Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay

Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay
I. Introduction:
Neurological disorders are complex in nature and often the least understood. Given the recent boom
in imaging technology and other diagnostic methods, it is now possible to see more clearly into the
scope of neurological development and accurately determine the etiology of these diseases. One of
such disorders is Autism; a multifactorial condition impairing normal brain development. It affects
many aspects of development, including social behavior, cognitive ability and communication
skills1 and is commonly diagnosed in children before the age of three1. The symptoms of this
condition can vary greatly between individuals; hence its classification as a spectrum disorder.
Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome and pervasive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mutations that occur during transcription are also linked to the expression of genes associated with
Autism Spectrum Disorder. ASD candidate genes are genes normally related to synapse function,
but when the enzyme topoisomerase is inhibited, the genes are not fully expressed4, factoring into
the phenotypic expression of Autism. The individuals studied who were affected by ASD had a
numerous amount of mutated genes relating to transcription function4. This result illustrates the
relationship between transcription and the phenotypic expression of autism.
Twin Studies also show that there is a strong genetic influence in autistics.
In a study of 44 sets of twins, there was a high concordance rate of autism and other disorders on the
ASD spectrum for monozygotic twins (92%)5. This suggests that the genetic similarity between MZ
twins influences their risk of expressing Autism. Dizygotic twins however, had a much lower
concordance5, supporting the hypothesis that there is a correlation between genetic similarity and
Autism risk. According to the study, complications during pregnancy are not likely to be the cause
of autism, but simply happen more often in twin pregnancies5. The association of severe brain
damage in pregnancy and Autism has not been found in singletons5. In 29 cases of twins discordant
for Autism, biological hazards associated with brain damage usually affected the autistic twin. This
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Austim Spectrum Disorder
INTRODUCTION Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders
that have overlapping diagnostic criteria related to deficits in communication, and restricted interests
and repetitive behaviour, Duffy and Healy ( as cited in Worley & Matson, 2012). Recent studies in
the United States reported the diagnosis of an ASD in 1 out of 91 children of between age three to
seventeen years (Kogan et al., 2009) and 1 out of 110 children age eight years (Rice, Baio, Van,
Doernberg, Meaney & Kirby, 2007). Idro, Newton, Kiguli and Mwesige, (2010) found the
prevalence of mental handicap, severe developmental/cognitive delay or regress in East Africa to be
17.0% while general behaviour problems was 3.9%. Jarbrink and Knapp (2001) note that ASDs
requires management throughout an individual's life, with no specific cure; this results in high costs
of interventions. This presents specific sets of challenges to caregivers especially in resource
strained settings. Several studies have shown that parents of children with developmental disabilities
experience heightened stress (Blacher, 1984; Schieve, Blumberg, Rice, Visser and Boyle, 2007),
impaired mental health (Weiss, 1991), a sense of devaluation and self–blame (Holroyd, Brown,
Wikler & Simmons, 1975), and impaired physical functioning, tiredness and exhaustion (Hedov,
Anneren & Wikblad, 2000; Emerson, 2003). While acknowledging the changing gender roles, Gray
and Holden ( as cited by Leonard, Seltzer, Shattuck,

Effects Of Teaching Play Strategies On Social Interaction...
1. Francke, J., & Geist, E. A. (2004). The Effects of Teaching Play Strategies on Social Interaction
for a Child with Autism: A Case Study. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 18(2), 125–
140. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/203884415?accountid=11920. Researchers
used twelve children with different disabilities and children that are your "typical" developing child.
They used a preschool classroom to conduct their research and looked at one child in particular
named, Jay. Jay has been diagnosed with autism. For the study, they used participant observation.
They modeled their teaching method after TEACCH 's methods. The participants were taught
different play skills. This research was conducted for nine–weeks. Notes on each observation were
noted in their research. The results looked at Jay 's development in his ability to interact and engage
with other children and play materials. The observations showed that he was not at the same level of
exploration as other children. At the end of the study, Jay was able to use skills that were taught to
him in the structured teaching setting and was able to apply them to play situations that were less
structured. There was a significant increase in Jay 's social interactions with peers and complex play.
–160
2. Frazier, T. N. (2014). A Twin Study of Heritable and Shared Environmental Contributions to
Autism. Journal Of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 2013–2025. This article

Essay on my interest in psychology
my interest in psychology
I have always been intrigued by the mental processes of humans and animals. As a young child and
into adolescence, as a student and teacher and as a caregiver, I have always been interested in
psychology in one form or another. This essay will reflect not only the development of my interest
in psychology, but the development of myself as a person.
I was born into a family with Native American heritage that practiced a strict protestant religion. As
a child, I would often wonder why people's attitudes, behaviors and beliefs could be so different
from one another. I wondered why some people believed in things with great zeal, yet other people
believed the contrary just as vehemently. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I then went back to school with more determination and plunged myself into more psychology
classes.
In these classes, I found myself naturally drawn to the topics of research methods and statistics.
These two academic areas in particular provided an environment in which I was able to develop and
excercise my naturally analytical way of thinking. I then geared my undergraduate education
towards learning to perform research in psychology by taking more research and science based
psychology classes. Additionally, I sought out and obtained research assistantships with professors
of cognition, physiological and clinical psychology. Specifically, I have been a primary research
assistant for an investigation of the effect of irony on recall and recognition, an investigation of the
performance of children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on a
computer anticipation task, and an investigation of the effect of Polychlorinated Biphenyls on
ADHD–like behavior in laboratory rats. I have also assisted in literature reviews in the area of
receptive language and Autism, as well as a review on sleep and genetics. In addition, I have been a
participant recruiter for a research project on familial inheritance of depression and REM sleep
abnormalities. For complete information, please see my attached curriculum vitae.

While taking research–based courses, I found that I had another natural inclination:

Clinical Features & Symptoms : The Autism Spectrum...
Clinical Features & Symptoms: The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a wide range of
symptoms, including difficulty with social interaction and communication skills, as well as
unusually repetitive behavior. According to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders,
5th edition (DSM–5), individuals with ASD have a tendency to respond inappropriately in
conversation and lack the ability to build relationships (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
They often engage in a series of abnormal routines and develop inappropriate obsessions with
particular items. Individuals with ASD also display a wide variety of cognitive functioning, ranging
from severe intellectual disability to superior intelligence (Fakhoury, 2015). Individuals with ASD
tend to have communication deficits, such as responding inappropriately in conversations,
misreading nonverbal interactions and having difficulty building friendships appropriate to their age.
In addition, people with ASD tend to be overly dependent on routines, highly sensitive to changes in
their environment and intensely focused on inappropriate items (Fakhoury, 2015). The symptoms of
ASD are classified into two broad categories: core symptoms and secondary symptoms (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The core symptoms consist of reduced language skills and social
interaction, as well as the presence of repetitive and stereotypic behaviors. Secondary symptoms
include complications such as self–injury,

