The Anatomy Of The Knee Injuries

The Anatomy Of The Knee Injuries
Shianne Rey
Complete Tear of the ACL A torn ACL is one of the most serious and common knee injuries. Many
aspects play a role in the treatment and rehabilitation of this injury. This paper will discuss the
anatomy of the knee, describe a torn ACL, and the rehabilitation. The knee is a hinge joint which
gives the legs mobility. The muscles and ligaments of this joint allows flexion and extension of the
leg. "Because the knee supports the majority of the body weight, it is at risk of overuse and
traumatic injuries" (France). The knee is composed of 3 major bones; the femur, tibia, and the
fibula. The femur is the biggest bone in the human body, the inferior end flares out into two rounded
landmarks called femoral condyles. Their name comes from the side of the body they are on, which
is where we get Lateral Femoral Condyle and Media Femoral Condyle. Superiorly to these condlyes
are the medial and lateral femoral epicondyles. The bones inferior to the femur are the Tibia and
Fibula. The superior end of the Tibia flares out into slightly concave structures called the Tibial
Plateaus. A crescent wedge shape of cartilage sits in each plateau. These are the Medial Meniscus
and the Lateral Meniscus. This cartilage acts as a shock absorber and distributes forces. "The
menisci are bathed by the synovial fluid of the knee" (France). The meniscus is what separates the
each side of the Tibia and Femur and the transverse ligament connects each menisci. There is a
circular bone on the
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Anatomical Script of the Squat Technique Essay
Introduction
The squat technique is described as the King of all exercises (Bompa, 2002) as it is an effective
exercise that works a variety of muscles including the gluteals, hamstrings, quadriceps and
abdominals. This report focused on the lower limb muscles only. Understanding different types of
movement is important for sport and exercise to help rehabilitate injuries of athletes. Coaches and
trainers may find understanding the squat a good way to prevent injuries as it is an excellent way to
build the muscles of the lower limbs.
The four main phases of the squat technique are the starting phase, the downward phase, the holding
phase and the upward phase. The aim of this report was to fully understand the squat technique. This
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The hamstrings contract eccentrically acting as the synergist and help the flexion of the hip to occur.
The Rectus femoris of the quadriceps contract eccentrically to help flex the hip, they are co–
contracting with the hamstrings. The hip flexors may contract rapidly to stabalise the body on the
way down if there is a loss of balance (Wynsberghe et al., 1995). The adductor longus, adductor
brevis and adductor Magnus contract isometrically to prevent adduction and abduction. The
Sartorius muscle contracts eccentrically to cause flexion and abduction at the knee. The sartoris
originates from the anterior superior iliac spine and inserts onto the tibia. The adductor and abductor
muscles at the hip joint contract to prevent movement that may cause injury (Tortora and
Derrickson, 2009).
Knee
On the downward phase flexion occurs at the knee, stopping at about 90 °. Both quadriceps, acting
as the agonist to flex the knee, and hamstrings, which mainly stabilizes the knee, act as an
antagonistic pair and co–contract eccentrically to allow flexion. The hamstring is also acting as the
synergist for the hip joint (Tortora and Derrickson, 2009). The Sartorius acts as the synergist and
also contracts eccentrically to cause flexion at the knee (Wynsberghe et al., 1995).
Ankle
On the downward phase dorsiflexion occurs at the ankle, the tibialis anterior acts as the synergist in
this movement and contracts concentrically (Seeley et al., 2003). The extensor halluces

Patellofemoral Syndrome Essay
Patellofemoral syndrome, often called "runner's knee", is deep pain anterior to the patella usually
caused by excessive running, especially downhill. This may be due to a multitude of abnormal
biomechanics or tendencies. Although running is a common and popular exercise, the knee joint is
an extremely mobile and unstable joint. And those who initially develop patellofemoral pain usually
end up with chronic knee pain (Willy et al., 2012). The patella, only being held in place by
ligaments and tendons, is easily manipulated by the pull of muscles attached to these ligaments and
tendons. However, there are gender differences between males and females in how they each
develop patellofemoral tracking and pain. The patella is held to the knee joint, connecting to the
tibia and femur by the quadriceps tendon as the proximal attachment, and the ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
It has been observed that females are more likely to develop genu valgum than men. This genu
valgum is a direct cause of lateral patella tracking, which is the major cause of patellofemoral pain.
This explains why females are more predominantly affected by patellofemoral syndrome than men
(Willy et al., 2012). It was also found that women have "decreased relative hip abduction strength in
comparison with males", which also explains female patellofemoral pain (Wolf et al., 2014). It was
found that males actually have a decrease in the Q–angle, which causes genu varum. This causes
medial patella tracking and patellofemoral pain. Although it is much more rare for males to
experience patella tracking, medial patella tracking was found to have a greater decrease in contact
to the patellofemoral joint than lateral patella tracking. Therefore, "decreasing the quadriceps angle
can have an even larger effect on patellofemoral joint stresses than increasing quadriceps angle an
equal amount" (Willy et al.,

Surface Muscle Case Study
Identify the major surface muscles located in the body. Where are the orgins and insertions of these
muscles? List the intended actions as well as an exercise or movement for each. A minimum of
fifteen muscles is required.
The major muscle groups consist of the upper body, Rotator cuff muscle, Upper arm, Quadriceps,
Hamstring group, Lower leg and Midsection. The Upper Body consists of the Trapezious muscle
which Orgin is located near the base of skull, occipital protuberance and posterior ligaments of neck.
The middle spinous process of 7c and T1 – T3. The lower spinous process of T4–T12. The insertion
of the upper Trapezius is located in the posterial aspect of the lateral clavicle. The middle Trapezius
is located in the medial border ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The intended action for the upper part of this muscle is to elecate the scapula and extend the head at
neck. The intended action for the Middle part of this muscle is to create elevation upward rotation
and adduction of the scapula. The intended action for the lowerpart of this muscle is to create
depression adduction, upward rotation of the scapula. Workouts that target these areas would be
Barbell Shrugs, Cable shrugs and Dumbbell Shrug.
The Rhomboid Orgin is located near the spinous process of C7 and T1–T5 and the insertion is
located near the medial boarder of scapula below the spine. This action intended for this muscle is to
draw the scapula toward spinal column creating a downward rotation and a elevation of the mthe
anterior deltoiuts that target this muscle Rhomboid row and the isometric contraction. The third
muscle is called the pectoralis minor. The orgin of this muscle is located near the Anterior surfaces
3rd to 5th ribs. The Insertion is located near the Coracoid process of the scapula. The action of this
muscle is to draw the scapula forwad in a downward rotation and depress the muscle. Workouts that
target the pectorials minor are the dumbbell

Maxillary Sinus Case Study
Pathologic processes seen; Depressed Nasal Bone fracture seen. Mucous or infection within the
maxillary sinus. Anatomical Structures that were seen; Orbital floor fracture, Frontal Bone, Frontal
Sinuses, Frontal lobe, Sphenoid bone, Ethmoid Sinuses, Sella Turcica, Clivus, Anterior arch of C–1,
Alantooccipital joint. Cervical Spine #1, 2, and 3, Tongue, Soft Tissues, Vomer, Mental Mandible,
Hard Palate, Maxillary, Odontoid Process Epiglottis, Alveolar process of Mandible, Esophagus,
maybe an earring. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pediatric Bilateral Mandibular Condyle Fracture Pathologic process. The first conclusion I came to
was that it was an image of a pediatric skull. The second to come to process was an abnormality that
I saw within the mandible condyles shown. Also the spine of a small child. These fractures usually
are a cause of trauma and mainly affect the Condylar Neck. They are classified by their location.
Around the condyle are capsules of ligaments that hold the condyle to the Temporomandibular Joint.
Mandibular Condyle Pediatric fractures have special protocols for management. . This is done with
either an open technique, where an incision is made, the fracture is found and is physically
manipulated into place, or closed technique where no incision is made. Anatomical structures that
were seen; Mandible Condyle, Mandible Ramus, Sphenoid Bone, Body, Lesser Wing, Greater Wing,
Pterygoid Plate, Supra Orbital Fissure, Foramen Ovale, and Spinosum, Occipital Bone, Foramen
Magnum, Temporal Bone, Optic Canal, Clavicle, Neck of Mandible Coronoid. Symptoms;
Deviation of mandible to the opposite side of fracture, Pre–auricular depression. Shortening of
height of mandibular ramus. Bite is misaligned. Pain. Vascular injury can result with particular
attention to the internal carotid and jugular

Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves The human body is a unique and fascinating entity. There is not much notice taken of
the features the human body is capable of. The brain is necessary to perform day–to–day actions,
such as the ability to speak, and see amongst us. This brain is made up of simple mater (Pia mater,
Arachnoid mater, Dura mater) and the cranial surface to protect the brain. We live our daily lives
without acknowledging the importance of this organ, the brain, unless you're a medical student of
course! Despite that people go on with their daily activities using the human natural senses. Looking
at the world through the eyes, watching for any danger around us; ears for hearing the sounds
detecting something that may call for danger, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second cranial nerve is optic nerve. Optic nerves main function is vision, one of the important
senses of the human body. Allowing oneself to see around them. The cell bodies of the optic nerve
are located in the Retina (ganglion cells). Optic nerve begins with unmyelinated axons of the
rentinal ganglion cells, which later become myelinated in the optic disc. CN II enters the cranium
via the optic canal. The retina has bipolar cells that are connected to the special sensory fibers (rods
and cone cells). When light hits the rod and cone cells, electrical impulse are relayed and transmitted
to the bipolar cells. That is when the bipolar cells transmit electrical activity to the CNS through the
optic nerve. Loosing the sense of vision can be very detrimental. Some of the dysfunctions that
occur with CN II are immediate monocular blindness (partial or complete), visual field deficits,
blurring, scotomata, and monocular diplopia. There can be many possible causes for these
dysfunctions to name a few, immediate loss of vision is due to injury to optic nerve due to ischemia
or death, delayed vision loss is due to infarction of the optic nerve or less frequently by hematoma
surrounding the nerve. Complete monocular blindness is usually due to non–organic disorders.
Blurring and scotomata are due to trauma to the cornea, vitreous tears, traumatically induced

Oculomotor Nerve Essay
The oculomotor nerve, or CN III, is the third cranial nerve. It is responsible for controlling eye
movement, the pupil and the movement of the upper eyelid (Jaffee & Stewart, 2016). The
oculomotor nerve originates at the two nuclei, the oculomotor nucleus and the Edinger–Westphal
nucleus that are at superior colliculus level of the midbrain, travels through the brain and exits
through the superior orbital fissure of the sphenoid bone (Jaffee & Stewart, 2016).
The nerve consists of two different motor fibers: the somatic motor component and the
parasympathetic motor component. The somatic motor component controls the movement of four
extrinsic muscles and the parasympathetic motor component controls the sphincter pupillae and
ciliary muscles (McKinley, O'Loughlin, & Bidle, 2017, p. 44). CN III can be divided into two major
branches: the superior division and inferior division (Jaffee & Stewart, 2016). The superior branch is
composed of motor fibers that innervate the levator palpebrae superioris and the superior ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A damaged CN III can result in external strabismus, the inability to focus on objects and the pupil
will not respond to changes in the intensity of light (McKinley, O'Loughlin, & Bidle, 2017, p. 44).
There are several different tests that can be performed to test the function of the nerve.
When examining the eyes for oculomotor nerve damage, observe if the eyelid droops (McKinley,
O'Loughlin, & Bidle, 2017, p. 44). Another simple way to test the health of the oculomotor nerve is
to instruct the patient to keep their head completely still and have only their eyes follow your finger.
While standing in front of the patient, draw two large, connecting H's with your finger ("Cranial
Nerve," 2013). The pupillary sphincter muscle can also be tested by placing a hand vertically against
the nose and shining a pen torch in each eye to see if the light reflex is functioning ("Cranial Nerve,"

The Anatomy and Actions of the Knee Essay
The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the distal end of the femur and the proximal end of
the tibia. The fibula is only involved to the extent that it serves as an attachment site for connective
tissue. In this paper, the anatomy of the joint will be discussed.
The knee is a hinge–type, diarthrotic, or freely moveable joint. Also referred to as a synovial joint,
the 2 articulating ends of bone are encased in a capsule that lubricates the joint with synovial fluid to
reduce friction.
Each bone in a synovial joint has articular cartilage at the articulating surface. The C–shaped medial
and lateral menisci serve to deepen the articulation at the superior surface of the tibia, thus
enhancing the bony stability of the joint.
Also ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The quads include the rectus femoris, and the vastus lateralis, intermedius, and medialis. This
muscle group shares a common tendon at insertion. The patellar tendon inserts at the tibial
tuberosity, and within this tendon lies the patella. The patella is anterior to the femur–tibia
articulation, and this sesmoid bone increases the leverage of the quads by acting as a pulley. The
major contributor to the stability of the knee joint is the strength of the quads. The only muscle that
assists in extension is the tensor fascia lata.
Rotation at the knee can only occur when the joint is in flexion. Medial, or internal, rotation is a
slight "turning in" of the tibia, and the muscles that accomplish this are the semitendinosus,
semimembranosus, and popliteus with assistance from the gracilis and sartorius. To slightly turn the
tibia outward is called lateral (external) rotation, and the muscle that is solely responsible for this is
the biceps femoris.
MUSCLES INVOLVED IN THE ACTIONS OF THE KNEE
(While some of the following muscles act upon more than one joint, the only actions that will be
listed are those pertaining to the knee.)
BICEPS FEMORIS
Orig Long head: ischial tuberosity
Short Head: linea aspera

Insert Head of fibula
Action Both heads: flexion of

Essay on Comprehensive assignment
1. (5 pts) Describe the metabolic process providing your energy while you were walking (at an easy
pace) before the bee stung you. Include which molecules are being consumed.
The metabolic process providing my energy while I was walking at an easy pace is aerobic
metabolism. During aerobic metabolism, mitochondria absorb from the surrounding cytoplasm these
molecules: ADP, phosphate ions, O2, and organic substances like pyruvate. These molecules go
through the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain is also involved to create ATP. For each
molecule of pyruvate that goes into the citric acid cycle, the cell gains 17 ATP molecules. Glycogen
reserves can also be used and converted to glucose. Glycolysis breaks down glucose ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
339–341)
4. (6 pts) Move your eyes and look at the bee. (Create a table that describes which nerves control
which muscles to cause the needed eye movements).
Action: Muscle: Origin: Insertion: Nerve:
Eye looks down Inferior Rectus Sphenoid around optic canal Inferior, medial surface of eyeball
Oculomotor Nerve III
Eye looks laterally Lateral Rectus Sphenoid around optic canal Lateral surface of eyeball Abducens
Nerve VI
Eye rolls, looks down and laterally Superior Oblique Sphenoid around optic canal Superior, lateral
surface of eyeball Trochlear Nerve IV
("The Muscular System" P. 335)
5. (8 pts) Trace the image of the bee to perception. (Include all focusing, transduction, transmission
and perception processes and structures).
After a retinal molecule absorbs light, the normally 11–cis form of the bound retinal molecule
straightens to become the 11–trans from. This change activated the opsin molecule. Opsin activates
transducin which is a G protein. This G protein then activates phosphodiesterase. Phosphodiesterase
is an enzyme that breaks down cyclic–GMP. The break–down of cyclic–GMP removes them from
the gated sodium channels and makes the gated sodium channels inactive. Because of this, sodium
ion entry into the cytoplasm decreases.

