation
Design and Implementation
Abstract–This is the final report for a research project covering network address translation (NAT).
Research topics include: the history and necessity for NAT, overall design, implementation, the
different types, and examples of its use.
Keywords–NAT; networking; project; research
Necessity
IP addresses were originally designed to be globally unique. In an IP network, each computer is
allocated a unique IP address. In the current version of IP protocol (IPv4) an IP address is 4 bytes,
and because an address is 4 bytes, the total number of available addresses is 2 to the power of 32,
which is 4,294,967,296. This represents the total theoretical number of computers that ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
RFC 1287 also discussed possible ways to extend IP address space. The first suggested a direction
similar to current NATs:
Replace the 32–bit field with a field of the same size but with a different meaning. Instead of being
globally unique, it would be unique only within some smaller region. Gateways on the boundary
would rewrite the address as the packet crossed the boundary.
Shortly after RFC 1287 was published, RFC 1335 introduced a clearer description of the use of
internal IP addresses as a solution to IP address exhaustion. The NAT idea was first described in the
article "Extending the IP Internet through Address Reuse" which appeared in the January 1993 issue
of ACM Computer Communication Review and was later published as RFC 1631. The invention of
the Web in the early 1990s underlined the urgency to take action toward solving both the routing
scalability and the address shortage problems. Long–term solutions require a long lead time to
develop; therefore efforts began to develop both a short–term and a long–term solution to those
problems.
As a short term solution, Classless Inter–domain Routing (CIDR) was proposed, which removes the
class boundaries embedded in the IP address structure. This enables more efficient address
allocation, helping to extend the lifetime of IP address space. Address space was poorly utilized with
the "Classful" addressing approach, CIDR helped in extending the lifetime of
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Virtual Private System : It Uses Public Network Essay
VPN
VPN are extremely regular utilized technique nowadays as a part of companies where they need to
keep communicate with their unreachable branches at some point in other piece of globe. It permits
authorization to get to companies Intranet in a protected and effective way. Virtual private system: it
uses public network to localise remote user or sites together. It uses internet to connect two networks
with each other. The VPN uses "virtual" connections routed via the Internet from the business 's
private network to the remote site or employee. By utilizing a VPN,company ensures security –
anybody capturing the encoded information can 't read it.
Why VPN's are essential?
VPNs give an essential support of organizations, governments, military associations, and even
people. VPNs give secure access to your local area network. Without VPNs, getting to delicate data
remotely would not be conceivable. VPNs permit two or more systems to communicate with each
other. For instance, a branch office of a bank situated in Papatoetoe and its home office situated in
Auckland associate with each other through the Web safely to share their assets, (for example, bank
statements, bank explanations, contract records, and so on.) together. With a VPN, both areas can
communicate together as one utilising the web safely.
Classification of VPN:–
VPN are classified into two types:–
site–to–Site VPN
Remote access VPN
Site–to–site VPN
A site–to–site VPN permits two or more systems to be

4g Technology
Contents 1. Overview 2. Predecessors of 4G 3.1 LTE 3.2 WiMAX 3.3 UMB (formerly EV–DO Rev.
C) 3.4 Flash–OFDM 3. Objective and approach 4.5 Objectives 4.6 Approaches 4.7.1 Consideration
points 4.7.2 Principal technologies 4. 4G features 5. Components 6.7 Access schemes 6.8 IPv6
support 6.9 Advanced Antenna Systems 6.10 Software–Defined Radio (SDR) 6. History of 4G and
pre–4G technologies 7.11 Deployment plans 7. Beyond 4G research 8. 4G wireless standards |
Introduction : 4G refers to the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a ... Show more
The world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea on
30 June 2006.
Sprint Nexte has announced that it will be using WiMAX, branded as a "4G" network.
UMB (formerly EV–DO Rev. C)
UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G project within the
3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation
applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it
was ending development of the technology, favouring LTE instead. The objective was to achieve
data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.
Flash–OFDM
At an early stage the Flash–OFDM system was expected to be further developed into a 4G standard.
Objective and approach
Objectives
4G is being developed to accommodate the quality of service (QoS) and rate requirements set by
further development of existing 3G applications like mobile broadband access, Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, but also new services like HDTV. 4G may allow
roaming with wireless local area networks, and may interact with digital video broadcasting
systems.
The 4G working group has defined the following as objectives of the 4G wireless communication
standard: * Flexible channel bandwidth, between 5 and 20