A Research Topic On Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay
Research Topic: NEW 9–28–16 Ariel Robinson
Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disorder that displays characteristics of impairments
in social interactions and communication, obsessive interests, and repetitive behaviors.1 The DSM–
5 characterizes Autism Spectrum Disorder as range of symptoms with varying severity, hence the
term "spectrum".2 Currently, scientists do not know the exact cause of autism. However, it is agreed
upon that the underlying cause is highly likely to be influenced by genetic heritability.3,4,16
Recently more and more research is being done on Autism Spectrum Disorders in response to the
rise in prevalence in the last few decades with unknown cause. This recent research suggest that
Autism Spectrum Disorder could be a result of abnormal brain growth very early in development
caused by defects in genes that impact brain development. 18Abnormalities in brain development
may also be a result of environmental risk factors, alone or via gene–environment interactions.1,8 In
previous years, it was thought vaccine was linked to the occurrence of autism6, but scientists have
recently concluded that there is no correlation between the two.7,20,21,22
The current focus in Autism Spectrum Disorder research is to identify a molecular genetic variation
that contributes Autism Spectrum Disorder susceptibility. Several genetic Autism Spectrum Disorder
studies have confirmed that the chromosomal abnormalities related to autism often are present in
other

Theory of Mind and Executive Function
Theory of Mind and the Executive Function Theory of mind (ToM) is "the specific ability to
attribute mental states to oneself and to others" (Pellicano, 2007, p. 974). Attributing mental states
essentially allows one to read another's body language and therefore predicts their behavior. This is
important in the socialization of a child, something that an autistic child struggles with. Baron–
Cohen et al. (2000) believe the term ToM is synonymous with social intelligence. The executive
function (EF) is "a set of functions thought to be necessary for flexible, future–oriented behavior,
especially in novel circumstances" (Pellicano, 2007, p. 974). The executive function is involved in
many aspects of development, including working memory, the ability to plan effectively, and
flexibility in focusing one's attention to different people and objects. In a young child's development,
EF and ToM play a significant role. There are contradicting theories about which aspect affects the
other, but it appears that the general belief is that together, they have an affect and that the two
functions feed off of each (Pellicano, 2007). Pellicano (2007) found that in autistic children, when
the EF is impaired, ToM is not intact. In other words, autistic children cannot read other's body
language if they have an impairment in their EF. Additionally, because of this impairment, they
show an inability to be flexible, use their working memory, or plan for the future (Pellicano, 2007).
One of the

##s Of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure And Cortisol Reactivity...
On September 13th, we discussed various topics within the field of the brain, biology, and
development. Topics ranged from prenatal cocaine exposure and cortisol reactivity in infants to
adolescent risk–taking. I particularly enjoyed Eiden and colleagues' article the most out of the
assigned articles. Eiden and colleagues conducted a study examining the effects of prenatal cocaine
exposure on infant hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity and reactivity at seven months old
(Eiden et al., pg 528). They hypothesized that infants exposed to cocaine would have higher cortisol
reactivity and would have a slower recovery in response compared to those in the control group.
They also hypothesized that caregiving instability may moderate ... Show more content on
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For example, teenagers would drive their cars fast because it gives them a rush, a feeling of walking
on dangerousness even though it is a stupid attempt at possibly gaining popularity in their friendship
circles. Dopamine plays an important role in the brain's area focused on reward, increasing,
decreasing, and the redistribution of dopamine. We discussed the fact that adolescents feel invincible
and may share more emotions with their peers which can lead to choosing to take certain risks. For
example, if they see (or hear) that their peers are partaking in the consumption of alcohol or drugs,
they may do it themselves to feel a part of the gang or to feel just as invincible as their friends are.
The claim of the day was that genetic factors play a strong role in human development that genes
alone can determine certain human behavioral characteristics. Plomin focused on behavioral
genetics in the 21st century. He discusses quantitative genetics and molecular genetics along with
three different directions for genetic research such as developmental genetics, environmental
genetics, and multivariate genetics. The greatest need for quantitative genetic research going beyond
heritability is asking how much genetic factors are important in behavioral development. The three
different directions of

Depth Look At Autism Spectrum Disorder
In Depth look at Autism Spectrum Disorder
Leydi A. Zapata
Columbia Basin College
In Depth look at Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, is a complex developmental disorder which is usually
diagnosed during the first 3 years of life. The disorder is characterized by severe difficulty or
inability in communicating, socializing, forming relationships with others, and responding
appropriately to the environment. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, or DSM–IV, ASD was one of the diagnosis covered under the Persuasive Developmental
Disorders category. The other diagnoses that were part of this category included Rett's Disorder,
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger's ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autism has become one of the fastest growing developmental disorder in the recent years. In the
year 2000, the prevalence of ASD was 1 out of 150 school–age children (Schaefer, 2016, pg***).
According to the latest data by the Center of Disease Control, or CDC, it is estimated that the
incidence is now 1 in every 68 children that is diagnosed with autism in the United States. It is also
estimated that autism is approximately 4.5 times more common among boys (1 in 42) than among
girls (1 in 189) (CDC, 2014).
Risks and Predisposing Factors
From the time autism was identified in the 1940s, several theories have tried to explain its etiology.
The earliest theories proposed as origin of autism was framed in the context of the early psychiatric
models in the 1940's, and believed that autism was "an acquired condition associated with children
raised by cold, emotionally–distant mothers" (Schaefer, ***). Another early hypothesis proposed as
being a risk for developing autistic disorder was the use of the measles–mumps–rubella vaccine or
the preservative thimerosal, but this hypothesis has been disproved (Anagnostou, Zwaigenbaum....,
pg 510). It is now known that autism is a condition with a strong genetic basis, with more than 80%
heritability (Meng–chang pg 903), but just like almost every medical condition known to man, it has
several genetic and environmental risk factors. As mentioned earlier, autistic disorder is 4.5 times
more common in males than females, which

Underlying Causes Of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Underlying Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Ariel Robinson
Biology 4800–Fall 2016
Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disorder that displays characteristics of significant
impairments in social interactions and communication, obsessive interests, and repetitive
behaviors.1 The DSM–5 characterizes Autism Spectrum Disorder as having a range of symptoms
with varying severity, hence the term "spectrum".2 Figure 1 shows a representation of the symptoms
and sub–types of disorders that are characterized as ASD. The disorder is generally not diagnosable
until around 18 months–2 years of age, when children would usually start to display signs of social
communication. ASD has a high prevalence of 1 in every 68 children, with boys 4.5X more likely to
have the disorder. Currently, scientists do not know the exact cause of autism. However, it is agreed
upon that the underlying cause is highly likely to be influenced by genetic heritability.3,4,16
ASD research is important for several reasons. The most apparent reason is the dramatic increase in
the occurrence in the last 20 years. Other reasons are economic costs of children with ASD,
burdensome responsibilities, and emotional hardships on parents, family members, and
communities. Factors contributing to the increase could very likely be caused by our better
understanding of the disorder and diagnosis due to human genome sequencing technology and other
scientific research. Another factor that could explain the rise of

