Hubble Space Telescope Reveals Age of the Universe

Hubble Space Telescope
The Universe is something that has been explored for years and years. Over time, our
understandings and beliefs on the Universe and our world has changed due to new technologies and
discoveries. The Big Bang Theory is one example of an concept that is actively believed within the
scientific community and has been made well known in our world today. This theory, which can be
used to explain the origin and age of our universe, has been refined over the years through a
reviewing process in the scientific community as more discoveries came in due to new technological
advancements.
Put simply, the Big Bang theory is most supported and believed theory on how the Universe began.
It essentially states that we began as a small singularity and over ... Show more content on
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The Hubble Space Telescope is a telescope that was launched into space in 1990, April 24th. Its
primary function was to take pictures of stars, planets, moons, galaxies, etc. This type of telescope is
different from a telescope such as the Hooker Telescope as it is in space, rather than on Earth, and
was used for different things. Over the many years that this extraordinary telescope has orbited in
space, it has helped scientists with many new discoveries and refined previous theories or beliefs.
One of the biggest discoveries this telescope has made is the discovery of galaxies that we did not
know of previously because they were so far away. This discovery was very important as it has lead
scientists to calculating a more accurate age of the universe. The Hubble Space Telescope made this
discovery by observing Cepheid variables, which are stars with the same average brightness.
Although, their brightness is essentially the same, the stars would seem either brighter or dimmer
depending on its position in relation to Earth. For example, if one Cepheid variable was 100,000
light years away and another Cepheid variable was 200,000 light years away, the second star would
seem dimmer as it is further away from the Earth and our perspective makes it look like it is not as
bright. Scientists can use this observation to work out around how far away a Cepheid variable, and
ultimately a galaxy, is from the Earth. Using this information and the pictures taken by the Hubble
Space Telescope, scientists were able to work out a more accurate age of the universe which was
around 13.75 billion years old. Without this sort of technology, we wouldn't know as much about the
universe as we do now and we may not have been able to refine our knowledge on the age of the
universe. To sum up, the Hubble Space Telescope is an important piece of
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Big Bang Vs Nebular Hypothesis
Space, how was it formed, how old is it, how big is it and what does it contain? Those are a couple
of questions people think of themselves and their answers may vary. The Big Bang and Nebular
Hypothesis is a way that people would look at it, and others would think God created it in seven
days. The Big Bang created The Universe and the Nebular Hypothesis, created The Solar System.
Even though The Big Bang and The Nebular Hypothesis, created different things there are some
things that are similar. The Big Bang is an explanation of how The Universe was formed and the
effort to explain what happened during and after that moment. The first piece of evidence is the
Redshift of the Galaxies. A redshift is waved get longer and more spread apart. ... Show more
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First, they both started a long time ago and it took a long time to get to where we are today. We
know this because it takes billions of years to create or form a universe and a Solar System. Another
similarity is that they both had a lot happening at the beginning, but it calmed down after a while.
We know this because they both had at least a 150 million year gap after sculpting the Solar System
or the Universe.
Even though there are some similarities to The Big Bang Theory and Nebular Hypothesis. There
also are a couple of differences that The Big Bang Theory and Nebular Hypothesis have. First The
Nebular Hypothesis, created our Solar System. As for The Big Bang Theory that created the
Universe. Secondly, The Big Bang occurred around 13.7 billion years ago and the Nebular
Hypothesis happened around 4.6 billion years ago. Which shows us that The Big Bang Theory is 9.1
billion years older than the Nebular