IPAddressing : IP Operates On The Network Layer Of The...
IP Addressing
IP operates on the Network Layer of the reference model. IP addressing is important because IP
helps in routing packets, just us the Post Office needs an address on a packet or letter for correct
delivery.
IPV4 is made up of 32–bit addresses, as opposed IPV6 which has 128–bits, and this obviously larger
address space has become necessary because the world is running short of IPV4 addresses. Most of
the internet now uses IPV4, so this discussion will mostly concentrate on IPV4. A lot of the ideas
discussed here have been gleaned from a web site of a company called TutorialsPoint, and also
credit is due to Tanenbaum and Whetherall (2011).
First, the format or the composition of the IP Address is made up 32 bits grouped into ... Show more
A class A network may be written in the format like 10.0.0.0/8, to signify the 8 bits of the network
part. There is also the distinction between Public and Private addresses, where public addresses are
recognized world–wide, as they are allocated by designated organizations, and that is how they are
running out; almost all valid addresses have been allocated. On the other hand, private addresses are
used within an organization or a home, however, they require the help of a publicly recognized
address to communicate globally, and this is through a process called Network Address Translation
(NAT). The allocation of Public IP addresses falls under the authority of IANA (Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority), a global body that oversees regional organizations, and these organizations are
more directly involved in IP Address allocation.
Subnet Masking
The meaning of Subnet can be derived from its name, by taking the beginning of the name ("Sub"),
which means underneath or a part of, in this context of a network. The idea is to sub–divide a
network into smaller parts for manageability by routers. There is also the converse, Aggregation,
which is scaling the network to accommodate more hosts in one network. In this discussion, I will
only dwell on Subnets, but before further discussion let me bring up the concept of Masking. The
mask is also a 32–bit

Ipv4 Ipv6 : Ipv6 For The Reason Of Ipv4 Address Exhaustion
IPv6 is developed to replace IPv4 for the reason of IPv4 address exhaustion. Since there is a total of
32 bits in an IPv4 address, it only allows 4 billion unique addresses. On the other hand, the world
population has already reached 7 billion in 2011. Ipv4 address space is not enough for everyone in
the world to have one unique IP address, let alone each person has more than one devices currently,
such as mobile phones, computers, tablets, GPS, and etc. In Ipv6, the address space has been
expanded to 128 bits, allowing 340 trillion trillion trillion unique addresses, which solves the limited
address space problem. The reason that the new generation of Internet protocol is named as Ipv6
instead of Ipv5 is that Ipv5 has already been defined ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, upgrading Ipv4 devices to Ipv6 devices is costly. Without the general customer demand of
Ipv6, the Internet service providers will not invest money in Ipv6 development and implementation.
The reminder of the paper is organized as follows. In section Ⅱ, the format of Ipv6 address and its
packet header are introduced. In section Ⅲ, a comparison between Ipv6 and Ipv4 is conducted from
multiple aspects. In section Ⅳ, the challenge of current Ipv6 development and installing is
described.
II. BACKGROUND
A. IPv6 address structure
IPv6 address space is composed of 128 bits IP addresses. A typical IPv6 address can be broken
down into 8 groups of 16 bits each, separated by colons, written in hex decimal numbers. Figure 1
shows an example of a Ipv6 address. For simplicity, two continuous colons can be used to replace
the zero block in between, which can only be adopted once in one Ipv6 address. Also, the leading
zeros can be omitted without introducing any confusion.
B. IPv6 address scope
According to the scope of addresses, Ipv6 addresses are classified into two types, global IPv6
addresses and link local addresses. The global address is unique and reachable all over the Internet,
similar to the public address in Ipv4. The link local address is not routable and only used in the local
network, set by default when Ipv6 function is enabled, similar to the MAC address in Ipv4. It always
starts with FF80, followed by 48–bit

Ipv6 Advantages And Disadvantages
Abstract– The transition between the IPv4 Internet today and the IPv6 Internet will be a long
process during both protocols coexists and also it is unreasonable to expect that many millions of
IPv4 nodes will be converted overnight. Mobility is becoming ubiquitous nowadays. This paper is
described about a background study of IPv4 and IPv6, the needs of IPv6, transition mechanisms in
the various architectures, the advantages of IPv6 and limitations and comparison of the IPv4 and
IPv6 in five major areas; addressing and routing and network address translation. A study in this
paper explores that most research efforts were focused the transition strategies and mechanism to
mixed two different promising IP network environments.
Index Terms–Architecture, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The internet has been utilized not just in academic research but also widely used in daily life. In
nowadays, practically everyone seems to have access, through their PCs, laptop, television, phones,
or even the refrigerator. The growth of the Internet has created various impacts to end users. The
devices, which are connected to our network, caused new problems. One of the problems is the
shortage of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. When a device needs to communicate over the Internet
with each other, it needs a unique IP address. Due to the issue of IP shortage, a new generation IP
has been introduced. The IPv6 is the solution.
IPv6 stands for Internet Protocol version 6. This protocol has been designed to replace the existing
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). (01033069). For more than twenty years, IPv4 has been widely
used in Internet activities around the world. The main reason for the deployment of a new version IP
is to increase the address space. IPv6 was designed to take an evolutionary step from IPv4.
According to experts in the field of computer network, over the next five to ten years, IPv6 will
gradually integrate into the existing IPv4

Compages And Disadvantages Of Internet Protocol Version 4...
Nowadays Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) over Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4) tunnels are
widely used to form the global Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) Internet. Internet Protocol (IP) is
the common language of the Internet. Every device connected to the Internet must support the IP.
The current version of Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) has several limitations that present a
barrier to the further development of the Internet. Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) is the new
generation IP of the Internet. It is now gaining momentum as an improved network layer protocol.
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) revolution should remove the barriers and provide a better
feature for the future of global networking. This study conducts a study on Internet Protocol Version
4 (IPV4) and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) . This paper demonstrates the two tunnels and show
when to immigrate from Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4) to Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6).
Then the risks of immigration are discussed. Internet Protocol (IP) is the common language of the
Internet.
KEY WORDS: Internet, Internet Protocol (IP), Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4), Internet Protocol
Version 6 (IPV6)
1. INTRODUCTION
TCP/IP protocol route messages based on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most problem is limited of address space because of IPv4 based on a 32–bit Internet address (J.
Govil, 2007). The solution is for IPv6 to accommodate this increased demand by providing a much
larger address space, along with better traffic routing and improved security. IPv6 is advancement
from IPv4. It was designed to build on the current features of IPv4 with an addition of enhanced
capabilities. IPv6 takes the best of what made IPv4 successful and gets rid of minor imperfections
and unused features. IPv6 has 128–bit address space or 4 times more address bits compared to IPv4.
So, there are more than enough IPv6 addresses to keep the Internet operational for a