Asperger’s Disorder Essay examples
Amazingly, one percent of new births will have some type of autism (Autism Society of America,
2010). Asperger's disorder is one type of Autism, and is at the high end of these disorders. This
"disorder, which is also called Asperger's syndrome (AS) or autistic psychopathy, belongs to a group
of childhood disorders known as pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) or autistic spectrum
disorders"(Exkorn, 2006). A characteristic of this disorder is harsh and strict disruption of a certain
type of brain development. The most affected areas of Asperger's disorder is difficulty in social
understanding and in behavior or activities that are limited or recurring (Frey, 2003). Students with
Asperser's have different levels of seriousness, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He gave an example of how John improved with help. When a teacher would notify John that it is
time to change classes, he would get aggravated and would want to finish the model he had begun.
The teacher talked to him, explaining that in five minutes they will have to leave, and they can come
back at lunch if all the other work is completed. John agrees. This technique settled him down. The
rest of the day he did his best so he could get back to building his model (Glover, 2010).
Asperger's disorder (AD) is a disruption in the formation of the child's physical and or psychological
development and recognizing these, the disorder was separated from Autism in 1944, to provide a
basis for each child to get the proper care. All children with Asperger Disorder will show some traits
in these three categories; impaired social skills, trouble communicating with others and a pattern of
behavior, interest, and activities' will be limited and recurring; they become obsessed with a single
theme. Usually the child will have the normal communication skills in the beginning years. They
will be using single words by age one. They just will not be using them in the normal way. When
doctors are testing for this disorder, they are looking for specific behaviors or skills that are either
present or absent. If the right services are available, Asperser's children will show significant
improvement in language

Asperger Syndrome: Implications and Intervention
Asperger Syndrome: Implications and Interventions Asperger Syndrome (AS) is a condition
characterized by developmental delays most notable in social contexts. AS is most commonly
identified by obsessive and repetitive behaviors and unawareness of nonverbal communication. Both
Asperger syndrome and autism are forms of pervasive developmental disorders (PDD). It is
important to note the distinctions between the two PDD's. We do not see impairment of adaptive
skills, cognitive development, or language delay in those affected by Aspergers as we do in
individuals with autism (Carpenter, Spratt, & Macias, 2013). Autism effects around 13 per 10,000
people, and Asperger disorder is seen in only 3 out of 10,000 (Fombonne, 2004). The regions of the
brain that are affected with autism include left hemispheric impairment whereas the right
hemispherical portion is correlated with Asperger's. Equally important is the differentiation of
Aspergers syndrome and High Functioning Autism. Unlike HFA, there is little language delay. The
researcher will delve into regions of the brain associated with characteristic behaviors of the
disorder and address additional neural contributors. While Asperger syndrome is multifactorial,
genes are most influential and have a heritability of 80% (Lichtenstein et al 2010). A specific gene
has not yet been identified for the disorder, and is thought to be a result of many genetic mutations
combined (El–Fishawy 2010). Inherited genes make us vulnerable to the

Dear John
Your Dad Loves You, I Can Tell, Even If You Can't Jael Zimmerman Westmoreland County
Community College Abstract Dear John by Nicholas Sparks uses two main characters, John's father
and Tim's brother Alan, to express the symptoms and complications of the psychological disorder
Asperger Syndrome. This disorder is considered a form of autism. People with this disorder will be
passionate about one or more topics, but will struggle with daily tasks. The novel provides an
extended metaphor through John's father through his obsessive interest in his coin collection, and is
difficulty in forming a relationship and communicating with his son as he attempts to raise him on
his own. Evidence from his routine schedule and his trouble in controlling ... Show more content on
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She has started a program for children with autism, and owns a farm where she encourages them to
ride horses, and help them have fun and to aid with their illness. John sells his dad's entire coin
collection to help find a cure for Tim's illness (Sparks, 2006). The story ends with the saying that
when you really love someone, you think about their happiness, more than your own. The novel
presents characters that represent the symptoms and complications of Autism and Asperger
Syndrome. Behavior is dysfunctional, when it interferes with a person's ability to function on a daily
basis (Davis&Palladino, 2007). Some of the more common characteristics of Asperger
Syndrome include difficulty in communication, problems expressing feelings, devotion to routine,
and obsessive interests in one or more topics (Jaffe, 2010). John's father, Mr. Tyree conveys
indication of the psychological disorder in his behavior throughout the entire novel. Even though
Mr. Tyree has raised John on his own, during the novel, there is not much communication between
the two. As a teenager and even as a adolescence, when John was home his father would greet him
the same way every morning simply saying good morning. They would eat breakfast and dinner in
silence. When he tried to discuss Savannah in a conversation, he didn't know what to say. The fact
that John could never talk to his

Autism Spectrum Disorder Term Paper
DSM–IV–(TR) : Autism Spectrum Disorders
Type 299.0 Autistic Disorder
Type 298.0 Asperger's Syndrome
Type 298.0 Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
Abstract Autism is a complex developmental disability that causes problems with social interaction
and communication. Symptoms usually start before age three and can cause delays or problems in
many different skills that develop from infancy to adulthood. Disorders included in the Autism
Spectrum are Autistic Disorder, Asperger's Syndrome, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not
Otherwise Specified. Rett's syndrome and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder are among the list of
related disorders, but are not included in this spectrum. There are no treatments bio–medically, ...
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Often, certain behaviors become more noticeable when comparing children of the same age.
In some cases, babies with ASD may seem different very early in their development. Even before
their first birthday, some babies become overly focused on certain objects, rarely make eye contact,
and fail to engage in typical back–and–forth play and babbling with their parents. Other children
may develop normally until the second or even third year of life, but then start to lose interest in
others and become silent, withdrawn, or indifferent to social signals. Loss or reversal of normal
development is called regression and occurs in some children with ASD. (National Institute of
Mental Health, 2012). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical manual, symptoms include
making little eye contact, tendency to look and listen less to people in their environment or failure to
respond to other people, do not readily seek to share their enjoyment of toys or activities by pointing
or showing things to others, responding unusually when others show anger, distress, or affection.
Children with autism spectrum disorders often have difficulty with communication. These
symptoms include, failure or slow to respond to their name or other verbal attempts to gain their
attention, failure or slow to develop gestures, such as pointing and showing things to others, coo and
babble in the first year of life, but then stop doing so, develop language at a delayed pace, learn to
communicate