I Have a Theory
I Have A Theory
The study of the universe as a whole is Cosmology. Although easy to label, it is not easy to explain.
The foundation of modern cosmology can be described as an arrangement of observations,
hypotheses, theories using science, technology, mathematics, physics, and analytics (to name a few)
to strive for answers about our beginning, present, and future.
Through time, many types of people have created stories, myths, and ideas of how we came to be.
Until the nineteenth and twentieth century, the evolution of theories was slow. According to Shipper,
"New telescopic devices permitting people to see parts of the universe never before imagined, in
new ways never before conceived, have advanced man's theoretical capabilities on ... Show more
One of the most recent measurements Hubble Law
 V= H o D( V is the velocity of a receding galaxy in km/sec. D is the distance away in Mpc and
Ho is called the Hubble Constant with units of km/sec/Mpc)
the Hubble constant is 67 ± 5 km/s/Mpc, measured by the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (Slade, n.d.).
The Hubble constant is a measure of the velocity of this observed expansion; in addition, there is
also evidence at a slight acceleration that has been detected. According to Slade, "As more data
comes in and technology 3 improves these measurements are quickly converging to similar values"
(n.d.). The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy that has three components of visible matter:
(1) the disk (containing the spiral arms)
(2) the halo
(3) the nucleus
Because of the spherical distribution in relation to the center of the galaxy, the halo and the nucleus
are also referred to as the spherical component. In addition to these visible components, the galaxy
also contains at least three other components that are "invisible": the galactic magnetic field,
charged particles trapped in the galactic magnetic field, and dark matter that is of unknown
composition but that makes itself felt by its gravitational influence on the visible matter. We are still
unclear about dark matter but we can detect its presence with telescopes.

The Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang
For decades the Big Bang theory has been the leading theory on the beginning of our universe.
Alternate theories come and go, but mainly go. As new data and research are continually eliminating
alternatives to the standard model of cosmology, the Big Bang just keeps getting stronger.
Before discussing the alternate theories to the Big Bang theory, the basics of the early universe
should first be understood. The main points opposing the theory are based around a few aspects that
will be defined in the explanation of the early universe. These points include inflation, dark matter
and dark energy, the cosmic microwave background (CMB), and red shift.
The theory states that the universe sprung from a singularity – an ... Show more content on
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These stars burned so hot that they would have emitted both visible light and huge amounts of UV
radiation. This radiation would have been able to break up hydrogen atoms, ending the "dark ages."
However, these super hot stars could not live long enough to produce this effect. They burned hot
and fast, and died after only a million years. The smaller dying stars exploded, shooting material
into space, and the larger stars collapsed to create black holes.
The reactions within these huge stars created new elements, heavier elements such as oxygen and
carbon. Lemonick (2006) explains how these elements allowed the gaseous clouds to collapse this
time into much smaller stars than their predecessors, stars like our sun. "And like the sun, they
would have started out generating lots of ultraviolet light before settling down to a more sedate
existence" (p. 4). These smaller stars had the lifespan to be able to ionize the hydrogen. It was at this
time that the dark ages came to an end. Some scientists theorize that it was X–rays and UV light
spewed from black holes that brought a close to this dark time, but perhaps it was both of these
theories that finally brought light to our universe.
As more complex telescopes are being created, scientists can get closer to observing the formation
of early galaxies. In visual observation, redshift now comes into play. Edwin Hubble discovered in
the 1920s that the light of far away galaxies have a wavelength that has been

The Big Bang Theory And Steady State Theory
Introduction
There are two schools of thought relating to the creation of the universe and how the universe
works. The "Big Bang Theory" and the "Steady State Theory" are constantly compared using
evidence collated thus far by scientists and astrologists. By using this evidence, experts are creating
a picture of how the universe came about along with scenarios as to what happened in the beginning
and what is happening now. Through the use of this evidence, the schools of thought are
increasingly favouring one of the abovementioned theories.
Key Aspects of Big Bang Theory
The big bang theory is the main theory about understanding the universes life. This theory states that
the universe was once a hot dense ball of matter that exploded and scattered all of the galaxies and
stars we know today. But it also states that the galaxies are still moving away from the initial blast.
This theory is currently highly regarded because of its evidence supporting it such as Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) and Red shift.
Key Aspects of the Steady State Theory
The steady state theory is the other main theory that gives an explanation about the universes life.
The theory states that the universe always existed and that the density of the universe is unchanged,
but because the universe is always expanding, there are hydrogen bubbles that are created and then
they form into stars because they condense. But this theory is not highly reliable or accepted
because it doesn't explain