Architecture of Internet Routing and Addressing
Weinan's Part:
1. Basic concept
Internet Architecture Board (IAB) at the 2006 Symposium October interested to re– design a
scalable routing and addressing architecture routing and addressing for the Internet. Many concerns
were raised in the discussion, including today's routing system scalability and impending IPv4
address exhaustion problem. Since the IAB that seminars, a number of proposals to try to resolve
these issues in workshops and other forums. [4]All these proposals are based on a common
philosophy: separation equipment positioning and identity while addressing as the Internet, it is
usually called "Loc / ID split".
This article will focus on achieving an agreement that addressing method: positioning and identity
separate protocol (LISP). Location identity separation (Loc / ID split) is now the basic idea behind
the architecture of Internet routing and addressing mixed into two functions: addressing a single IP
address space, the route positioning (RLOCs) describes a device is how dependent on the network,
the end of the identification (EIDs) defines the device is "Who." Loc / ID Separation supporters
justify that if there is no mandatory restrictions on the use of terminal system addresses, this
"overload" addressing method in practice is impossible to establish an efficient routing system. Use
a different address spaces to separate these two functions (EIDs and RLOCs) to generate a lot of
advantages, including greater RLOCs by aggregating improved routing

Net Sec Essay
1. Name at least five applications and tools pre–loaded on the TargetWindows01 server desktop, and
identify whether that application starts as a service on the system or must be run manually.
WINDOWS APPLICATION LOADEDSTARTS AS SERVICE Y/N 1. tftpd32 Starts as a service 2.
FileZilla Server Interface– The interface does not start as a service and must be ran manually 3.
Wireshark – Does not start as a service and must be ran manually 4. Nessus Server Manager – Does
not start as a service and must be ran manually 5. NetWitness Investigator – Does not start as a
service and must be ran manually 2. What was the allocated source IP host address for the
TargetWindows01 server, TargetUbuntu01 server, and the IP default gateway router? ... Show more
ajp–headers Performs a HEAD or GET request against either the root directory or any optional
directory of an Apache JServ Protocol server and returns the server response headers. ajp–methods
Discovers which options are supported by the AJP (Apache JServ Protocol) server by sending an
OPTIONS request and lists potentially risky methods. ajp–request Requests a URI over the Apache
JServ Protocol and displays the result (or stores it in a file). Different AJP methods such as; GET,
HEAD, TRACE, PUT or DELETE may be used. amqp–info Gathers information (a list of all server
properties) from an AMQP (advanced message queuing protocol) server. asn–query Maps IP
addresses to autonomous system (AS) numbers. auth–owners Attempts to find the owner of an open
TCP port by querying an auth daemon which must also be open on the target system. The auth
service, also known as identd, normally runs on port 113. auth–spoof Checks for an identd (auth)
server which is spoofing its replies. backorifice–brute Performs brute force password auditing
against the BackOrifice service. The backorifice–brute.ports script argument is mandatory (it
specifies ports to run the script against). backorifice–info Connects to a BackOrifice service and
gathers information about the host and the BackOrifice service itself. banner A simple banner
grabber which connects to an open TCP port and prints out anything sent by the listening service
within five seconds.

Tcp / Ip Protocols Are The Heart And Soul Of The Internet
The TCP/IP protocols are the heart and soul of the Internet, and they describe the fundamental rules
that govern all communications in the network. The original address system of the Internet is
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) developed IPv6 to
deal with the long–anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. However, IPv6 is not foreseen
to supplant IPv4 instantaneously.
Write a report (1000 words) describing:
The basic characteristics and layered protocol stack design of the TCP/IP protocols.
The application layer: this layer allows different applications to communicate with each other's. In
order to exchange different data over the network connection, the protocols included in this layer set
up the standards such as DNS, HTTP, FTP. The data coded in this layer will be encapsulated to
transport layer for further packing.
The transport layer: This layer determines how the packets are transported such as the order and
what to do if there are errors. The purpose of this layer is to make sure the data be transported
correctly. Besides, due to the limitation of physic (maximum IP packet size is 65535bits), the speed
of transportation is limited. As a result, this layer needs break big data in to small packets. This can
also collect small data into a big packet to reduce unnecessary transmission, which can improve the
transmitting speed. Example protocols are TCP, UDP, SCTP.
The internet layer: The purpose of this layer is to