Mental Health Illnesses Have A Genetic Contribution
Studies revolving around twin and family history have been proving to show that mental health
illnesses have a genetic contribution. Mental health professionals have long known that certain
mental illnesses can run in families, due to the fact that most, the chance of obtaining schizophrenia
or bipolar disorder with no genetic factor is around one perfect, as to where if someone has a close
relative with a certain disorder, such as a parent or sibling, the risk factor jumps to around ten
percent. The genetic force behind the abundance of mental illnesses is especially strong in identical
twins who have a risk factor of a little less than fifty percent.
Mental disorders are actually not about an individual gene, but about a multitude of ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
As of 2002, genes have appeared to influence the development of mental illnesses in three major
ways: they may ultimately lead to causes that cause disorders such as Alzheimer's or schizophrenia;
they could possibly be responsible for the abnormalities in an individual's development before or
after birth; and lastly it can enhance a person's susceptibility to depression, multiple anxiety
disorders, substance abuse problems, or personality disorders. One technology achievement that has
been contributed to the vast advances in the study of biological psychiatry in the last twenty years is
high–speed computing. The faster computers have enabled researchers to advance rough estimates
of heritability of multiple disorders to being able to accurately compute the quantifications of
genetic effects. In multiple cases the data achieved by these supercomputers have led to significant
studies of the causes of specific disorders. For instance, in the 1960s and 1970s, schizophrenia was
believed to be caused by the lack of affection toward a child by their mother, however, it has been
said that the heritability of the disorder may be as much as eighty percent and not actually from the
cold hardness of a mother. Another illness proved wrong is autism. Autism was blamed by faulty
parenting, but is now known to be more than ninety percent heritable. ("As

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder ( Adhd ) And The...
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) and the Frontal Lobes Attention Deficit Disorder
(ADD), Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) throughout history has been seen as a
behavioral issue. The prevalence and attention given to ADD/ADHD as a disorder has not become
apparent until more modern times. With the coming of Drugs, treatment seemed to become common
and successful. There are many risk factors believed to contribute to developing ADD/ADHD.
However, no correlates are indeed causal factors to people who develop ADD/ADHD. There has
been genetic and hereditary evidence and a definite difference neurologically that proves to be the
basis of the ADD/ADHD. Both dopamine and serotonin have a play in the ADD/ADHD. History of
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention
Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is a debatable topic when
it comes to the discovery or history of the disorder. A Doctor Alexander Crichton in 1798 described
children as having "mental restlessness"; when the child was without the ability to constantly attend
to any one object. Another description was accounted in a children's book by Doctor Heinrich
Hoffman who was also a physician during 1845. In one of his books of poetry, Doctor Heinrich
Hoffman writes about a Fidgety Philip, in which there is a description of a boy recognizable with,
what is now ADD/ADHD. (History of ADD/ADHD, n.d.). A British Doctor

Genetic Disorders in Twins Essay
Twin studies have been used to distinguish between genetic and environmental factors for many
disorders in the general population including ectodermal dysplasia, Ellis–van Creveld, and
anencephaly. This review focuses on genetic disorders affecting monozygotic, dizygotic, and
conjoined twins to gain a better understanding of them. Many studies focus on twins because they
have a nearly identical genome, which eliminates environmental factors. In case studies, the
concordance rates in monozygotic twins have supported that certain disorders were caused by
genetics and not the environment. The discordant values in twins will also be evaluated briefly.
Twinning studies have also shown linkages between specific disorders and the genes ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Researchers have found that with certain genetic disorders that were known beforehand could be
prevented in some cases. Knowing the specific disorder allows scientists to take immediate action in
preventing future cases of individuals having the same disorder.
Currently, research as attempted to find the possible cause of twinning, which may allow individuals
the ability to have twins at will. If the cause of twinning was discovered than women may have the
ability to decide if they want to have twins One of the earliest accounts of conjoined twins include
the Thai brothers, Chang and Eng Bunker. These two individuals are famous for traveling with the
P.T. Barnum circus and were known by many as the Siamese twins. From these two individuals
came the coining of the term Siamese. In this present paper, various genetic disorders in
monozygotic, dizygotic, and conjoined twins will be carefully evaluated and reviewed in order to
gain a better insight on the complexity of twinning. In order to clearly understand the formation of
twins, the foundational knowledge of twinning must be analyzed. Beginning with the three common
types of twins, including monozygotic (identical), dizygotic (fraternal), and conjoined (Siamese).
Monozygotic twins occur from the division of one fertilized zygote (source*). Dizygotic twins occur
from the fertilization of two different zygotes by two separate sperm (source*). Conjoined twins
occur from the incomplete

Human Genetics
Human Genetics
Introduction
This paper reviews two interesting articles related to human genetics. Dr. Nestor Morales, Assistant
Professor of Psychology at New York City College of Technology at City University of New York,
presents the idea that since human cloning is inevitable, an understanding of the psychological
aspects of this development need to be addressed. The second article to review is found in the
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry; it relates to the genetic link from a parent that has ADHD
or ASD (autism spectrum disorder), to the high percentage that the child from that parent may also
be diagnosed with one of those disorders.
Psychological Aspects of Human Cloning
Dr. Morales explains that because the public believes a human clone will not be a new individual
that is "genetically unique," this has created serious fears about the potential of human cloning
(Morales, 2009, p. 43). In fact, Morales goes on, the public suffers from "clonophobia" due to the
fear and ignorance regarding the potential of human cloning. Critics of human cloning assert that
there will be "serious psychological problems" for children that are cloned due to issues including
"identity formation, identification, gender identity, individuality and lack of originality" (Morales,
43). In addition, those opposed to human cloning suggest that cloned humans ""¦may not have the
necessary traits" to become truly independent from their "progenitors" (Morales, 43).
All these issues

High School 's Peer Mentorship Program
Weston High School's peer mentorship program provides a constructive relationship for students
with intellectual challenges that helps them navigate through the obstacles of high school. The main
focus of a mentor is to help make the mentee comfortable in an environment that is exceptionally
stressful for them. In the school setting, people with Autism, specifically Asperger 's Syndrome,
experience a multitude of issues because they might have a sensory overload and struggle to socially
interact with their peers. As a mentor, you need to stay with your mentee throughout the school day
and help guide them through any problems that arise, while also attempting to prevent any tantrums.
The main goal of your relationship with your mentee is to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are many ways to successfully aid them in making it through the class period, including
providing the mentee with consistency by supplying them with a schedule that outlines the structure
of the class. People with Autism or Asperger Syndrome crave consistency, structure, and
predictability and if these elements are not present, they will mentally breakdown. Likewise, there is
an underlying routine for every class period, even though a new subject is constantly taught by the
teachers. As a mentor, it would be beneficial to create a schedule for the mentee, so, therefore, the
structure and order that they crave is evident in the classroom environment. For this reason, the
student might begin to feel comfortable, which would allow them to have a greater capability to
focus on the specific tasks. In addition, another way to help the mentee in the classroom setting is to
break down the information that was taught or attempt to present it to them in a different manner, if
they do not understand it. Students with Autism or Asperger Syndrome sometimes struggle to
understand the lesson as they cannot process the way the teacher has expressed it to the class. It then
might be harder for them to complete an assigned task about that topic and by breaking it down,
they will be able to complete more work. Also, there are many advantages to presenting the
information to them in a different manner, including