What Is The Timeline Of The Big Bang Theory
Timeline of The Big Bang
The broadly accepted philosophy for the evolution of our universe is the Big Bang theory, which
states that the universe began as an incredibly hot and dense point roughly 13.7 billion years ago
before expanding into a large, unexplored cosmos; home to an unknown amount of planets and
systems.
The universe is said to have begun with a cataclysm that generated space and time, as well as all of
the matter and energy that the universe will ever hold. For an incomprehensibly tiny fraction of a
second, the universe is – theoretically – an infinitely dense fireball. At 10–35 to 10–33 seconds, a
runaway process called "inflation" is said to have caused a vast expansion of space filled with
energy. The inflationary period is stopped only when this has converted into the matter and energy
we know of today.
After inflation, one millionth of a second after the Big Bang, the universe supposedly continues to
expand, but not nearly as quickly. The most basic forces in nature become distinct: first gravity, then
the strong force of which holds atoms together, followed by electromagnetic forces. By the first
second, the universe is made up of fundamental particles and energy: from electrons, photons, to
less familiar types. These particles merge together to form protons and neutrons which will combine
to form the nuclei of simple elements such as hydrogen, helium and lithium.
The first major creation of the universe was radiation – different wavelengths of light,

The Big Bang Theory Essay
The Big Bang Theory
There have been many theories concerning what the universe looks like, how it became this way,
and where it is going. The most popular theory that people hold today is that the universe began
when all the matter ever present in the universe was contained in a tiny speck and that spec
exploded. This is known as the Big Bang. This theory has developed a great deal since it was first
conceptualized and continues to evolve today. Many different scientists have had a hand in this.
Throughout time people have held different ideas of what the universe looks like, from the
Aristotelian universe centered around the Earth to the Copernican universe with our Sun at the
center. After Sir Isaac Newton invented physics, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A century later the French naturalist George–Louis Leclerc, later made Comte de Buffon by Louis
XV, would improve on this idea in 1778. He did this by carrying out a set of experiments with balls
of metals heated to the point where they were glowing read and about to melt and then observing the
time that is too them to cool. Buffon came up with a number of 75,000 years. Theologians did not
like this revision of their timescale and the encroachment of science into their area of knowledge.
(Gribbin, 14)
In 1820 another French man named James Fourier took the next step in estimating the Earth's age.
He accounted for the fact that the Earth is still hot in its core and using mathematical techniques that
he developed and we still use today for time–varying phenomena, came up with a number too
staggering foe him to write down. He did however leave us his equations and it is easy to plug in the
same numbers and get the answer that he could not say, which comes out to be 100 million years.
(Gribbin, 16)
From here scientists started to look at the Sun and determine how long it had been around. This was
undertaken simultaneously by two different people, William Thompson, more commonly knows as
Lord Kelvin, who helped to build the foundation of thermodynamics and also by Helmholtz in 1887.
Both scientists came

How Did Edwin Hubble Contribute To The Big Bang Theory
Edwin Hubble was an important contributor to the Big Bang Theory. Edwin Hubble received his
PhD in Astronomy at Chicago University. After college, he became the lead researcher in the field of
astrophysics at Mount Wilson in California. He has done many things to help prove that the Big
Bang Theory did in fact happen. Hubble's revolutionary work includes finding a constant
relationship between galaxies' distance and redshift. This helped prove that the universe is
expanding. He also created a classification system that was created for galaxies. The system he
created is called the Hubble Sequence, which many researchers have used for the past decades.
Edwin Hubble proved that galaxies outside the Milky Way existed by taking photos through