Muscles And Trauma Case Study: Chinese Delivery
Matt may have had to do simple movements in order to get his Chinese delivery in a matter of
seconds, but what he probably is oblivious to is the various muscles and joints needed to do in the
simple act of opening a door.
To begin, Matt first had to stand from his sitting position, in order to go and get his food from the
delivery person. With standing, it is necessary to be in control and maintain a steady posture, or one
would constantly be landing on their face. While sitting, Matt is using muscles such as Quadriceps,
Fibularis Longus, Latissimus Dorsi, and of course; his Gluteus Medius muscles. With that, we see
there are many muscles just involved in the process of being in a sitting positon. Moreover, is when
Matt has to physically ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Next, Matt has to push up using all of his strength. Muscle used in this process are the Hamstrings
which flex the knee for movement, the soleus, which provides power to the ankle, and the Tibilias
anterior, which inverts the ankle. Now, Matt is finally in standing position. In this position, Matt is
using his Gluteus Maximus, one of the strongest muscles in the human body, and this allows for
movement of the hip & thigh. Also, Matt is using his Hamstrings, Soleus, and Tibilas anterior, which
very also used in other positions in the process of standing from sitting position. With all of the
different muscles used in this process of standing from sitting position, there were also various
nerves that inverted these muscles. For the Quadriceps it would be the femoral nerve, the Fibularis
Longus with the Peroneus longus nerve, the Latissimus Dorsi with the Thoracodorsal nerve, the
Gluteus medius which uses the superior gluteal nerve, and the gluteus maximus which uses the
inferior gluteal nerve, the Internal oblique which uses the both the iliohypogastric nerve and the
ilioinguinal nerve. Also, the Trapezius which uses

600 Muscles Fungus Movement
There are about 600 muscles in the body working together to create movement. Muscle contractions
pull both ends of the muscle towards one another. One bone attached to each muscle is always more
stabilized than the other. The less stabilized bone moves during muscle contraction due to the
weaker stability. The points of attachment determine which bone will move. The least movable part
is called the origin; it is the part that attaches closer to the midline of the body. This leaves the most
movable part called the insertion. Each of these points can be identified in individual muscles to
assist trainers in understanding how the muscles and joints work together to create motion.
Beginning with an example from the shoulder girdle, the trapezius ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Next is the semitendiosus muscle with the point of origin at the ischial tuberorsity and insertion at
the upper anterior medial surface of the tibia. The action of this muscle is extension of the hip,
flexion of the knee, and internal rotation of the hip and knee. The soleus is a muscle located near the
ankle and foot. This muscle's origin is the posterior surface of the proximal fibula and proximal 2/3
of the posterior tibial surface. The point of insertion is the posterior surface of the Achilles tendon.
The intended action of this muscle is plantar flexion of the ankle. The final muscles come from the
trunk and spinal column. Rectus abdominus has a point of origin at the superior surface of the pubis
around syphysis and an insertion at the inferior surfaces of costal cartilages (ribs 5–7) and the
xiphoid process of the sternum. The intended action of this muscle is to depress the ribs and flex the
vertebral column. Transverse abdominus is the next example. Its origin is the cartliges of the lower
ribs, iliac crest, and lumbodorsal fascia. The point of insertion is the linea alba and pubis, and the
intended

The Pathophysiology Of Deltoid Muscles
Lowering Phase Once the push–up is completed, the person must precisely lower themselves back
down to a prone position. In this phase, the same muscles are used as discussed in the pushing up
phase, except in the opposite direction. Stabilizers The muscles being discussed are needed to help
stabilize the body and keep it straight while doing a push–up. The primary muscles being examined
are the abdominal muscles. These muscles are called the rectus abdominis. They are located in the
anterior trunk of the midline. This muscle is divided into two sides and is separated by the linea
alba. They start at the crest of the pubis and insert in the costal cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and
seventh ribs. There are six smaller sections that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This muscle is the only muscle that is on the posterior side of the arm. It is the agonist to the deltoids
during some movements. According to Lippert, "the triceps has three heads: long, lateral and
medial." That is why it is commonly called the triceps muscle, tri meaning three. The long head
starts at the inferior rim of the glenoid fossa of the scapula and goes between the teres minor and
major. The lateral head attaches to the lateral side on the posterior surface of the humerus, just below
the greater tubercle. The medial head of the triceps lies deep to the long and lateral heads. It is
attached on the posterior surface below the lateral head. The body of the triceps are formed when all
three heads come together (Lippert, 2011). The action of the triceps brachii is to extend the elbow
and the shoulder, and create shoulder adduction. The origin of this muscle is in three different
places, due to the three heads. The long head origin is the infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula. The
lateral head origin is the posterior surface of the proximal half of the humerus. Lastly, the medial
head origin is in the posterior surface of distal half of the humerus. The insertion is at the olecranon
process of the ulna (Andrew Biel,

Essay On Igg4-Related Disease
IgG4–related disease (IgG4–RD) is a newly recognized, multiorgan, fibro–inflammatory disease
characterized by mass forming lesion with dense lymphoplasmacytic infiltration with large numbers
of IgG4+ plasma cells, storiform fibrosis and sometimes obliterative phlebitis. IgG4–RD was first
described in 2001 by Japanese researchers in patients with autoimmune pancreatitis with high levels
of serum IgG.[1, 2]
IgG4–RD usually affects individuals of middle to old age, with an onset at 50–70 years, although
few paediatric cases have been described. Males are more commonly affected especially for IgG4–
related pancreatitis with an M:F ratio of 3:7. However, IgG4–related dacryoadenitis and sialadenitis
may occur more frequently among ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Enlargement of one or more of trigeminal nerve branches is another feature of IgG4–ROD. The
most commonly involved branches are the infraorbital nerve (ION) and the frontal nerve. Other
nerves may be involved such as perioptic nerves, paravertebral nerves and great auricular nerve. The
disease involves mainly the epineurium and the affected nerves are infilterated by masses of
lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils and large numbers of IgG+ plasma cells.[20–23]
EOM enlargement is not rare in IgG4–ROD especially in cases with enlarged orbital nerves. Single
or multiple muscles may be involved during the disease course in the following order of frequency:
inferior rectus, followed by superior rectus–levator complex, lateral rectus, medial rectus, inferior
oblique and superior oblique. Histopathologically, the muscle biopsy shows a mixed and dense
infiltration with polyclonal B– and T–cells with some fibrosis.[24, 25]
IgG4–ROD may also involve the lacrimal drainage apparatus.[26] Furthermore, sclera and
conjunctival affection and nongranulomatous anterior uveitis have also been reported. [27, 28]
There is a correlation between IgG4–RD and ocular adnexal xanthogranulomatous disease in which
a high

Zoe's Eye Case Study
This case study is to identify the issues occurring with Zoe's eye. In lab there were test that were
done to see the function of cranial nerves. There are a 12 pairs of cranial nerves that are responsible
for doing different things. The first nerves is the olfactory nerve. The other cranial nerves in order
are optic nerve, oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, trigeminal nerve, abducens nerve, facial nerve,
vestibulocochlear nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve, accessory nerve and hypoglossal
nerve. Many cranial nerves deal with vision one of these is the optic nerve. The nerve that carries
sensory information from the eyes to the brain would be the optic nerve. The cranial nerves that
carry motor commands from the brain to the eye would be oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve and
the abducens nerve. The muscles that the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The function of the optic nerve is to carry afferent impulse from the eye to the brain for vision. This
is how to identify different things being looked at. The other three nerves which are motor mainly
responsible for eye movements and focus. The oculomotor nerve helps direct the eyeball, which is
done by the medial rectus, superior rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique muscles. The levator
pappebrea helps raises upper eyelids. Motor fibers of the sphincter pupillae, which are the muscles
of the iris cause the pupil to contract. The ciliate muscles controls the shape of the lens for visual
focusing. The trochlear nerves function is to provide movement of the eye. The last nerve is the
abducens nerve which controls the movement of the latercu rectus muscle in the eye. Knowing the
function of the nerves that control the eye will allow the finding out the issues that is occurring with
Zoe's eye. From Zoe's examination, it was learned that she has misalignment of the eyes which
causing problems focusing. If Zoe's is having problems forcing then her oculomotor nerve could be

Literature Summary Of Thorax
Review of literature
Thorax is a composed of many integrated systems including the muscles, bones and other soft
tissues organ systems, the biomechanics of which, impart the thorax a high mechanical resistance to
injury, mainly due to distinctive elastic properties of the rib and spine system supported by muscles.
So, understanding the complex mechanics of the thorax is critical for understanding the vast
multiplex of injuries sustained in various different circumstances.
Anatomy
The skeleton of the thoracic wall is formed by
the spinal column and 12 thoracic vertebrae
the sternum
12 paired ribs and costal cartilages
The sternum
It is a dagger–shaped bone, which forms the anterior part of the thoracic cage and consists of three
parts.
The manubrium
The body
The xiphoid process
The ribs
The ribs run in an oblique, inferior direction from their posterior articulation to their anterior
articulation. For example, rib 2 articulates with the T2 vertebra posteriorly but with the sternal angle
at the T4 vertebral level anteriorly.
There are three types of ribs
1) True ribs –
1st to 7th ribs which attach directly to the sternum through their own costal cartilages.