The Risk Factors And Assessment Of Asd Essay
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopment disorder in early childhood that causes
difficulties for children and their families. ASD's are a group of disorders characterized by core
deficits in a person's social interaction and communication, as well as repetitive or stereotypic
behavior. The degree of impairment on a person with ASD can vary, but the impact on affected
individuals and their families is universally life altering (Newschaffer et al, 2007). This paper will
discuss the risk factors and assessment of ASD, the focus and target of treatment, and evidenced–
based treatment interventions. In addition, the paper will look at social justice and ethical issues
relating to ASD, a social workers role in the assessment and treatment of ASD, and how social work
values intersect any ethical issues relating to ASD.
Risk Factors and Assessment ASD is a group of neurodevelopment disorders that include what used
to be called early infantile autism, childhood autism, Kanner's autism, high–functioning autism,
atypical autism, pervasive development disorder not otherwise specified, and Asperger's disorder
(American Psychological Association (APA), 2013). ASD is characterized by persistent deficits in
social communication and social interaction across multiple settings, and restricted and repetitive
patterns of behavior, interests and activities that can significantly impairs a young child's ability to
communicate and interact with others (APA, 2013). ASD

The Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders...
Numerous studies have been conducted on the diagnostic features and potential definitions of
autism, and the accompanying developmental, social and behavioral deficits found in individuals
diagnosed with autism. The various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) have changed in their
definitions and diagnostic criteria of autism over time. In past editions, Autistic Disorder, Asperger's
Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder were listed as separate disorders. However, in the
DSM–5, which is the current edition of the DSM, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is the name of
the disorder that encompasses the diagnostic features and definitions of those three
neurodevelopmental disorders. Individuals previously diagnosed with any of those three disorders
are now to be given the diagnosis of ASD. The definition and diagnostic criteria of autism and other
neurodevelopmental disorders have changed so much over time because screening and diagnosing
autism is very difficult for a number of reasons, which will be more thoroughly discussed in this
paper. This paper will examine the diagnostic criteria, prevalence and risk factors, most effective
forms of treatment and intervention, and life impacts on individuals and families of Autism
Spectrum Disorder through the review of the DSM–5 and several peer–reviewed journal articles.
Diagnostic Criteria According to the DSM–5, there are several

An Evaluation Of Children Of The Doctor Request Milton And...
Based on the information provided by the parents, the doctor requested Milton and Margaret
complete a Modified Checklist of Autism in Toddlers (M–CHAT), which is a list of informative
questions about their child. The test resulted in the doctor requesting support from a developmental
pediatrician, a neurologist, and a psychologist. After receiving reports from all of the supporting
professionals, Milton and Margaret were officially informed that their daughter has a form of autism
called Asperger's. Even though they knew from birth that something was wrong, they were shocked
and relieved, simultaneously, when they received the diagnosis. Milton stated that he felt as if he
was stuck in a bad dream. They began to blame each other. Once the blaming stopped, they were
able to work together, focusing on what was best for Marginee`. Both parents divulged that it felt
like an emotional roller coaster, vacillating between shock, relief and a host of other emotions such
as, denial, anger, and depression. At this time, "Acceptance was far off". According to research, their
reaction is typical, which reveals that learning about any difficulty or problem with your child's
development can be devastating and confusing (Partington, 2015). One mother attests that the
diagnosis came as a tremendous blow. Another recalls that "the day my child was diagnosed as
having a disability, I was overwhelmed and so confused that I recall little else

Autism Spectrum Disorder Analysis
Introduction Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) comprises of a group of conditions including autistic
disorder, Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (DSM–
5, 2014). ASD are a type of neurodevelopmental conditions diagnosed on the basis of three core
behavioural domains: 1) Persistent deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication; 2) Impairments
in social interaction; 3) Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of activities, interests, and
behaviours (DSM–5, 2014). The variation in the severity of behavioural traits between, and within
these three disorders is extensive. It should be emphasised that due to this high phenotypic
heterogeneity, and clinical variability, caution in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Earlier diagnosis of ASD may allow for more effective intervention strategies that maximise
developmental progress and reduce further maldevelopment. Importantly, it should be emphasised
that the scope of this essay is limited to an overview of the pertinent neurobiological aspects of
ASD, however as ASD is extremely heterogeneous these encompass a diverse group of
abnormalities. Epidemiology and Aetiology The prevalence of ASD in the population is high, with
recent estimates reporting around 1 in 100 people are diagnosed with the condition (Simonoff,
2008). Alarmingly, this indicates a dramatic increase of diagnoses over the last few decades, with
prevalence rates of ASD only around 1 in 1000 in 1970 (Newschaffer et al., 2007). However, rather
than an increase in prevalence of ASD it has been suggested that changes in the awareness,
concepts, and definitions of ASD in both the lay and professional public are a more probable
explanation (Bauman and Kemper, 2009). In regards to variation in the prevalence based on race
and ethnicity, little consistent information is available with multiple conflicting reports
(Newschaffer et al., 2007). In contrast, studies on variation in ASD prevalence based on sex ratios
have been consistent with a skewed average ratio of

The Link Between The Cerebellum And Autism
Exploring the Link between the Cerebellum and Autism With the rate of autism being diagnosed on
the rise, the amount of research and interest in the disorder has risen as well. Some research suggests
that over the past two decades the occurrence of autism has increased from approximately 2–5 per
10,000 births to about 1–5 per 1,000 births (Acosta & Pearl, 2004; Fatemi et al., 2012). Still others
report that the occurrence is as high as 1 in 150 kids (Amaral, Schumann, & Nordhal, 2008). Even
though the spectrum of autistic disorders has been studied since 1943, there have still not been any
consistent nor persuasive causes or markers, either biological or clinical, identified with autism and
its range of disorders (Santangelo & Tsatsanis, 2005). In fact, even with all of the advancements in
genetic research technology and the increasing interest in autism, researchers can still only account
for approximately 5–15% of autistic cases (Rogers et al., 2013). One of the reasons why autism is so
difficult to study is that it is a very heterogeneous disorder (Acosta & Pearl, 2004; Fatemi et al.,
2012; Kates et al., 1998; Mitchell et al., 2009; Rogers et al., 2013; Santangelo & Tsatsanis, 2005).
This means that the disorder has a wide variety in both symptoms and severity. There is such a wide
range because the disorder can be caused by as few as 2–10 genes or by over 15 (Santangelo &
Tsatsanis, 2005). Making the pathology even more difficult to discover is the fact that in

The Main Features Of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Describe the main features of autism spectrum disorder. Evaluate the evidence supporting a
biological basis for autism. Autism is a developmental disorder which usually occurs during infancy
(Hyman, 2002:217). Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an umbrella term used to refer to many
disorders which display symptoms of an autistic style. The spectrum covers all types of symptoms
ranging from mild to severe (Hollander, 2003:102). Individuals in the spectrum can range from
having severe learning disabilities to being mildly impaired (Nimh.nih.gov, 2014). The linguistic
skills can also vary from being mute to having the ability to communicate complex sentences (ibid).
The different profiles of the sufferers are diverse (Hyman, 2002:217). However, there are three main
areas of which they may have difficulties. These are social reciprocity, an inability to communicate
effectively and unusual repetitive or restricted behaviour (Davey, 2014:586) this is known as the
'triad of impairments' (Dodd, 2005:2). This essay will explain the triad of impairments related to
ASD to describe the main features of the disorder. In addition, it will evaluate the biological
evidence by investigating the research for genetic factors and brain abnormalities, both of which
support a biological basis for ASD (Davey, 2014:588). The first main area that describes the features
of ASD is impairments of reciprocal social interaction (Davey, 2014:585). This is one of the most
dominant features of ASD.