Investigation Of Using Dual Stack And Tunneling Mechanisms
Investigations of using Dual Stack and Tunneling Mechanisms in migration from IPV4 to IPV6:
Abstract
Introduction
Internet protocol written as IP in the short form is the method by which one computer communicates
by sending data to another computer over the Internet. Normally, each computer has a unique form
of IP address that identifies itself on the internet. Internet protocol has two versions: Internet
protocol version 4 and Internet protocol version 6 that is the most current version of IPV6 is an
upgrade of IPV4 (Gavrilova 2006). IPV6 has added advantages and therefore necessitates every
organization to migrate from IPV4 to IPV6.
Background of the study
The internet protocol version 4 abbreviated as IPV4 is a connectionless protocol ... Show more
IPV6 is not a rigid IP as it allows for the growth of the internet concerning the number of
interconnected computers or hosts and the volume of data transmitted (Kott, Wang, & Erbacher
2014). The primary advantage of the IPV6 over IPV4 is the increase in IP addresses. However, there
are other advantages of IPV6 which include: automatic configuration, simplified and more efficient
routing, Simpler header format, flow labeling, easier administration, Flexible options and
extensions, privacy support and inbuilt authentication and an end to network address translation
(Adibi, Mobasher, & Tofigh 2010).
Objective/Aim of the Study
As Zurawski (2005) explains, an organization 's network status and the speed at which they need the
IPV4 transition to IPV6 greatly determine the selection of the transition method, the dual–stack
method, tunneling method or any available option.
This paper seeks to explore how the transition methods; the dual–stack method and tunneling
method works. Businesses with small network devices and bleeding edge technology can
promulgate to IPV6 faster compared to businesses with large network devices. Large companies
usually have many and large network devices, leading to slow Ipv4 to IPV6 transition process
(Jonas, Rai, & Tchuente 2013). Following the multiple benefits resulting from IPV6, it is therefore,
important that network practitioners should seek expertise in IPV6 quickly in order to meet

Business Data Communication and Networks test bank Essays
Which of the following is a data link layer function?
A) packetizing B) error and flow control
C) medium access control
The data link layer is responsible for _______ delivery.
C) hop–to–hop The data packet at the data link layer is usually called a _______.
A) frame The protocol for obtaining the physical address of a node when the IP address is known is
called _______.
C)
ARP
A signal can lose energy due to the resistance of the medium. This is called _______.
D) attenuation _______ can cause errors during data transmission.
A)
White noise
B)
Impulse noise
C)
Echo
Which of the following best describes a single–bit error?
B)
A single bit is inverted per data unit.
If the ASCII character G is sent and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
C)
Timing

Data flow between two devices can occur in a _______ way.
A) simplex B) half–duplex C) full–duplex In a ______ connection, two and only two devices are
connected by a dedicated link.
B) point–to–point In a ________ connection, three or more devices share a link.
A) multipoint ______ refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
C)
Topology
Devices may be arranged in a _____ topology.
A) mesh B) ring C) bus A _______ is a data communication system within a building, plant, or
campus, or between nearby buildings.
B)
LAN
A ______ is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world.
C)
WAN
________ is a collection of many separate networks.
B)
An internet
There are ______________ Internet service providers.
A) local B) regional C) national and international
A ________ is a set of rules that governs data communication.
B) protocol ________ is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an Internet standard.
B)
RFC
The Internet model consists of _______ layers.
B)
Five
The process–to–process delivery of the entire message is the responsibility of the _______ layer.
B)
Transport
The _______ layer is the layer closest to the transmission medium.
A) Physical
Mail services are available to network users through the _______ layer.

D)
Application
As the data packet moves from the upper to the lower layers, headers are _______.
A)
Added
The _______ layer lies between the network

NT1210 Final Exam Review Essay
Final Exam Review
Using Table 10–1, review default port numbers used commonly with TCP and UDP purposes
HTTP TCP Port 80 – used by web browsers and web servers
Telnet TCP Port 23 – used for terminal emulation
SSH TCP Port 22 – used for secure terminal emulation
FTP TCP Port 20, 21 – used for file transfer
DNS UDP Port 53 – used for name resolution
SMTP TCP Port 25 – used to send and receive email
POP3 TCP Port 110 – another email protocol
IMAP TCP Port 143 – another email protocol
SSL TCP Port 443 – used to encrypt data for secure transactions
SNMP UDP Port 161, 162 – used to manage TCP/IP networks
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
UDP – User Datagram Protocol
IPv4 32 bits, IPv6 128 bits
Bring sub–netting sheet for use ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Radio signals do not attenuate (False)
Broadcast areas should not overlap in a WAN (true)
Antennas use same amount of power (False)
Omnidirectional in all directions (True)
Leased Line available 24–7 365, also known as dedicated line
Router belong in Layer 3 of TCP/IP
Demark is point at which ISP comes into building and customer takes over
SONET – Look up definition
Primary function of IP protocol = identify individual hosts and groups of hosts using the address
Dynamic Routing protocols – learn and manage the most efficient ways of routing packets
Ranges of Addresses – Class A, Class B and Class C and the private ranges
IP Protocol designed to dynamically assign IP addresses on a LAN – DHCP
Subnet a company network, 3 bits borrowed to effectively subnet it for them
PC1 sending packet, first thing needing to be done is compare the destination IP address with its
own, deciding whether or not it is in the same network
IP addresses divided into 2 parts, network portion and host portion
Term for part of internet between ISP and ISP's customer = network edge
Device found near the edge and offers security services = Firewall
Page 445 – Concept where all ISP router is connected to all other ISP router is called the Internet