2) False ribs –
8th to 10th ribs which are connected to the cartilage of the rib above them
3) Floating ribs –
11th and 12th rib which do not connect even indirectly with the sternum
Ribs can be further classified as –
1) Typical ribs – 3rd to 9th.
A typical rib has a head, neck,

Acetabular Labbulu Research Papers
The hip is a very versatile joint that allows a high degree of movement, although not quite as great
as the shoulder. Being a ball and socket joint, it allows flexion, extension, adduction, abduction and
other ranges of motion to occur. It is the second largest weight–bearing joint in the body, only the
knee can bear more weight. It involves a complex system of bones, ligaments, and nerves to cause
the movements needed to get the body in motion. Although the hip is such an important joint many
things can go wrong if not taken care of properly, especially when it comes to the bones of the joint.
The two bones that make up the hip joint are the pelvis, also known as the hip bone, and the femur.
The pelvis is the "socket" portion of what we call ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These muscles help the joint stay stable and are the power behind the movements associated with
the joint. The muscles can be grouped into four groups (!). You have the anterior, posterior,
adductor, and abductor groups. The muscles in the anterior group are the psoas major, iliacus, rectus
femoris, vastus intermedius, vastus larteralis, and vastus medialis. These muscles help to lift the leg,
sit up, or kick a ball (!). Next is the posterior group which assist in things like standing, walking, and
running. Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus are the three muscles of the
posterior group. The adductor group is the muscle inside of the leg that help move the leg toward the
body. These muscles are the adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, pectineus, and
gracilis. Lastly you have the abductor group which move the leg away from the body as in a split.
These are the piriformis, superior gemellus, inferior gemellus, tensor fasciae latae, Sartorius, gluteus
medius, and gluteus

Abdomen Anatomy Mcq
9. The spleen is situated in the:
A. Right Upper Hypocondrium
B. Left Upper Hypochondrium, protected by ribs IX–XI C.
D.
E.
18. The pancreatic duct of the pancreas
A. Joins the common hepatic duct
B. Begins in the tail of the pancreas
C. Empties to the duodenum at minor duodenal papilla
D. Can be closed by sphincter of Oddi
E. After entering the pancreatic head turns superiorly
42. The common hepatic duct:
A. Drains the bile and pancreatic secretion
B. Is formed by fusion of hepatic and cystic duct ( =common bile duct)
C. Runs with the portal vein the lesser omentum
D. Is formed by fusion of right and left bile duct
E. None of above
(is formed by the fusion of right and left hepatic duct, joins the cystic duct and forms the common ...
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Lateral and Middle ––– to the left
E. None
63. Which sentence related to the medullary substance of the kidneys is wrong
A. Is situated at the outer part of the kidney
B. Contains the "corpuscular renis"
C. Is made up of renal pyramids
D. Is a part of each renal lobe
E. Is situated at the inner part of the kidney
2 The posterior layer of the rectus sheath
A. Consist of the fused posterior lamina of the internal oblique and the transverse abdominal
aponeurosis

B. Consist of the fused anterior lamina of the internal oblique and the internal oblique aponeurosis
C. The inferior one–third of it is deficient
D. Its deficient superior to the costal margin
E. None of above
49. The anterior layer of the rectus sheath:
A. Consists of the fused posterior lamina of the internal oblique and the transverse abdominal
aponeurosis.
B. Consists of the fused anterior lamina of the internal oblique and the external oblique aponeurosis
C. the inferior one third of it is deficient
D. its deficient superior to the costal margin
E. none of the above
7 The pyloric orifice is usually located just to the
A. Left of the midline on the level of lower border L1
B. Right of the midline on the level of lower border L1
C. Right to the midline in the transpyloric plane
D. Right of the midline on the level of lower border L2
E. Right of the midline on the level of upper border Th12
13 Kidneys are positioned
A. Intraperitoneally
B. Primary retroperitoneally
C.

The Brain and Cranial Nerves Essay
The Brain and Cranial Nerves
One of the most complex and fascinating things in the human body is the brain. The body is
"capable of almost everything, but it would not be possible, without the brain receiving information,
and analyzing the information." The brain is aware of its surroundings, via input from the spinal
cord and cranial nerves. Cranial nerves with sensory functions allow us to smell and see. Nerves
with both motor and sensory functions are responsible for everything from tasting and chewing, to
breathing and the heating of your heart. Many of the little things we take for granted are also made
possible by cranial nerves. Solving problems, feeling hungry, laughing. Each of these activities
occurs in a different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Medulla contains white matter that is sensory and motor tracts. These tracts extend between the
spinal cord and other parts of the brain. The Pons lies directly superior to the Medulla. Like the
Medulla, the Pons is a bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another. The midbrain extends
fro the Pons to the Diencephalon. The Midbrain contains both tracts and nuclei. The interior art of
the midbrain contains a pair of tracts called Cerebral Pedunctis. They contain axons of corticospinal
corticopontine and corticobolbar motor neurons. These conduct nerve impulses from the cerebrum
to the spinal cord, medulla, and pons. The posterior part of the midbrain is called the tectum. The
Tectum contains four rounded elecations, two superior, and two inferior. The two superior elevations
are known as the superior culliculi. They serve as reflex centers for certain visual activities. The two
inferior elevations, the inferior colliculi, are aprt of the auditory pathway, relaxing impulses from the
receptors for hearing in the ear to the thalamus. The Cerebellum is the second largest part of the
brain. The cerebellum occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of the cranial cavity. The
Diencephalon extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum. It includes the thalamus, hypothalmas,
epithalamus, and subthalmus. The twelve cranial nerves are responsible for a variety of things. Some
of these nerves bring information from the sense

Different Types Of Movements Are Performed During Ballet...
Many different types of movements are performed during ballet dancing. One of the most common
types of move is a turn, commonly referred to as a pirouette. A pirouette is a french term that was
started around the seventeen hundreds to mean a dancer turning (Lim, 2015). Pirouette is a general
description of a turn. Some detailed examples of pirouettes are en dedans, en dehors, attitudes,
arabesque turns, grande pirouettes, fouettés, and vertical pirouettes (Law, 2014). During the
Renaissance era in sixteenth century Italy, vertical pirouettes were developed for ballets. When a
dancer begins dance classes a vertical pirouette, it is one the first movements that they will learn.
This paper is about how to perform the vertical pirouette movement correctly as described in
biomechanics terms. Pirouettes are turns that can be executed in either direction of rotation. There
are five different phases for a pirouette. The phases are the preliminary phase, recovery phase, force
producing phase, the critical instant phase, and the follow–through phase. Each phase had a different
biomechanical principle that is applied, some phases could have more then one principle. During the
preliminary phase, there is hip rotation, knee flexion, foot dorsiflexion with placement in the
dominant and non–dominant. A dance wants their support to have a wide base and also they need to
have a low center of gravity. The movement for the arms are abduction and extension with the
thumb retracted in behind

A&P Lab
Evaluate how the name of a muscle can distinguish its location, action, shape, and function. Select
five different muscles to make this distinction. Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal muscles.
Some names give the location in the body. The temporalis muscle is attached to the temporal bone in
the skull. The brachialis muscle is attached to the humerus bone, but brachial refers to the main
artery in the arm. Some muscles are named for their origins and insertions, like the genioglossus
muscle, for example, originates at the chin (geneion) and inserts in the tongue (glossus). Some
muscles are named for the arrangement of the fascicle groups. For example the rectus abdominus is
the straight muscle that is in the adbominus. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
scapula Mandible and skin of the cheek Depresses mandible; tenses skin of neck Facial nerve
Sternocleido–mastoid clavicular head attaches to sternal end of clavicle; sternal head attaches to
manubrium clavicular head attaches to sternal end of clavicle; sternal head attaches to manubrium
Together, they flex the neck; alone, one side bends head toward shoulder and turns face to opposite
side Accessory nerve (N XI) and cervical spinal nerves (C2–C3) of cervical plexus Splenius Spinous
processes and ligaments connecting inferior cervical and superior thoracic vertebrae Mastoid
process, occipital bone of skull, and superior cervical vertebrae Together, the two sides extend neck;
alone, each rotates and laterally flexes neck to that side Cervical spinal nerves Scalenes Transverse
and costal processes of cervical vertebrae Superior surfaces of first two ribs Elevate ribs or flex neck
Cervical spinal nerves External Coastals Inferior border of each rib Superior border of more inferior
rib Elevate ribs Intercostal nerves (branches of thoracic spinal nerves) External Oblique External
and inferior borders of ribs 5–12 Linea alba and iliac crest Compresses abdomen, depresses ribs,
flexes or bends spine Intercostal, iliohypogastric, and ilioinguinal nerves Diaphragm Xiphoid
process, cartilages of ribs 4–10, and anterior surfaces of lumbar vertebrae Central tendinous sheet
Contraction expands thoracic cavity, compresses abdominopelvic cavity Phrenic