Genetic And Epigenetic Influences On Autism Spectrum...
Genetic and epigenetic influences in autism spectrum disorders: A role for the methyl
CpG–binding protein in Rett syndrome.
The genetics of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) rarely display a Mendelian mode of
inheritance, and can result from a single rare gene mutation, more common variations in single
nucleotide polymorphisms, or often a combination of these two factors in conjunction with
environmental influences [1]. In contrast, epigenetic mechanisms are heritable changes in gene
expression which do not change the DNA sequence [1]. Epigenetic changes to the genome may
predispose the development of NDD when combined with the aforementioned genetic risk factors
[1].
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a class of NDD affecting mostly males, which are largely
idiopathic and display extensive variation in terms of phenotype, severity and degree of heritability
[2]. It is postulated that the pathology of ASD is the result of a complex interaction between genetic
predisposition and environmental risk factors, which disturb the developing brain [1]. ASD
commonly involve deficits in social interaction and cognition, language, emotional learning and the
presence of repetitive, stereotyped behaviours [1, 3, 4]. The brains of autistic children display
reductions in long distance connectivity, abnormally regulated apoptosis and cell division, and
increased inflammation [4].Additional studies have demonstrated gliosis, abnormal neuronal
migration and

Effects On Heritability And Environment : Twin And Family...
Whitney Davis Nova South Eastern University The Effects on Heritability and Environment: Twin
and Family Studies Abstract Many internal and external components collide in order to create
individual personalities, behaviors unique to every individual person. The argument of genetic
makeup versus environmental influences, however, has researchers working to determine what
really defines us. Some say genotypes control the way people think,how they feel, and the ways in
which they behave. Others choose to believe that the environment alone in itself is ultimately the
determinant for making each individual human into who they are. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The focus of this paper will be to define the contributing factors that determine personality utilizing
the research on twins and family studies. Hereditability is defined as a statistical definition, and it
defines heritability as the proportion of phenotypic variance attributable to genetic variance. The
second definition is more common "sensical". It defines heritability as the extent to which genetic
individual differences contribute to individual differences in observed behavior (or phenotypic
individual differences) ("Heritability: Introduction," n.d.) . The genetic sequences that an individual
receives from their parents..and their parent's parents can have a dominant impact on that
individual's personality. The general conclusion emerging from heritability studies is the
inconsistencies in almost every human characteristic–including inclination and social behaviors–is
shaped significantly by genetic influences (Plomin et al., 2012; Turkheimer, 2000). For example,
studies have shown substantial heritability usually around 50 percent or more of everything from the
fact of how much time a person spends watching tv (Plomin et al., 1990), breastfeeding (Colodro–
Conde,Sanchez–Romera, and Ordonana, 2013), and breakfast eating patterns (Keski–Rahkonenet
al., 2004) to political ideology and party affiliation (Alford, Funk, and Hibbing, 2005) The genetic
coding for the inheritable traits is found within the DNA of very person. The initial

Autism And Children Essay
Childhood Disorders
Autism and Children
Abnormal Psychology
Professor Bruce Cameron
July 22, 2007
Abstract: Autism is a brain development disorder that is found in children usually before the age of
three. Autism affects children and their "social interactions, impaired communication, and restricted
and repetitive behavior." (www.wikipedia.org) The number of children that have been diagnosed
with autism is dramatically increasing. Boys are four times more likely than girls to be diagnosed
with autism. Signs of autism include visual impairments such as lack of eye contact, speech
impairments and limited speech, and restrictive interests and repetitive behavior. Treatment for
children with autism includes therapy including ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are also less likely to ask for something such as a drink or snack, or share experiences such as
telling their parent what they did that day or what they found digging in the mud. They have
difficulty being creative when playing. They are commonly engaged in repetitive behavior which is
divided into five categories: stereotype: hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking; compulsive
behavior: arranging objects in a certain order; sameness: resistance to change; ritualistic behavior:
performs same activity in the same way everyday; restricted behavior: limited focus, interests and
activities; and self–injury: movements that can injure themselves such as biting. The causes of
autism are somewhat a mystery. Many blame genetics and environmental causes. Researchers of
autism reason that it is so hard to define the cause because it is not a single disorder, but a spectrum
of disorders. "Genetic factors are the most significant cause for autism spectrum disorders. Early
studies of twins found the average concordance for identical twins to be 70% and estimated
heritability to be over 90%, in other words, that genetics explains over 90% of whether a child will
develop autism. Many of the non–autistic co–twins had learning or social disabilities. For adult
siblings the risk for having one or more features of the broader autism phenotype might be as high
as 30%."

Pervasive Developmental Disorder Paper
Abstract
Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDDs) is a collection of disorders characterized by gross
deficits in many areas of cognitive, emotional, and social development which results from severe
and pervasive impairment of social interaction and communication skills. One out of every ten
children in the U.S. is affected by a PDDSs disorders. (Chad & Raymond, 2013). The purpose of
this paper is to examine the historical background and the neurological basis to the disorder,
providing up–to–date information on the full range neuropsychological assessment, and
Psychological Treatment and finally as the efficacy of the Neuropsychological
Assessment/Treatment and Psychological assessment and treatment available to help children ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Educational treatment of autistic children. In: Rutter ML, editor. Infantile Autism: Concepts,
Characteristics and Treatment. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1971. pp. 258–88.
Shuvabrata Poddar, Noufal T. Hameed, Jyoti Mishra Pandey,1 Sayantanava Mitra,2 and Urbi
Mukherjee. Psychological interventions in pervasive developmental disorder: An overview .Ind
Psychiatry J. 2014 Jul–Dec; 23(2): 94–100.doi: 10.4103/0972–6748.151671 PMCID: PMC4361986
Albany, NY: New York State Department of Health; 1999. New York State Department of Health
Early Intervention Program. Clinical Practice Guideline, Autism/Pervasive Developmental
Disorders: Assessmentand Intervention for Young Children.
Stevens MC, Fein DA, Dunn M, Allen D, Waterhouse LH, Feinstein C, et al. Subgroups of children
with autism by cluster analysis: A longitudinal examination. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
2000;39:346–52.
Szatmari P, Bartolucci G, Bremner R, Bond S, Rich S. A follow–up study of high–functioning
autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1989;19:213–25
Hauser–Cram P, Warfield ME, Shonkoff JP, Krauss MW, Sayer A, Upshur CC. Children with
disabilities: A longitudinal study of child development and parent well–being. Monogr Soc Res
Child Dev. 2001;66:i–viii.