Big Bang And The Creation Of Energy And Matter
Big Bang Theory:
Explain what occurred during the Big Bang, including the creation of energy and matter:
The universe was created by the Big Bang. Just before the Big Bang, the universe was just
unbelievably hot and at a very dense point, it burst to expand space faster than light which was at
10–34of a second. The universe doubled in size at least 90 times from the dense point. But the speed
of the space spreading became to change to a slower rate still continuing at this time and day. As
space, expanded universe cooled itself down and matter formed. Another second after the Big Bang
neutrons, protons, electron, anti–electron, photons and neutrinos came into existence. Light elements
were born from the process known as Big Bang ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Redshift is the red end of the spectrum which is radiation from distant galaxies, stars, and other
objects. Astronomers found that the further we are from a star the more its light is redshifted. This
tells us that galaxies are moving away from us and that the further the galaxy is the faster it moving
away. The further away the galaxy the more its light is redshifted. The Theory of the Big Bang says
that this expansion started billions of years ago.
Scientists discovered that there are microwaves coming from every direction in space. The theory of
the Big Bang says that this energy was created at beginning of the universe just after the big bang
and has been moving through space ever since then.
The universe cool to let quarks combine to make protons and neutrons.
Temperature has decreased to 1014 degrees Kelvin.
The basic building blocks of matter form.
1quadrillionth of a Second
10–35 Seconds
Size is now the shape of a grapefruit.
10–40 Seconds
Currently, the universe is packed into the size of an atom which has a temperature of near infinity.
0 Seconds
Fundamental Forces that were involved at this state are Electromagnetic Force and Gravity.
The Big Bang:
Timeline from Threshold 1 to Threshold 2: Part 1
The size suddenly changed to 1025meters and the new fundamental force that was involved was
Strong Nuclear Force.
New Fundamental Force that was involved is a weak

Science Vs. Science : The Incompatibility Of Science And...
American science writer Michael Shermer once said, "Are science and religion compatible? It's like
[asking]: Are science and plumbing compatible? They're just two different things." This concept of
the incompatibility of religion and science is not recent, as it has been debated for many centuries.
One of the most popular theories used to debate religion and science's compatibility is the Big Bang
Theory. In this debate, religion challenges science's 'extreme' logical explanation of the origin of the
universe while science challenges religion's 'fanatical' approach. Due to the differing principles of
religion and science, Shermer's perspective of their relationship is precise as we see that co–
existence is not feasible.
According to Merriam Webster, religion is defined as the faith, service, and worship of God or the
supernatural while science is defined as the organized, systematic enterprise that obtains knowledge
about the world and condenses it into testable laws or principles. In these two definitions, we
already find contradictory ideas as science attempts to understand phenomena logically while
religion emphasizes the idea that "[God's] thoughts are not [our] thoughts, neither are [our] ways
[His] ways" (New International Version, Isaiah 55:8–9). It is religion's emphasis that this
supernatural Being can be illogical according to man's understanding: a key reason why religion and
science cannot co–exist. A prime example of this is the Big Bang Theory.
The Big Bang

Galaxy Vs Spectroscopy
Earth; we occasionally perceive our planet to be the center of the universe. However, our planet is
just one in millions and billions of other planets and galaxies. We are one grain of sand on the beach
of space. Scientists say that everything we know today to be true, started out approximately 13.7
billion years ago as a Big Bang. Everything there is today, all matter, space, time, and energy were
condensed into an incredibly small point the size of an atom. It was infinitely hot and infinitely
dense; it's called the Singularity. Eventually, the Singularity started expanding rapidly. During this
expansion, the first subatomic particles were created(neutrons, electrons, and protons). In time, the
first stars and galaxies were created. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Their results stated that a large majority of the universe then was made up of hydrogen, the simplest
element known to man with the atomic number of 1. This is a result of the first subatomic particles
bonding together in a stable way. Eventually Helium was formed with the atomic number of 2; the
second simplest element. Those same scientists found that around 27% percent of all matter in the
universe was Helium. Today, the composition of all matter in our universe is staggeringly around
75% Hydrogen and 27% Helium, nearly the same as what the predicted. The Big Bang theory states
that the simplest elements were made first(being hydrogen and Helium) and continues today,
similarly to 13.7 billion years