A Comparison Of Life And Respiration For Speech
A Comparison of Respiration for Life and Respiration for Speech Respiration is a necessary bodily
function in sustaining life. Its basic objective is to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide by
way of four stages: ventilation, distribution, perfusion, and diffusion (Seikel, Drumright, & King,
2016, p. 147). Respiration is also vital to the production of speech, but the way in which respiration
occurs while producing speech is different than the process of respiration for life in a few ways.
Respiration for life is a passive process while respiration for speech is an active process, requiring
some conscious effort. During respiration for speech, the respiration cycle is altered in order to
maintain appropriate pressures and volumes needed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thoracic muscles involved in forced expiration include the interosseous portion of the internal
intercostals, innermost intercostals, transversus thoracis, subcostals, and serratus posterior inferior.
The function of the interosseous portion of the internal intercostals and the innermost intercostals is
to depress ribs 1–11. The transversus thoracis are found on the inner surface of the rib cage and
function to depress the rib cage for forced expiration. Within the inner wall of the thorax the
subcostals can be found, functioning to depress the thorax. Contraction of the serratus posterior
inferior muscles helps to pull the rib cage down, supporting expiration. Abdominal muscles of
expiration include the transversus abdominis, internal oblique abdominis, external oblique
abdominis, rectus abdominis, and quadratus lumborum. Of all the anterior abdominal muscles, the
transversus abdominis is the deepest and its function is to compress the abdomen. Positioned in
between the transversus abdominis and the external oblique abdominis, the internal oblique
abdominis rotates and flexes the trunk as well as compresses the abdomen. The most superficial and
biggest group of abdominal muscles are the external oblique abdominis. When these muscles
contract bilaterally, they flex the vertebral column and compress the abdomen. When they are
contracted unilaterally, they rotate the trunk. The rectus abdominis muscles run along the midline of
the body and are responsible for flexion of the vertebral

Reflection Of The Human Eye
Overview
Our eyes are one of the most significant organs in our body. Through it, we are able to see things
and do our errands efficiently. The human eye is a complex yet imperative organ of our body filled
with nerves, a lens, liquid and more. This organ gives us the aptitude to envisage the world in
different colors, shapes and dimensions; centered on the reflection and refraction norm. In our eye,
several major constituents work concurrently to capture and transmit the image to the occipital lobe
of the brain through optic nerves. Separate info from left and right eye is directed to the brain
through these nerve impulses. This info is then combined by our brain for determining the distance
and profundity of the image so as to envisage full three dimensional images. The upward and
downward muscular movement of the eye is monitored by superior and inferior rectus muscles,
whereas the side movement and staying in level is controlled with the assistance of medial and
lateral rectus muscles. These muscles are in turn controlled over with the aid of oculomotor nerves.
To prevent the frictional impairment from these movements, the tears are released by lacrymal
glands, which can improve lubrication, confiscate foreign objects and avert bacterial infection.
Occipital lobe is the portion of central nervous system, accountable for deciphering vision. Thus,
any impairment to optic nerve can sternly affect central vision, peripheral vision and color vision of
an individual. The functional aberration in any of the above major constituents might cause serious
eye glitches; which if overlooked, might gradually result in vision loss. Thus, there are a number of
eye conditions such as retinopathy or some forms of corneal sicknesses, which can be very upsetting
for some of the patients; where as some of the other disorders can be so subtle that they can be
routinely treated by an ophthalmologist.
Symptoms
The various symptoms of eye disorders are:
Blurry vision on objects that are in the distance.
Squinting the eye
Severe headaches or the eyes will become exhausted from reading.
It is difficult to see things that are within close range.
In kids, the most common symptom is crossed eyes.
Eye weariness.
There will

Describe The Process Of Doing Squats
The process of doing squats involves a process of using muscles in bottom half of the torso. There
are primary muscles in doing squats which are the gluteus maximus, quadriceps, and hamstrings.
The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the body and covers each buttock. The origin of this
muscle is the sacrum, coccyx, and ilium. The insertion is the posterior surface of femur and fascia of
the thigh which helps to extend the thigh at the hip. The gluteus maximus helps to straighten the
limb at the hip when a person walks, runs, climbs, or squats. In the quadriceps femoris group there
are four muscles called the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius.
The rectus femoris muscle occupies the middle of the thigh ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The next quadriceps muscle is vastus lateralis which is the largest part of the quadriceps on the
lateral side of the femur and the origin is the greater trochanter and posterior surface of the femur.
Another, muscle is the vastus medialis which is on the medial side of the femur. Lastly, the vastus
intermedius is on the anterior and lateral surfaces of femur. The insertion of these muscles is the
patella. All these muscles helps extends leg at the knee. The last primary muscles are the hamstring
group which contain the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and sartorius. The
biceps femoris has two heads, one attached to the ischium and the other attached to the femur. This
muscle's origin is the ischial tuberosity and linea aspera of femur, while the insertion is the head of
fibula and lateral condyle of tibia. This muscle flexes and rotates the leg laterally and extends the
thigh. The semitendinosus is another muscle in the hamstring, it's a long, bandlike muscle on the
back and medial side of the thigh, connecting ischium to the tibia. It flexes and rotates the leg
medially and extends the thigh. The semimembranosus is the third hamstring muscle and is medially
located in the back of the

What Is Inguinal Hernia?
An inguinal hernia can be described as a protrusion or passage of a peritoneal sac, with or without
abdominal contents, through a weakened part of the abdominal wall in the groin (Drake, 2010).
Inguinal hernias have been present in the medical literature from the beginning of written history.
Documented as early as 1700 BC, the Hammurabi of Babylon described hernia reduction and
application of trusses to prevent protrusion (Matthews, 2008). As of 2008, inguinal hernia repair was
the most common general surgery procedure in the United States (Matthews, 2008). Patients with an
inguinal hernia can present at any age, from birth until the elderly, both male and female; although,
inguinal hernias are 10 times more common in men than in women. In ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Congenital inguinal hernias are present from birth due to the presence of the processus vaginalis
allowing a passage of viscera through the inguinal canal. Acquired hernias occur in older patients
due to various causes such as raised intra–abdominal pressure, damage to nerves of the anterior
abdominal wall, and weakening of the walls of the inguinal canal (Fitzgibbons, 2015). Because the
abdominal wall of the groin has a weakened part, an inguinal hernia can occur. An inguinal hernia
occurs because the peritoneal sac enters the inguinal canal either indirectly, through the deep
inguinal ring; or directly, through the posterior wall of the inguinal canal (Perrott,

Corneal Edema Essay
The cornea is most significantly affected by the active metabolic pump in the endothelium. This
layer of cells in the posterior of the cornea maintain the fluid pump to keep the cornea dry and clear
through the metabolic pump which is activated by temperature and the sodium potassium ATPase
enzyme. The cell density of this basement membrane is vital as it is 7500 cells/mm2 and decreases
with age (Michael 2014). If this cell density reaches low levels of approximately 300–500
cells/mm2 then a corneal edema develops since the endothelium cannot maintain the pumping of the
fluid and eventually floods the cornea which could be the cause of the corneal edema in the corneal
epithelial layer (Michael 2014).
The main theory for the corneal edema of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The oculomotor nerve controls the levator palpabrae superioris, superior rectus muscle, inferior
rectus muscle and the inferior oblique muscle. Damage to the cranial nerve III would damage the
short ciliary nerves which controls the iris. The only ocular muscle which is controlled by the
trochlear nerve is the superior oblique muscle which will remain unaffected by the stroke or the