Core
What technique used to by cable provider to enable data and voice on the same cable using different
frequencies for video and data
Difference between

Nt1310 Unit 5 Research Paper
The following are the top 10 types of packets: IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) IPv4 is a
connectionless protocol for use on packet–switched networks. It is the fourth version of the Internet
Protocol (IP), that is one of the core protocols of standards–based internetworking methods in the
Internet. It was the first version deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. It still used to
routing most Internet traffic today, eventhough we have the next version of it,IPv6. It is operating on
best effort delivery model, i.e. it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or
avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper
layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
UDP: The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is defined for use with IP network layer protocol in the
transport layer protocol. It provides a best–effort datagram service to an End System (IP host). It
uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of protocol mechanism. It uses no
handshaking dialogues, and thus the user's program is exposed to any unreliability of the underlying
network protocol. There is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. UDP provides
checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at the source and
destination of the datagram. HTTP The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application
protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.[1] HTTP is the foundation
of data communication for the World Wide Web. Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links
(hyperlinks) between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer

Network Layer Of Osi Model
Abstract
Internet Protocol is one of the protocol in TCP/IP protocols suite. This protocol works at Network
layer of OSI model and at Internet layer of TCP/IP model. This protocol has the responsibility of
identification of hosts based upon their logical addresses and to route data between/among them
over the underlying network. Internet Protocol is a set of technical rules that defines how computers
communicate over a network. There are currently two versions: IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6
(IPv6). This paper focuses on the IPv4 packet structure, Addressing modes of IPv4, Address classes
of IPv4.
Introduction
IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify host by IP addressing scheme. IP uses best effort
delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to destined host but it will do its
best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32–bit logical address.
Internet Protocol is the layer–3 protocol which takes the data Segments from the transport layer that
is layer–4 and divides that data into the packets. The IP packet encapsulates data unit received from
above layer and concatenates its header information. The encapsulated data is referred to as IP
Payload. The IP header contains all the necessary information required to deliver the packet at the
destination. The IP header format is shown in figure (a)
IP header includes information like Version Number which defines the version of the IP protocol,
Header Length etc. Other

The Internet Protocol
The internet was invented around the early 1960s with the research of Packet switching. What they
called ARPANET led to the development of the internetworking, where multiple networks could be
joined together over to create a network of networks. IP defined by RFC791 was the first widely
used versions of the internet protocol. This was known as version four, this would make you think
that there were three other versions of IP before this version however, there really was not. IPv4 was
originally designed for an internetwork, a fraction of what the size of the internet is today. IPv4 has
served its purpose very well, however with the growth of the internet it was just a matter of time
before they would need to create a new version of IP. The development of a new version IP would
began in the mid–1990s. The new version of IP is known as Internet Protocol version Six (IPv6) or
sometimes called IP next generation or IPng. One of the biggest questions that came about when the
announcement of IPv6 was what Happened to IPv5. "The answer is: it doesn 't exist. While this may
seem confusing, version 5 was in fact intentionally skipped to avoid confusion, or at least to rectify
it." (Tcpipguide.com, 2014) If you consider just how much the internet has grown over the years you
will notice that IPv4 has done its job very well, however as discussed it has been apparent for many
years now that the limitation of IPv4 would be reached. This is where IPv6 comes into play. IP play
such a

Ipv4 to Ipv6 Transition
I P v 4 TO IP v 6 TRANSITION
– UPDATE 2011
An overview of the new Internet a ddressing protocol, its implications for b usiness and government,
and Telstra's a pproach to the transition.
WHITE PAPER
September 2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PAGE 3
WHAT IS IPv6?
PAGE 4
IPv4 ADDRESS RUN OUT
PAGE 5
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IPv4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT?
PAGE 6
GOVERNMENT MANDATES
PAGE 8
INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IPv6
PAGE 10
WHAT DOES THE TRANSITION MEAN FOR BUSINESS?

WHAT IS TELSTRA'S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION?
PAGE 14
WHAT SHOULD BUSINESSES DO NOW?
PAGE 16
CONCLUSION
PAGE 18
APPENDIX – IP ADDRESSING
PAGE 19
REFERENCES
PAGE 21
WHY TELSTRA?
PAGE 22 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Telstra will provide timely information and updates on our own program of work to assist
customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage their transition.
3
WHAT IS IP v 6?
IPv6 was designed during the mid–1990s, when the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) realised that IPv4 address size constraints would soon be a major impediment to the
continued growth of the Internet. IPv6 was first known as the Next Generation
Internet Protocol (IPng) during development within the IETF. Since 1998, it has officially been
known as IPv6. In the transition to IPv6, both IPv6 and IPv4 will co–exist until IPv6 eventually
replaces IPv4.
The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the vastly expanded IP address space
available
The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the address size. IPv6 addresses comprise
128 bits, whereas IPv4 addresses comprise 32 bits. This difference results in a huge expansion in
available IP address space:
◊ I Pv4: 2 32 a ddresses equals 4.3 billion addresses (less than the global human p opulation of 4.7

billion)
◊ I Pv6: 2 128 a ddresses. Because the last 64 bits are used to allocate a ddresses within a subnet,
that leaves 2 64, which equals 18 billion billion s ubnet addresses.
IPv6 is not backwardly compatible with IPv4
Whilst IPv6 performs the same address function as IPv4, IPv6 is