Big Bang
it is important to understand what Big Bang Theory (BBT) is and is not. Contrary to the common
perception, it is not a theory about the origin of the universe. Rather, it describes the development of
the universe over time. This process is often called "cosmic evolution". Over the last several decades
the basic picture of cosmology given by BBT has been generally accepted by astronomers,
physicists and the wider scientific community. However, no similar consensus has been reached on
ideas about the ultimate origin of the universe. This remains an area of active research and some of
idea current ideas are discussed below. That said, BBT is nevertheless about origins
In addition to being a theory about the origins of the basic building ... Show more content on
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In both cases, the model implies that the universe is expanding into some larger, pre–existing
volume. In fact, the theory says nothing like that. Instead, the expansion of the universe is
completely self–contained.
People often have difficulty with the idea that "space itself expands". An easier way to understand
this concept is to think of it as the distance between any two points in the universe increasing. First,
the distance between A and B is a function of time and second, the distance is always increasing.
To really understand what this means and how one would define "distance" in such a model, it is
necessary to have some idea of what Einstein's theory of General Relativity (GR) is about: "Space
tells matter how to move, matter tells space how to curve." Another way of describing GR would be
something like: "Energy determines the geometry and changes in the geometry of the universe, and,
in turn, the geometry determines the movement of energy".
So, given this, how does one get BBT from GR? The basic equations come directly from Einstein's
GR equation under two key assumptions: First, that the distribution of matter and energy in the
universe is homogeneous and, second, that the distribution is isotropic. A simpler way to put this is
that the universe looks the same everywhere and in every direction = cosmological principle.
If we adopt these simple assumptions, the implications for the geometry of the universe are quite
profound. First, one

Astonomy and Cosmology Unit Final Essay
Astronomy and Cosmology have always been an interesting subjects for me since I was little. The
two units before this unit were somewhat new to me but weren't filled with a colossal amount of
information. When we arrived at this unit I thought it would be a review of what I had already knew
about space, but really it was much more than just planets and stars. My knowledge and view of the
universe has drastically changed after learning about various concepts like the Main Sequence,
Cosmic Microwave Blackbody Radiation, and red or blue shifts. From this i've learned that what is
happening here on Earth is nothing compared to what is happening to what is happening in the far
reaches of space. There is so much going on in our universe and it ... Show more content on
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Concepts that were new to me included the Main Sequence for stars, the concept of black holes
losing mass, redshifts, and the timeline of the Big Bang. I had a basic understanding of black holes
and galaxies but after I learned that there a 2 types of galaxies(spiral and elliptical) and how in the
center of a black hole is a singularity where all of the laws of physics break down because
everything is so extreme. When learning about the galaxies I found the pictures as well as the
descriptions to be very beautiful. Whether it was a spiral galaxy that is colliding with another spiral
galaxy or the orange tinted elliptical galaxies, I found it all to be complete eye candy. Even though
the images are computer enhanced to make the picture glow, i still find it crazy that there is so much
natural beauty that still hasn't been discovered and can only be seen by telescopes that get a faint
image. One question I still have is about the cosmological principle, if there is no center for
expansion, but the big bang started at a single point, so doesn't that mean that the universe has been
expanding from that one point this entire time? In conclusion this unit on astronomy and cosmology
helped me understand that there is so much more to the universe than I had initially thought. There
is so much more that goes on and our knowledge will only increase as technology makes our ability
to learn more about the depths of our

The Big Bang Theory : The Creation Of The Big Bang Theory
Did you know that "it has been 50 years since two scientists found landmark evidence for the Big
Bang theory?"(Kramer,2014) The Bang Theory aka BBT is the most popular explanation about the
start of our universe that is widely accepted/acknowledged. The theory is that "the entire Universe is
spreading apart, with distant galaxies speeding away from us in all directions. Run the clock
backwards to 13.8 billion years ago, and everything in the Cosmos started out as a single point in
space. In an instant, everything expanded outward from that location, forming the energy, atoms and
eventually the stars and galaxies we see today." (Cain, 2013) The Big Bang Theory is possibly right
because of the evidence/research backed up by it such as exploration done by Edwin Hubble, data
found by both Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, and background radiation that had been found that
is believed to be created by the Big Bang.
In the first place, Edwin Hubble was an astronomer who found important information of the BBT.
His findings originated the Big Bang Theory in the first place. ("The Big Bang Theory", n.d.) In
1929, Edwin Hubble declared that the universe was increasing and that most galaxies were moving
away from us. (Redshift and Hubble's law, n.d.) This shut down Einstein's theory that the universe
was static ("Hubble's Law", 2015)Also, "his theory states that the Universe must have been created
in this single event which came to be known as the "Big Bang" through expanding at an