CHN1 Case Study
Pathology As stated previously, the proteins, a1–chimaerin and a2–chimaerin, are important in the
facilitation of neural growth. The a2–chimaerin protein regulates the movement between the
different neurons, so that neural structures can develop properly. When a mutation takes place in the
CHN1 gene, it causes the a2–chimaerin to not work properly. This mutation causes some of the
nerves that are created by the CHN1 proteins to either be underdeveloped or missing altogether.
Jeon–Min Hwang and associates found that the absence of the CHN1 caused the subsequent absence
of cranial nerves IV and VI (18). Cranial nerve four, also known as the trochlear nerves, serves to
lower the eye as it is adducted by the superior oblique muscles; in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
All three of these types can trace their origins to the limitation that the mutation in the CHN1
creates. Once the mutation causes the a2–chimaerin protein to not function as it should, it causes the
cranial nerves to either go missing or become so unstable that the nerves that they control will not be
responsive.
Prevention and Therapies Currently, there are no actual preventative measures that can help against
Duane Retraction Syndrome; however, many of the symptoms that develop as a result of DRS can
be modified or corrected in an effort to ascertain that the individual's personal comfort is attended
to. Surgeries, such as a medial rectus recession, are available in order to tighten or loosen the eye
muscles that control the eye muscles (23). According to Pradeep Sharma and collagues, another
option for ways to correct an exotropic strabismus are procedures known as periosteal fixation or
extirpation of the lateral rectus. Both of these procedures were shown to correct the atypical head
posture as well as the exodeviation by dissecting the lateral rectus from the other eye muscles.
Patients who had experiencd tbe periosteal fixation reported an improvement of globe retraction for
up to three consecutive years (24).
Summary
The disorder known as Duane Retraction Syndrome, or simply Duane Syndrome, is a syndome that
impacts millions of people's eye movement and coordination. This condition is a weakness within
the muscles in the

Muscles: A Case Study
3. While performing the off–centre attitude in parallel different groups of muscles contract to
produce movement needed to execute this balance.
Beginning from the lower half of the body there are primary muscles that contract to produce
dorsiflexion of the calcaneus: the tibialis anterior and pernoneous tertius are the agonists and the
peroneous longus and peroneous brevis are the antagonists of this action. Although, when
dorsiflexion reverses to plantaflexion the roles of agonist and antagonist also reverse. Therefore the
peroneous longus and peroneous brevis are now the agonists and the tibialis anterior and pernoneous
tertius are the antagonists of this reversed action.
Upwards, is the knee in flexion caused by a separate group of muscles ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Connected to the scapula is the shoulder: the deltoid anterior, deltoid lateral, pectoralis major and
bicep brachi contract to create forward flexion at one of these shoulder joints. Parallel the deltoid,
infraspinatus and teresminor are contracted to cause extension of the shoulder joint. Travelling along
each arm the triceps brachi and aneconeus muscles are contracted to extend the elbow joint. The
radio–carpal joint in extension uses the extensor carpi radialis longus, abductor pollicis and flexor
carpi radialis to perform the neutral positioning of the radio–carpel and extension of the phalanges
Engaging different muscles create different movements of the body and different actions at joints;
using muscles correctly when performing the off–centre attitude in parallel will make certain the
skill is correct.
4. My main somatotype is the mesomorph and I also fit into the ectomorph category. I have a solid,
muscled athletic appearance and my shoulders are broader then my hips. I am sturdy, tightly strung,
my connective tissue is tight and the strong stretch reflex makes it difficult for flexibility. However
my cardiovascular system is not efficient so my hands and feet are frequently cold; this is a typical
characteristic of an

Fetal Pig Dissection
I. Fetal Pig Dissection
II. Purpose
Sus scrofa, or the domestic pig is a member of the class Mammalia and the order Artiodactyla. Since
we as humans are also a member of class Mammalia, we have a good deal in common biologically
with pigs, although we might not like to think so. Since we have a good deal in common, it is very
helpful for us to study these animals both anatomically and physiologically. We do this when we test
medicines on pigs, perfect surgical procedures on pigs, and even when we used to use pig valves for
replacements in human hearts. Thus the pig is a first–rate example of a mammal and the purpose of
this lab is to recognize the specific similarities between the pig and ourselves as humans. To
accomplish this we ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also Identify the female parts and vice versa if you have a female
3. For the female identify the ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina, and cervix
Nervous System
1. Remove the skin from the skull and back and cut open the bone to expose the central nervous
system
2. For the brain identify: cerebrum, medial fissure, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and corpus
callosum
3. For the spinal chord, cut it open and identify gray and white matter.
IV. Data and Observations
Answers to Questions
Intro
1. All mammals have hair and mammary glands which is what separates the group from others.
However most modern mammals are also distinguished by a single dentary bone, the mandible, and
most have two or more types of teeth. Also, most mammals have sweat glands.
2. They are both members of the order Artiodactyla and are omnivores.
3. Pig– 21 days; Humans– Very similar possibly slightly longer
4. Pig– 112–115 days; Humans– ~266 days
5. Hoof
Unit One
1. Around 60
2. Barrier to UV radiation, protects against harmful organisms, prevents loss of water, regulates
body temperature, is an excretory organ, and is a receptor for external stimuli
3. To prevent against tiny, unwanted particles from getting into the respiratory system
4. Through the umbilical veins and ateries
5. Separates the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity

Unit 2
1. It would likely overload the storage and make it in fact less durable
2. Densely packed nerves/notochord
3. Bone–

3 Palsy Case Studies
CRANIAL NERVE 3 PALSY Differential diagnoses : –Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA), myasthenia
gravis, thyroid eye disease, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia, internuclear
ophthalmoplegia,skew deviation, parinaud syndrome, idiopathic orbital inflammatory syndrome. 4
Danger and referral: complete pupil involving/relative pupil involving CN3 palsy is an emergency
and mass or aneurysm needs to be ruled out as it can be fatal. 4, Hence refer immediately to
neurologist for CNS imaging.4 This also applies to patients with pupil sparing palsies who are
younger than 50 (unless long term diabetes/hypertension) or with progression/additional
CN/neurologic defects or with incomplete palsies as this may turn into a pupil involving palsy
(closely monitor ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Differentials: GCA, thyroid eye disease, myasthenia gravis, idiopathic orbital inflammatory
syndrome, orbital trauma, duane syndrome, convergence spasm, primary divergence
insufficiency/divergence paralysis, mobius syndrome, restrictive thyroid myopathy, orbital wall
blow out fracture, orbital myositis, early onset esotropia.4,5 Danger and referral: Prompt referral to
GP if suspected diabetes/hypertension to examine blood pressure, fasting blood sugar, glycosylated
haemoglobin.4 If patient younger than 45 years (includes all children), accompanying pain, other
neurologic signs, worsening signs, cancer history, bilateral CN6 palsy, papilledema signs refer
promptly to neurologist for MRI.4 If patient 45–55 years and no vasculopathic risk, consider referral
to neurologist for MRI.4 If signs and symptoms indicating suspicion of GCA, refer immediately (to
hospital with available rheumatologist, ophthalmologist) for ESR, CRP and platelets.4 Depending
on suspected cause, consider referral to doctor or health clinic for RPR, lyme titer, syphilis serology,
FTA–ABS.4 If otitis media needs to be ruled out, refer to doctor for otoscopic examination.4 When
cause/abnormality is known, refer to appropriate health care practitioner to treat the cause.4
Common causes: Isolated CN6 palsy never has nuclear origin.5 Common causes for adults is
vasculopathic (such as diabetes and hypertension), trauma, unknown (idiopathic).4 Less common
include raised ICP, stroke, cavernous sinus mass, MS,