Ipv6 And Ipv6 Address Resolution Protocol
Since there are so many IP addresses that need to be handled on the Internet, IPv4 and IPv6 need a
way to keep track and configure them. This is normally referred to as address resolution. This
includes translating network layer addresses into link layer addresses, having automatic assignments
of addresses, and routing data to the correct location on a specific network. IPv4 uses a protocol
called Address Resolution Protocol, or ARP, in order to translate IP addresses into MAC addresses.
A MAC address is the unique number given to the network interface card in each computing device.
The reason this needs to be done is because on many intranet networks, the internal communication
and delivery of data is based off of the MAC address rather than the IP address. The Dynamic Host
Control Protocol, or DHCP, handles the automatic configuration and assignment of IP addresses in
IPv4. DHCP is an internal protocol that takes the MAC addresses of the NICs on a network, and
automatically assigns IP addresses. It also keeps track of them so that two NICs don't acquire the
same IP address. Without DHCP every IP address would have to be entered manually by the system
administrator, which would be incredibly difficult considering how many devices can potentially
access a network. IPv6 uses similar methods to perform both of those functions, but there are still
important differences that exist to improve the way that IPv6 performs. Instead of ARP, IPv6 uses
the Neighbor Discovery Protocol

Protocols For The Communication Protocol
IPV 6
ABSTRACT:
We have many protocols for the communication. Among them if we take communication protocol
which is related to internet, the popular and which is using today is IPV 4. In this paper we are going
to discuss about the later version IPV6.
INTRODUCTION:
Internet protocol is a communication protocol which provides location and identification of
computers on networks and routes traffic across the internet. IPV6 is the latest version of internet
protocol. It was developed by internet engineering task force, when they are dealing with the IPV4
exhaustion problem. Every device in this world which is connected to the internet is assigned IP
address for identification and its location. With rapid growth of technology, it became evident that
we need more addresses for connecting various new devices in the future. In 1990s, Internet
engineering task force has introduced IPV 6 to accommodate more addresses. IPV 4 uses only 32 bit
addresses but IPV 6 addresses uses 128 bit addresses.
Internet protocol version 4 is the first publicly used protocol. It was developed by the defense
advanced research projects agency. It is a United States defense department agency, after that they
have shifted towards internet and is developing many technologies. Address exhaustion is not an
initial problem concern because it is a testing of DARPA's networking concepts. Amid the first
decade of operation of the Internet, by the late 1980s, it got to be evident that systems must be
produced

Unit 9 Assignment 1 Essay
Baldeo Persaud
NT1210
Unit 9 Assignment 1
Key Terms:
The Internet– The global network formed by interconnecting most of the networks on the planet,
with each home and company network connecting to an Internet service provider (ISP), which in
turn connects to other ISPs.
Internet edge– The part of the Internet between an ISP and the ISP customer, whether the customer
is a company or organization with a large private TCP/IP network, or whether the customer is a
single individual. point of presence– A term used by service providers, particularly for WAN or
Internet service providers instead of traditional telcos, that refers to the building where the provider
keeps its equipment. Access links that connect the customer device to the WAN ... Show more
host name– A name made up of alphabetic, numeric, and some special characters, used to identify a
specific IP host. Host names that follow the convention for domain names in the DNS system use a
hierarchical design, with periods separating parts of the name.
Domain Name System– The name of both a protocol and the system of actual DNS servers that exist
in the world. In practice, DNS provides a way for the world to distribute the list of matching host
name/IP address pair information, letting each company maintain its own naming information, but
allowing the entire world to discover the IP address used by a particular host name, dynamically,
using DNS protocols, so that any client can refer to a destination by name and send IP packets to
that host.
Subdomain– With DNS naming terminology, this term refers to a part of a host name (or domain
name). That smaller part can be the part that a company registers through IANA or some authorized
agency to identify all hosts inside that company.
IPv4 address exhaustion– A term referring to the very real problem in the worldwide Internet, which
first presented itself in the late 1980s, in which the world appeared to be running out of the available
IPv4 address space. classless interdomain routing (CIDR)– One of the short–term solutions to the
IPv4 address exhaustion problem that actually helped solve the problem for a much longer time
frame. CIDR allows more flexibility in how many addresses IANA assigns to a

Ipv4 Ipv6 : The Key Motive For The Development Of Ipv6
Abstract: The main motive for the development of IPv6 is to add the advanced and better features
for the IPv4.Compared to IPv4 there are many better areas in IPv6 such as addressing, Routing ,
efficiency ,Quality of service, security and mobility. From past three years we have noticed that the
IPv4 address exhaustion took place which lead to the development of the next generation internet
protocol IPv6.The main aim of this paper is to discuss the transition changes of IPv4–IPv6 .
INTRODUCTION:
Internet was been invented in united states in the year 1970 and the development started rapidly till
the year 1980's. In the year 1990 there was a new network node introduction which helped in the
business presence. Assigning a unique numbers for the device for identification of the location
turned a great success in 1994 that is through the IPv4.Invention of the IPv6 took place in the 1990
itself by the internet engineering task force,due to the IPv4 exhaustion in came into the exsistence
from july 1999.(IPv6 A passport for future internet 2011). we need to have a IP address for the
purpose of connectivity and that IP address should be unique to due increase in the usage the
exhaustion of IP address in IPv4 has occurred. IPv4 can be utilized for the interface of many
advanced gadgets on the internet it can be utilized to unite the combine the computer based gagjets
with the system.In the year February 2011 each organization is responsible for assigning their own
IP addreses and