What Do We Really Know About The Beginning Of Time
What Do We Really Know About The Beginning Of Time?
Most people take for granted important discoveries, such as the Big Bang. It is widely accepted that
the Big Bang created the universe, and while most people can explain the basic theory behind it,
little else is common knowledge. Calvin of Calvin and Hobbes called it "The Horrendous Space
Kablooie," but many people do not grasp the enormous concept (Milne). How exactly do you prove
how time began? A writer for Scientific American put this subject into perspective: "If you're
religious, this is like looking at God" (Milne).
Cosmology is the study of the universe, its workings, how it was made, and what it will become.
How the universe began has always been a wonder to humans. One ... Show more content on
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So close, in fact, that everything in the universe was concentrated into a single point he called the
"primordial atom," which happens to be the name of his theory. He also said that to gain the outward
momentum we have today, the atom must have exploded like "fireworks of unimaginable beauty"
(Milne). Does this sound like the Big Bang Theory? That is because it is, although the name Big
Bang did not come about until Fred Hoyle jokingly called it the "Big Bang" while trying to oppose
the theory in 1950 (Encarta).
Everything makes sense, but how to prove such a beginning? In the 1960s, scientists realized that
such a hot and violent beginning must have left a vast wave of heat that can still be traced in small
amounts. Not long after this realization, two Bell scientists announced that they had discovered this
heat wave, called the cosmic background radiation. They both received the Nobel Prize in 1978 for
their findings. These first findings, however, had a few hitches. The cosmic background radiation
was found to be fairly smooth and even. It was hard for scientists to figure out how stars and
galaxies grouped together with such an even distribution. Once again, with the advance of
technology and the challenge of a good problem, scientists went to work. During a press conference
in 1992, George Smoot and a few other colleagues announced that they had found these temperature
ripples in the cosmic background radiation. So there you have it! The origin of

The Huge Bang Of The Big Bang
If you raise a somebody wherever the Universe got its begin, "the huge Bang" is that the answer you
are possibly to urge. Our Universe choked with stars, galaxies and a cosmic internet of large–scale
structure, all separated by the sizeableness of empty house between them, wasn 't born that manner
and did not exist that manner forever. Instead, the Universe came to be this fashion as a result of it
enlarged and cooled from a hot, dense, uniform, matter–and–radiation–filled state with no galaxies,
stars, or perhaps atoms gift at the beginning. Everything that exists in its current kind nowadays did
not exist thirteen.8 billion years past, and every one of this was puzzled out throughout the past one
hundred years. however even with all this, there square measure an entire slew of facts the majority
–– even several scientists –– do not quite go it. Here square measure our prime ten facts concerning
the large Bang!
1.) Einstein initial discharged it outright once it absolutely was bestowed to him as a prospect.
Einstein 's general theory of theory of relativity was a revolutionary theory of gravity, projected in
1915, as a successor to Newton 's theory. It foretold the orbital rotation of Mercury to Associate in
Nursing accuracy Newton 's theory could not, it foretold the bending of visible light by mass
confirmed in 1919, and it foretold the existence of attractive force waves, simply confirmed many
months past. however it additionally foretold that a Universe that was