Etiological Theories Of Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay
Etiological Theories of Autism Spectrum Disorder:
A Review of the Literature
Nova Southeastern University
Abstract
Within the last twenty years, the amount of empirical research regarding the possible cause(s) and
risk factors for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has increased (Lai et al., 2014). According to the
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), ASD is currently identified in
approximately 1 out of 68 children living in the United States, compared to 1 in 10,000 children in
1980 (Baio, 2014). The rise in ASD prevalence highlights the need to continue research into
etiology, risk factors, and effective treatments. Purpose: This paper is a critical review of current
scientific studies that have focused on the ASD population about etiology of the disorder,
susceptibility, and prevalence. Theories and factors that appear to influence or predict ASD outcome
are reviewed. Method: Twenty–two research articles published between January 1, 2009, and
November 1, 2014, in scientific, peer–reviewed journals were retrieved from the following
electronic databases: ProQuest, CINAHL Complete, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
The articles were evaluated for risk of bias. Results: Recent findings suggest autism is a disorder
caused by interplay of multiple genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors.
Keywords: Autism, ASD, Autism Spectrum Disorder; in combination with: Etiology and/or Cause,
Genetic Risk Factors,

Coping Strategies of Parents of Children with Autism
This is part of my research, though it is still in the process of editing and completing the entire
chapter 1.
COPING MECHANISMS OF PARENTS OF CHILD A DIAGNOSED WITH AUTISM: BASIS
FOR COUNSELING PROGRAM
Researcher: Aracelli C Legarda
INTRODUCTION
Parenting is a highly stressful job. Everyday is a challenge. Some days are easy and others are hard.
However still, this is one of the most challenging and rewarding jobs parents will ever face. It is
therefore critical to know how parents cope when having a child with autism.
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and
communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Autism affects information processing in
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The many demands of the children with autism force the parents to adapt in order to survive. Parents
are therefore compelled to utilize coping strategies to deal with these stressors.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A child with autism is characterized with problems like impairment of communication, low social
functioning and having aggressive and self–destructive behaviors.
Impairment of communication in a child with autism is manifested with self initiated isolation, non
usage of communication mediums such as reading, writing and simple conversation. They are
generally limited to gestures. Though children with autism have ability to focus at their own liking
in relation to their own time and activity, they cannot be diverted from one activity to the other
unless they want to.
The child adapts to the regular accepted norms of the society by low social functioning. The child
may be found to be unreceptive to social interaction and would demonstrate his own ways of
thought and actions. This becomes a problem when the receiver of the child's behavior cannot
translate it into what the child truly means. He cannot contribute to his social responsibilities.

Children with autism can often engage in forms of aggression such as hitting, biting, pinching,
kicking, throwing objects, head banging,

Conceptualization Of Autism
Kanner (1943) first reported autism with a clinical description of 11 children showing "extreme
aloneness from the very beginning of life, not responding to anything that comes to them from the
outside world." He proposed the behavioral combination of autism, obsessiveness, stereotype, and
equally as childhood schizophrenia. (Won et al., 2013)
However, until the 1980s, ASD was not well known as an individual developmental disorder with a
biological origin. within the early 1980s, research set up the high heritability of ASD and its
association with other genetic syndromes, providing compelling evidence for a genetic etiology of
ASD and fueling the conceptualization of autism as a distinct neurodevelopmental disorder. From
the definition of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite this fact, its exact cause is still unknown. (Johnson and Myers,2007)
1. Genetic association: An indisputable body of evidence indicates that genetics play a primary role
in etiology of autism( Kidd, 2002) However, the number of genes that might be involved remains
unclear41' The most usually described are the structural and numerical abnormalities of sex
chromosomes, anomalies of chromosome 15 and chromosome 17ql l–ql2.( Kidd, 2002) (El–Baz, et
al , 2011) Currently, as many as 15% of cases of ASD seem to be associated with a known genetic
mutation(A PA. ,2013)
The male predominance also suggests a genetic role in the inheritance of autism, several genetic
processes can lead to male predominance, including causative genes on the X chromosome (X–
linked disorders), but the reason for male predominance in autism is not completely understood.
(Johnson, Myers, 2007) genetic links have been found between schizoid personality traits and
autism. Children of schizophrenic mothers are at increased genetic risk of schizophrenia and
neurodevelopmental impairment (Larsson, et al.,

Academic Abilities of Children with Selective Mutism
Development Research
Academic Abilities of Children with Selective Mutism
Children with selective mutism suffer from anxiety and the inability to speak in certain social
situations. One very common social situation that all children face is in the classroom, with teachers
and classmates. This situation is often the very first social situation that children are without their
parents. This may have a correspondence to the act the selective mutism often emerges in preschool
years (Cunningham, McHolm, Boyle, & Patel, 2004). A common situation where selective mutism
appears is when in communication with a teacher. However, the social anxiety appears to have little
to no influence on children with selective mutism and their math and reading ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Instructional Decision
Many in class activities involving group interaction could be intimidating to children with social
anxiety. My job as a speech pathologist is to communicate with the student and obtain a good sense
of what the student finds to be the most beneficial social interaction. I would also be working with
the student on how to cope and adjust to more uncomfortable circumstances, gradually introducing
them to more difficult social situations. For example, after the child is able to be comfortable talking
to me, I may introduce them to a knew adult and have them work on speaking to and in front of
them. I might also gradually increase the size and diversity of the group that the child talks to.
However, I would take the information on what I know promotes or diminishes the student's
capabilities to learn and relay that to the teacher (AG 3.16). For example, if I learn that the child
works best in groups of the same gender, I may suggest that learning environment to the teacher.
Possibly, the child must have a reminder picture or word on his/her desk to remember to stay calm
and how to speak. I may make the teacher aware of this icon on his/her desk, and if the child has an
episode of mutism, I will suggest that the teacher just subtly touch the student's desk to remind them
of their "helper card". Therefore, the