NT1210 Final Exam Review Essay
NT1210 Quiz 1
1. How many bits are in a byte?
A. 8
B. 4
C. 2
D. 1
2. Electronic devices today use what numbering system?
A. Decimal
B. Octal
C. Binary
D. Electronic
3. Convert this decimal number to binary: 97
A. 01100001
B. 01100000
C. 10000001
D. 10010001
4. Convert this binary number to decimal: 00010000
A. 32
B. 24
C. 12
D. 16
5. Unlike earlier telecom networks, most modern networks are _____ end–to–end.
A. cellular
B. analog
C. data
D. digital
6. What is the typical network setup used to access a Web page?
A. Client–browser
B. Server–browser
C. Client–server
D. Browser–protocol
7. What is the piece of hardware that allows a device to physically access a network?
A. A client program
B. A server ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...

D. Routers are Layer 2 devices, so they can connect to LANs but not WANs.
10. What is CSMA/CA used for on wireless LANs?
A. Avoidance of signal attenuation
B. Avoidance of RFI interference
C. Avoidance of data frame collisions
D. Avoidance of signal cancellation
11. If you wanted to find out if you could reach a printer on the network, which command would
you use?
A. arp
B. ping
C. icmp
D. netstat
12. Which of the following devices is typically found near the Internet edge and offers security
services for the network?
A. Access point
B. CSU/DSU
C. Analog modem
D. Firewall
13. Which of the following is a private IP network?
A. 1.0.0.0
B. 192.168.68.0
C. 172.1.0.0
D. 200.1.1.0
14. Which of the following is a reason why CIDR and NAT were developed?
A. IPv4 to IPv6 translation
B. IPv4 address exhaustion
C. Name–to–IP translation
D. Routing congestion
15. What networking concept does the graphic illustrate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Internet edge
Internet core
Internet dependencies
Internet mesh
NT1210 Midterm
1. The first communication network developed was the ______ network.
A. data
B. telecommunication
C. email

D. Internet
2. Enterprise networks typically use LAN _____ at each site to connect devices using some type of
media.
A. switches
B. routers
C. servers
D. clients
3. What is the IEEE group of standards that define wireless LANs?
A. 802.3
B. 802.11
C. 802.15
D. 802.16
4. To

Ospf vs Eigrp
Comparison of Routing Protocols OSPFv3 and IS–IS for IPv6 Environment
By
Nilesh Doiphode
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................3
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................4
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW.................................................................................5
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................5
1.2 Discussion, Problem Statement and Analysis.......................................................12
1.3 Need for this Project....................................................................................15
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................16
CHAPTER 3: SIMULATION AND FRAMEWORK.................................................22
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE..............................................31
4.1 Conclusion................................................................................................31
4.1 Future Scope.............................................................................................31 ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
General Mechanism: i) Hello Packets: Used in order to establish relationships with the neighboring
routers in a topology. On multi–access segments ad point–to–point segments, the default time to
send hello packets is every 10 seconds and for non–broadcast multi–access (NMBA) segments like
frame relay, the default time is every 30 seconds. ii) Dead Intervals: Wait period for an OSPF router
before termination the relationship with its neighbor is called as Dead interval and is 4 times the
hello interval. iii) Router Id: Identification of each OSPF router in an OSPF routing domain is
exclusively by the router id. OSPF router can chose highest IP address of its loopback interface
incase router id is not configured. IP address will be chosen by the OSPF router of any of its
physical interfaces in absence of loopback interfaces. iv) Area Id: In OSPF routing domain the areas
are defined as backbone routers also known as area 0, area border routers (ABR), which connect the
backbone routers to any other areas in the OSPF routing domain and autonomous system border
routers (ABSR), which are located between OSPF autonomous system and non–OSPF autonomous
system.
All OSPF routers in the same routing domain must receive and maintain the same link–state
information. OSPF routing domain must be designed with a backbone area and all the other areas
should be