The area below the belly button is often hard to tone,...
The area below the belly button is often hard to tone, because stubborn fat tends to settle here and
hide your muscle definition. A healthy diet, cardio and full–body strength training can reduce body
fat, and by including targeted exercises, you can add definition to your lower abs. Although
abdominals exercise can sometimes be hard on your neck, the best lower ab exercises require your
lower body to do most of the work.
Hang and Raise Your Legs
A study by the American Council on Exercise showed that knee raises in a captain's chair can
effectively target your abs. (See References 1) During this exercise your hold your body up by your
forearms and raise your knees toward your chest, which effectively targets the lower part of your ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It's essential to draw your belly button toward your spine to engage your abs, and to prevent raising
your hips, or sagging your rib cage to the floor. Push back into your heels and breathe as you
attempt to hold the pose for up to one to two minutes. For extra lower ab involvement, raise one foot
a few inches off the floor. Do the exercise up to three times. (See References 3)
Scissor Your Legs
During leg scissors, there's no strain on your neck, because only your lower body moves, while your
head is resting on the floor. Pull your belly button toward your spine as if to eliminate the space
between your lower back and the floor. Then raise your legs to a 45–degree angle, separate them as
far apart as you can, and then move them back together, crossing one leg over the other. Do this 20
times and finish one to three sets. For variety, scissor your legs up and down, and for an added
challenge, wear ankle weights. (See References 2)
Key Concepts
lower ab workout lower ab exercises abdominal exercises routine
References
American Council on Exercise: New Study Puts the Crunch on Ineffective Ab Exercises
[http://www.acefitness.org/getfit/studies/BestWorstAbExercises.pdf] Ask the Trainer: Best Lower
Ab Workout Tips & Key Exercises [http://www.askthetrainer.com/best–lower–ab–workout/]
FitWatch: The Top 3 Lower Ab Exercises [http://www.fitwatch.com/weight–loss/top–3–lower–ab–
exercises–560.html] Harvard Health

Optic Nervous System
Introduction: Vision is one of the four main senses of the cranial division of the skull, along with
hearing, taste and smell. The human eye is an organ that is responsible for responding to light,
focusing and transmitting light through a lens. The human brain consists of 12 cranial nerves that are
either motor, sensory or contains both functions.
CN Olfactory: primary sensory nerve that allows smell
CN Optic: vision; primary sensory nerve
CN Oculomotor:
CN Trochlear: enables eye to look downward or inward
CN Trigeminal: facial sensation; chewing
CN Abducens: moves eye laterally
CN Facial: contributes to facial expression
CN Vestibulocochlear: Hearing
CN Glossopharyngeal: Taste posterior of tongue
CN Vagus: mixed nerve carrying ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Marieb, "There are six extrinsic eye muscles that are primarily responsible for eye
movement." The three nerves that contribute to human eye movement are: oculomotor, abducens
and trochlear nerve. The oculomotor is a pure motor nerve, "that controls the superior, inferior and
medial rectus," (Marieb, 495) The abducens nerve is a purely motor nerve that carries motor
impulses to the lateral rectus that permits the eye to move side to side and abduct. The trochlear
nerve innervates the superior oblique eye muscle that allows the eye to move inwardly,
inferolaterally; to look down and it permits oculomotion. In order to attain the purpose of these
experiments, three test will be performed: oculomotor, abducens and trochlear test. Each test will
evaluate each of the eye muscles and their efficiency and will disclose which of the three nerves has
a malfunction.
Hypothesis: It is assumed that the trochlear nerve is experiencing complications based off of the
symptoms and the diagnosis shows the superior oblique to be impaired which is causing Samir to be
unable to move his left eye inward and to have double vision.
Procedures:
Oculomotor test:
1. Have subject stand directly in front of you
2. Subject look straight forward
3. As you trace the letter H in the air with your finger, have subject follow it with their

Anatomy Notes and Terms
Latin English diathroses Freely moving joints such as knuckles are called synarthrose Skull sutures
and other immovable joints are called synovial fluid The lubricant in the joint cavity of a diarthrosis
is called tendon sheath A long tubular bursa enclosing a tendon is called range of motion The
maximum angle through which a joint can move is called resistance arm The part of a lever from the
fulcrum to the resistance is called fulcrum , effort In the elbow, a third–class lever, the ____ is
between the ____ and the resistance dorsiflexion If you keep your heels on the floor but raise your
toes, you are preforming the action of true A meniscus is a type of bursa seen, for example, in the
space between the femur and tibia true ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
fixator A muscle that prevents unwanted movement of a bone is called a _? trapezius The largest
muscle of the upper back rectus abdominis The linea alba separates the right and left _____ muscles
from each other bicep femoris The hamstring muscles are the semimembranosus, semitendinosus,
and _? quadricep femoris The anterior aspect of the thigh is dominated by the _____, a large muscle
with four heads true All skeletal muscles have their origins and insertions on bone true The levator
palpebrae is an antagonist of the orbicularis oris true Both the hand and the foot have lumbrical and
interosseous muscles sphincters Several body orifices are regulated by circular muscles are called
fascicles muscle fibers are arranged in bundles called ___? true The bone at a muscle's orgin shows
little or no movement when the muscle contracts true The actions of a synergist are similar but not
necessarily identical to those of a prime mover at the same joint false The orbicularis oculi moves
the eye, for example when you are reading a page of print true When you swallow, you can feel your
larynx bob upwards. This results from the action of certain muscles in the infrahyoid group false
Contraction of the diaphragm expels air from the lungs aponeurosis– e A broad flat tendon prime
mover –m

Anatomy of Thorax Mcqs
Anatomy of the Thorax MCQ and Spotter
Hint: Cross section: Which artery (vein also indicated)?
The correct answer is: Internal thoracic artery
Click on the correct name for this structure:
The correct answer is: Descending aorta
Click on the correct name for this structure
The correct answer is: Rib: head
The correct answer is: Pulmonary artery
The correct answer is: Sternum: xiphoid process
The correct answer is: Posterior intercostal artery
The correct answer is: Brachiocephalic artery
The correct answer is: Vertebra: articular facet
The correct answer is: Rib: angle
The correct answer is: Descending aorta
The correct answer is: Sternum: angle (of Louis) (BUMP)
The correct answer is: Left subclavian artery
The correct ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
False chordae tendineae
Left superior lingular tertiary bronchus
Anterior–medial basal bronchopulmonary segment of left inferior lobe

Left atrium
Atrioventricular (AV) node
N.B. AV is based on the left side of the heart when you dig into the pulmonary veins!
Costal cartilage: 3rd
Right anterior tertiary bronchus
Coronary sinus LOOKS LIKE IN LEFT ATRIUM BUT IS IN RIGHT ATRIUM!
Left apical–posterior tertiary bronchus
Cristae terminalis
END OF THE CHORDAE TENDINADAE?
NOTE MUSCULI PECTINATI ARE IN RIGHT ATRIUM
Right middle secondary bronchus]]
#.
This is the opening of which vessel
Coronary sinus
Right upper secondary (eparterial) bronchus
Sternum: manubrium
Sternum: manubrium
Aortic arch
Left

Exercises to Alleviate a Separated Rectus Essays
Although common in postpartum women, a separated rectus, also known as diastasis recti, can also
occur in obese individuals and in children up to 2 years of age. (See References 1, p. 337) This
condition occurs when there's a separation between the right and left side of the rectus abdominis
muscle. This can trigger pelvic and back pain, and make it hard to stabilize the trunk. (See
References 2) Although it can correct itself, targeted exercise can lend a helping hand.
Things to Consider
Abdominal exercise, such as traditional crunches and situps, aren't going to correct a separated
rectus. More so, they can worsen the condition, and make your tummy bulge out. (See References 3,
p. 64) Your emphasis should be on retraining your ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After exhaling and engaging your transverse abdominis by pulling your belly button to your spine,
engage your buttocks and roll your hips back. Imagine trying to eliminate the space between your
back and the floor. Hold the contraction in your tummy for up to five seconds, and then release it
and return your hips to the starting point. Perform pelvic tilts up to 10 times, three times a day. (See
References 3, p. 65)
Lift Your Hips
The hip lift, sometimes also referred to as the bridge exercise, is also done while lying on the floor
on your back, with your feet flat and knees bent. This exercise is the next step up from the pelvic tilt.
It starts in a similar manner; you draw your navel to your spine and engage your glutes. Instead of
staying on the floor, you raise your hips and back until your body forms a straight line from your
knees to your shoulders. Hold the contraction for up to five seconds, and then lower back down to
the starting point. Repeat this motion 10 times, up to three times a day. (See References 3, p. 65)
Key Concepts
separated rectus exercises separated rectus abdominis diastasis recti exercises correcting abdominal
separation
References
Clinical Mastery in the Treatment of Myofascial Pain; Lucy Whyte Ferguson and Robert Gerwin
[http://books.google.com/books?
id=FrEmzwNOG_IC&pg=PA337&dq=diastasis+recti&hl=en&sa=X&ei=46wBU_KxMM–
DogS7r4Bo&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=diastasis%20recti&f=false] The Physiotherapy

Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction Essay
Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction
Defined as dysfunction of the sacroiliac joint also referred to as the SI Joint commonly associated
with sharp or shooting pain. Dysfunction may appear in various types and causes including,
hypermobility, hypomobility, anterior or posterior rotation, or up slip of the pelvis.
Types of Dysfunction
Hypermobility – hypermobility within the joint causes decreased stability. Causes may be weak
supporting muscles, trauma, or increased ligament laxity (hormonal). Often seen with pregnant
women as the ligaments relax around the hip joint due to protein hormone Relaxin in preparation for
birthing, this in turn causing hypermobility within the hips which can lead to dysfunction causing
compensation and pain.
Hypomobility – hypomobility within the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
– Pelvic challenge, challenging the hip adductors/abductors determining possible weakness.
– Joint Play: 4 Point Test: l(ack of movement or too much movement, pain, spasm) Spring Test, and
Gapping Test.
– Positive Gillets test: Lack of movement or upward movement of the joint.
– Positive Standing Forward Flexion test: PSIS doesn't move or delayed & jumps superiorly, this
indicates anterior rotation.
– Positive Extension Test: PSIS does not rise up which indicates it is being held in posterior rotation.
– Positive Fortin's Finger Test: Client points to pain twice.
– Positive FABERs Test: bring hip into flexion, abduction, external rotation and watch for pain
being elicited at joint as well as tests the adductors, the higher the knee is off the table, the shorter
the adductor's length, apply gentle overpressure for light stretch.
– Ligament testing – anterior and posterior. Test laxity and pain. Should be negative for pain if it is
not in the acute stage.
Confirm or refute hypothesis, confirmation will lead to treatment planning, refute the hypothesis and
therapist must determine additional testing that must be

Anatomy Of The Big Toe Analysis
It all starts with the big toe.
In order to go en pointe, the hallux must remain strong and straight. The extensor hallucis brevis and
flexor hallucis brevis must stay firm en pointe and show extraordinary control during the plié. Any
sign of weakness through relevé in those phalanx bones can cause the whole system above it to
collapse. Just above at the ankle, the junction must be able to perform dorsal flexion for a strong plié
that will allow the body to keep turning. Higher up, the quadriceps femoris muscles provide the
strength to perform continuous grands ronds des jambes en l'airs. A developpé devant is held up only
with the flexion of this muscle. As the leg carries to à la secondé, followed by a sturdy passé, the
quadricep holds strong. This allows the body to turn ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What gets you from one to three? Even William Shakespeare recognized its significance as he
wondered what the true question was. Now, I understand that this toe, along with the remaining
anatomy of a body, especially as it explains ballet, is, to many, boring. However, to me, the
importance of this toe is fascinating. Learning about each part of the body that, when functioning in
a specific way, allows the body to create beautiful movements and lines, is captivating to my mind.
Without my understanding of the power of the big toe, and all of the other connected parts, I would
become that pile of bones and a tutu on stage in front of hundreds or thousands. This can explain,
and legitimize, my love of dance and anatomy, two subjects I have been able to combine to put me
on the path towards my life's goal, becoming a physical therapist and lifetime dancer. These dreams
would allow me to share this love. I wish to help as many others who aspire to dance or to reach
their full health potential, to not become that pile of bones and a tutu. For I have been fascinated by
ballet and our body's anatomy since I first put on a pair of pointe

Muscle Functions Of Muscle Function
Muscle Function
Masseter helps chew food by raising the mandible up and down
Latissimus dorsi extension of the arm, the adduction of the arm, and the rotation of the arm towards
the center of the body
Triceps brachii extension of the arm and forearm
Deltoids rotation of the arm towards and away from the body, and the extension, flexion, and
abduction of the arm
Trapezius extension of the cranium, adduction and elevation, and depression of the scapula
Extensor carpi radialis abduction and extension of the hand
Extensor carpi ulnaris extension and adduction of the hand
Serratus ventralis abduction of the scapula and rotation in an upward direction
Rectus abdominus enables the vertebral column to be flexed and the compression of the abdomen
Pectoralis minor enables the 3rd, 4th, and 5th ribs to be raised for inhalation of air and allows the
abduction of the scapula and its inferior movement
Pectoralis major arm to rotate towards the body and the flexion and extension of the arm
Sternohyoid pushes the hyoid bone down
Biceps femoris flexion of the leg and extension of the thigh
Gluteus maximus extension of the thigh and the rotation of the thigh away from the body
Gluteus medius enables the thigh to be abducted and to be rotated towards the center of the body
External oblique flexion of the vertebral column with a forward movement of the abdomen and
chest, and allows for the lateral flexion of the vertebral column and trunk rotation
Senitendinous enables leg to be flexed and

4 Cranial Nerves Lab
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment is to evaluate the 4 cranial nerves that are used for vision and eye
movement based on their functions by performing several tests. With that being said, there are 12
cranial nerves in the body. The first cranial nerve is known as Olfactory Nerve I. This nerve is used
for smell. Next, is the nerve that is used for vision and that is Optic Nerve II. The third cranial nerve
is the Oculomotor Nerve III, which allows movement of the eye in several directions including up,
down, up and inward. In addition, this nerve controls the pupil. Next, is the Trochlear Nerve IV. This
nerve moves the eyes in a down and inward movement. The next nerve is responsible for the
sensory impulses to different parts of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The patient is instructed to tell the doctor when he/she can see the pen light while looking forward.
–The opthmalogist will then record the data and ask the patient to remain covering their right eye.
The doctor will then place the penlight about the patients head and ask them to tell him/her when
he/she sees the penlight.
–The doctor will do the same thing and place the penlight in the lower quadrant of the patients body
and ask him/her to state when the light is seen.
–The doctor will go through the same steps, but with the left eye is covered now.
–Results will be recorded.
The Oculomotor Nerve III is tested. This nerve allows the eyes to have certain movements as well as
controls the pupils.
1.Following the H letter:
–The doctor will stand directly in front of the patient.
–The doctor will instruct the patient to stare straight ahead and follow the letter H as he/she draws
the letter.
–The doctor will see if the patients eyes follow the letter and see if the eyes move smoothly during
the procedure.
–Results are recorded.
2.Eyelid position:
–The patient will stare directly ahead, and the doctor will look at the patients eye lids to see if they
are normal or droop.
–Results are recorded.
3.Pupil size and

Bio 151 List of Structures
Biology 115 Semester List of Structures Chapter One Anatomy is the study of body structure and
the relationship between structures Physiology is the study of how the structures of the body
function Levels of Structural Organization Chemical Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
Homeostasis Positive feedback loop Negative feedback loop Relative Positions Superior Inferior
Anterior Posterior Medial Lateral Bilateral Ipsilateral Contralateral Proximal Distal Superficial
Deep Body Sections Sagittal Transverse (horizontal) Frontal (coronal) Body Regions See Figure
1.17 Chapter Two Chemistry Matter Element Major elements Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen
Atom Subatomic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
s Flat bones Irregular bone Sesamoid bones Anatomy of a Long Bone Epiphyses Metaphyses
Epiphyseal growth plate Epiphyseal growth line Diaphysis Periosteum Medullary cavity Endosteum
Articular cartilage Microscopic Anatomy Compact bone Osteons Spongy bone Trabeculae Bone
Formation Intramembranous ossification Endochondral ossification Cells in Bone Osteogenic cells
Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts Hormonal Control of Bone Calcitonin Parathyroid hormone
Osteology of the Axial Skeleton Frontal Parietal Temporal Zygomatic arch Mastoid process
Occipital Foramen magnum Occipital condyles Sphenoid Sella turcica Greater wing Lesser wing
Ethmoid Cribriform plate Crista galli Nasal Maxilla Alveolar process Palatine process Zygomatic
Zygomatic arch Lacrimal Palatine Inferior nasal conchae Vomer Mandible Condyle Coronoid
process Alveolar process Nasal septum Sutures Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Squamous Pterion Hyoid
Verteba Body Vertebral foramen Pedicles Lamina Transverse process Spinous process Superior
articular process Inferior articular process Cervical vertebrae Atlas Anterior arch Posterior arch Axis
Odontoid process Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Sacrum Anterior sacral foramen Posterior
sacral foramen Median sacral crest Lateral sacral crest Coccyx Sternum Manubrium Body Xiphoid

The Anatomy Of The Knee Injuries

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