The Impact Of Handedness On Health Related Outcomes For...
What genes (or classes of genes) and what environmental factors have been implicated and how
might they mediate this biological effect? Discuss how handedness may be related to health related
outcomes for individuals and discuss how genetic and environmental influences might mediate these
effects.
Introduction
Handedness is a complex phenotype of humans in which individuals have a preference or advantage
for use of a hand. Handedness is a not a discrete trait, but continuous. Right handedness is accepted
as normal over left handedness. There are four types of handedness (left–handedness, right–
handedness, mixed–handedness, where one hand is favoured for some tasks and the other hand for
different tasks, and, ambidexterity where each hand is equally strong) however, handedness is a
continuum so individuals can fall within a range of different degrees of handedness. Left handedness
is less common than right handedness, with only approximately 10% of people being left handed
(Hardyck & Petrinovich 1977). Left handedness can be further divided in to natural left handedness,
where a person whose handedness is a result of genetic and cultural factors, and pathological left
handedness caused by early damage to the left hemisphere of the brain.
Handedness is first demonstrated between 9–10 weeks gestation, where the developing embryo
begins to exhibit single arm movements (Hepper, McCartney, & Shannon 1998). Although some
elements of handedness develop in the embryo, there are both

Essay On ADHD
Many may ask what the causes of attention–deficit/hyperactive disorders are but the cause of ADHD
is not completely understood yet. People suggest that there may be biological abnormalities,
hereditary factors, and environmental factors for those who suffer from ADHD. Individuals with
attention–deficit/hyperactive disorders may have biological abnormalities such as brain structure
abnormalities or abnormal biochemical levels (Comer, 2016). Brain structural abnormalities tend to
occur in the frontostriatal network of the brain. The frontostriatal network "involves the lateral
prefrontal cortex, the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and the caudate nucleus and putamen"
(Curatolo, 2010). It has been shown that patients with ADHD have ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In order to come up with this cause, researchers had to use family, twin, and adoption studies to
observe whether heredity can be a cause of ADHD. Family and twin studies estimated about 70–
80% of high heritability. According to Franke B (2012), "ADHD may be greater among first–degree
probands with ADHD that persist into adolescence and adulthood." This means that if your mother
or father has ADHD it is much likely for the offspring to inherit ADHD as well. Also, adoption
studies have found that ADHD is transmitted through only biological relatives which indicates that
genetics can play a role in developing this disorder (Franke, 2012). Finally, there are environmental
factors that cause children to develop attention–deficit/hyperactivity disorder. "Pre–, peri– and
postnatal environmental factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of ADHD" (Curatolo,
2010). In the prenatal stage, environmental factors such as alcohol consumption and smoking by the
mother play a part in the development of ADHD. In order to avoid these environmental factors, it is
important to live a healthy maternity lifestyle while pregnant. According to Curatolo (2010) alcohol
can influence the brain's structure negatively and that children who were exposed to alcohol in the
prenatal stage are most likely to become hyperactive, impulsive, and inattentive. Smoking can have
similar effects to alcohol because there has been a "relationship between maternal smoking during
pregnancy and

The Effects Of Autism Spectrum Disorder On Children
Many children have to live their entire lives under the shadow of a disorder that entirely alters the
typical life of a person. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a common neurobehavioral disorder that is
caused during prenatal development. This specific disorder affects 1 in 68 children in Canada and is
increasing every single year. "More children will be diagnosed with autism this year than with
AIDS, diabetes, and cancer combined" (KenCrest). Children who are affected often don't get
diagnosed until the late years of elementary school; Parents, caregivers, and teachers need to know
how to recognise Autism so affected children can get the help they require as soon as possible.
There are many environmental factors that can contribute to Autism during the prenatal
development. Although many can be avoided, some factors are non–avoidable. Assistant professor
of psychiatry and behavioral neurosciences at McMaster University, Stelios Georgiades (n.d.) states
that "Because autism runs in families, researchers saw autism as almost entirely genetic. The old
thinking was that heritability accounted for up to 90 percent of all cases. A comprehensive study of
twins with autism showed that environmental factors also play an important role in driving autism
recurrence in families. By environment, researchers mean anything non–genetic. This study
highlighted the reality that even though autism runs in families, we can't assume that it's entirely
inherited".
During the prenatal development,

Autism And Heredity
The topic that I choose to discuss for my final project is Autism and the genetic influence in
developing this disease. I will be examining the genetic makeup of the disorder and principles of
heredity, genetic variation, bioethics, and molecular genetics of autism. Autism is part of a
neurological disorder called Autism Spectrum Disorder or ASD. It is a developmental disorder
which involves abnormal functioning of the brain. Autism results in limited social communication
skills, intellectual disability, repetitive behavior, and difficulty with motor coordination. Autism is
the fastest–growing developmental disability in the USA and statistics shows that more children will
be diagnosed with autism in the future than with AIDS, diabetes and

Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autistic spectrum disorder is caused not only by environmental factors but also by genetic
inheritability. This disorder can range from mild to severe and is shown in many different forms.
Symptoms include speech impairment, disorganized language; sensory processing disorder which
causes absent responses, sleep disorders, depression and anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder and
many more. Diagnosing autism does not include medical test but instead a team of physiologists and
physicians observe the child during an autism–specific behavior evaluations and in some cases
genetic testing is needed. The exact cause of autism is still unknown although there are many factors
that play a role in it for example mother's weight, teratogens and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Asperger's syndrome is one of the most common forms of autism and most children with this form
are high functioning in specific areas as well as lack social skills and Theory of Mind. Parenting a
child with autistic spectrum disorder is very difficult and this disorder affects the entire family. One
example is sleep, children with this disorder don't sleep soundly they can wake up through the night
and wake up unusually early which will increase stress and fatigue in the parent. The parent will
have to consistently cater to their child's needs which can affect their personal relationships with
friends and family. The more severe the child's disorder is the more stressful it is for the parent. To
overcome the negative aspects of raising such a child it is important that the parent focuses on the
positive aspects, and appreciates the good qualities their child has to offer (Glazzard J. & Overall K.
2012; Gray, 2006). Parental and family involvement is considered an essential element of
intervention programs for children with autism (Brentani, H., Silvestra de Paula, C., Bordini, D.,
Rolim, D., Sato, F., Portolese, J., & McCracken, J.T. 2013). AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER 4 A
few cases of children with autism show symptoms in early infancy such as resisting to social contact
and delayed emotional maturity. Their heads are large and parts of the brain are unusually sensitive
to noise, light, and other sensations (Kathleen S. B.,

Autism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by
qualitative impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted, repetitive behavior
(American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013), and is associated with impairments in executive
functions. Autism Spectrum Disorder is also defined as a group of disorders that impair an
individual's ability to understand and engage in the give–and–take of social relationships. (Boyd,
2015) Autism is a well–known disability in the world today. Autism statistics from the U.S. Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention identify 1 in 68 American children on the Autism spectrum.
There has been a prevalent increase in the cases of autism in the past 40 years. Over 3 million
people in the United States alone are affected by autism. Government autism statistics suggest that
the prevalence of autism has increased 10 to 17 percent annually in recent years. There is no
established explanation for why there is such an increase in autism in the recent years, but more
people being aware of it and environmental factors could be a factor to the increase. (Jenson,
Steinhausen, Lauritsen. 2014) According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), ASD is diagnosed on
the basis of two symptom clusters: (a) deficits in social communication and (b) the presence of
repetitive behaviors and restricted interests.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay

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