Unit 9 Assg 1
1. IP hosts in two different company TCP/IP networks send IP packets to each other through the
Internet. Which of the following is true about the Internet connections that must exist so that the
packets can flow between the two companies? a. The two companies must connect directly to each
other. b. The two companies must each have at least one Internet access link. c. The two companies
must connect to the same ISP. d. The two companies must each connect to a Tier 1 ISP. 2. Which of
the following standalone devices can be found near the Internet edge, with a primary purpose of
providing some type of network security between an enterprise or SOHO TCP/IP network and the
Internet? (Choose two answers.) a. LAN access point ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
b. The technician needs to connect the CO end of the local loop to a CMTS. c. The technician needs
to install HFC cabling. d. None of the answers is correct. 9. A user asks the cable company to install
cable Internet service. The deal includes having a technician come and install all the equipment in
the home. The equipment includes a consumer– grade router that performs several functions and an
external cable modem. The cable company has equipment in its local head end offices as well.
Which of the following devices, or functions inside the integrated router, plays a role in separating
the data signals on the HFC cabling from the video signals? a. The router's firewall function b. The
router's NAT function c. A cable modem d. The DSLAM at the head end 10. Which of the following
Internet access technologies create an always–on Internet service, allow voice calls on the local
telco's local loop while the Internet service still works, and use asymmet– ric speeds? (Choose two
answers.) a. Cable Internet b. ADSL c. Analog modems d. T1 11. Imagine the early days of the
Internet, before CIDR. A company wants to connect to the Internet, so it asks IANA or an associated
RIR to assign the company some public IP addresses. Which of the following lists an approximate
number of IP addresses that IANA or the RIR could possibly assign? (You can ignore rounding
issues and

The Privacy Of The Information
With the evolution of Internet, new technologies are appearing and new ways of doing business are
slowly changing the world. One of those new business process are online stores. This technology
allows user to sell or buy their products or services online. These data exchanged during those
operations are extremely very critical and no error with the manipulation of these important
information can be allowed. For the protection of those personal and financial information, security
plays a big role in this industry. There are main elements in the transaction security are: – The
confidentiality of the information – The integrity of the information – The authentication of the
information – The non–repudiation of the information – And the authorization. The confidentiality
of the information is one of the most important element in the transaction security. It can be defined
as the protection of a user's information, personal and financial, from other parties than the recipient.
Some errors can be committed when manipulating delicate data. Integrity enables the recipient to
ensure that the information he received by a sender is accurate. The authentication of the
information is provided by the user; it is a confirmation, by the user, ensuring that the data is
authentic. The non–repudiation validates that both the user/sender and the recipient/receiver have
received and sent data to each other. This is to make sure that neither of the two parties can denies
the transaction between

IPAddress Essay
As stated by the website howstuffworks.com (What is an IP address?), 'An IP address is assigned to
every device connected to the Internet. This is a 32 bit protocol, as it consists of 4 binary octets'.
However they are usually written in decimal form for ease of use. The maximum decimal number
allowed by one octet is 255 (or 11111111 in binary). The total number of unique possibilities of 4
octets would therefore be 256^4, roughly 4.3 billion addresses.
Demand for IP addresses is increasing due to reasons such as low cost computers, advancement in
technology, and improvements in accessibility. Personal computers have been subject to a dramatic
decrease in price over the last 10 years, allowing them to be bought by more households – 70% ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The 'dot com bubble' also saw a rapid uproar in the number of web based companies, such as
Amazon and eBay. Much smaller businesses have also adapted to the Internet and are making use of
its low cost. Also, due to the low cost and minimal knowledge require to run and maintain a website,
thanks to Content Management Systems and website creation software, many personal websites, to
do with hobbies, interests and experiences are also present on the Internet.
Due to all these factors, the number of devices connected to the Internet has increased, therefore the
number of available IP addresses has decreased, leading to the situation that IP addresses will run
out by 2011.
A possible solution to this problem would be for devices to share IP addresses. This can be done by
using NAT (Network Address Translation). NAT sends and receives data back and forth between the
computer and the Internet. Multiple computers can use the same NAT, and to the Internet, it will
seem as though the data is all coming from one computer, rather than several computers. A
particular use of NAT is in routers and modems for home networks. These allow many computers to
connect to a LAN (Local Area Network) with their own private IP addresses, but they are all
connected to the Internet with a single IP address.
The following diagram shows this implementation of NAT.

Mobile Edge Computing : Analysis And Vision Of Mobile Edge...
Abstract: – The vision of 5G Mobile networks lies in the provisioning of high throughput (over
10GB/s data rate), low latency (less than 1m for radio link latency) and connecting more devices
(over 1M terminal per square kilometer). This is driven by the need for the Internet of Things (IoT)
applications (e.g. smart cites smart homes), rich immersive multimedia applications (e.g. live video
streaming) and the tactile Internet. To achieve 5G targets, Mobile edge computing (MEC) is
regarded as a vital solution to provide satisfactory Quality of Experience (QoE) for multimedia
services. Although video streaming applications are seeking more bandwidth and exorbitant video
quality. Particularly for virtual reality applications or video on ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
And the second edge is that when a wireless user equipment (EU) streams videos, there will be 2
network segments on the end–to–end path that will have different characteristics, 1) radio access
network (RAN) which is wireless. 2) Mobile core network and the internet that in most cases are
wired, the wired segments have higher bandwidth–delay–product (BDP) due to the high–capacity
over–provisioned backbone link and long latency due to long distance that the data transport
between the global Internet.
One of the major networking problems is the insufficiency of structured resource management
schemes to provide Quality of Service (QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE) support for real–time
applications, primarily in networks that can be affected by delay or packet loss. E.g. the video or
VOIP services are not tolerant to packet loss that should not more than 1%, especially if the system
is using compressed codecs e.g. G.722, and the latency is also playing a major impact on the
services which should be less than 150ms between two end–points [3].
The delivery of mobile content, especially in high definition (HD) videos with high resolution, has
become one of the main topics to add to the context of 5G network development in the future It

Network Address Translation

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