The Importance Of Design In Nature
Every particle in nature represents the complex, and intricate structure of the universe. The human
body alone undergoes many different processes per second, and yet, is able to do so almost without
error. It's almost undeniable that there is design in nature, however, many question whether or not
this design just came about or if it implies that a designer exists. Science and religion attempt to
explain design in nature in a much different context, and seem to be in conflict with one another
about the existence of a designer. Arguably, I believe that there is a loophole, in which both science
and religion can be integrated as one, and can function together to explain design in nature.
Beginning with the Big Bang, and Creationism to Evolution, and design in nature, religion provides
science with answers and vice versa. God is not the sole worker in nature, nor is he the supreme
power, but he allows for natural processes to take their course. Academics from a vast range of
fields can all agree that there is design in nature, meaning that nature doesn't consist of random
things thrown together without a purpose. Instead, almost everything in nature is intricately
designed to achieve certain tasks. Design in nature can be compared to a jigsaw puzzle in the sense
that each piece is designed to fit another piece, and they match up perfectly. For example, when our
DNA goes through the replication process, an error is made at approximately every one–hundred
thousand nucleotide.

A Study Of Dark Matter
A Study Of Dark Matter Contribution to the Universe and Dark Matter Candidates
Aditi Sharma, Boris S. Kalita, Harshit Sharma, Rohit Kumar Singla
Abstract
Dark Matter has been one of the most researched topic in the recent era of science. Even though we
have observed e ects of this exotic entity, we are yet to understand its structural form. Thus we are
forced to hunt for clues that would help in a better understanding of this component which forms
26:8% of the entire universe. This report delves into the problems that led to the introduction of the
concept of Dark Matter. The at Rotation Curve Problem of velocity distribution of galaxies and the
Virial Problem have been discussed. The contribution of Dark Matter in the formation of Large
Scale Structures have also been looked into. We have also attempted to give an idea about the
probable number densities of three Dark Matter candidates assuming that they make up the Dark
Matter halos of a Supercluster at redshift, z 0:91 (Kim et al. 2016). We have then discussed the signi
cance of understanding the constituents of Dark Matter and its possible beni ts for humanity
regarding the generation of energy using annihilation.
A report presented to
Dr. Rahul K. Gairola
Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee
India
2
1. Introduction
Dark Matter is an unidenti ed form of matter that is present in our universe along with visible
(baryonic) matter, radiation and dark energy. It makes up around 26.8% of the whole universe (from

Is The Big Bang Theory?
Is the earth expanding? What is the Big Bang theory? According to the bible and to scientist their
are two different views. One view is through the eyes of a scientists and the other, through an
individual's faith and belief of God's creation. Scientist use data and instruments to document what
can be seen, and Christion's carry faith and believe outside, what can't be seen. In the Bible there are
several references that describe the universe being "stretched out. (Cosmology) "Here are a few to
describe this reference Isaiah 40:22 teaches that "God stretched the heavens like a curtain and
spreads time out like a tent to dwell in". "And the likeness of the firmament upon the heads of the
living creature [was] as the color of the terrible crystal, stretched forth over their heads above".
Ezekiel 1:22 "He hath made the earth by his power, he hath established the world by his wisdom,
and hath stretched out the heavens by his discretion". Jeremiah 10:12. Most astronomers agree the
universe is expanding because the clusters of galaxies are moving farther away from other clusters
in the galaxy. Olbers's Paradox is the idea that faraway stars appear fainter than those nearby:, and
the entire sky should be as brilliant as the surface of the Sun. This means "either the universe is
finite in extent, or it evolves in time".(ASTRONOMY PEASON). Interestingly enough, the bible
recorded well before scientist existed, that the Universe would expand. Scientist is forced to

The Advantages Of Parallax
Tarandeep Reel Assignment 5 Unit 44 Parallax A parallax is used to measure the distance of how
close stars are, the term parallax is the meaning of a semi– angle of an inclination that is between
two sight– lines to the star and this can be observed and seen when the earth is on opposite sides of
the sun in its orbit. The parallax is used by its triangulation that will be able to measure the position
of the star that is against the background of more distant stars, the amount that it will shift is 6
months this is because of the earth orbit and this is the angle of one triangle. The diameter of the
earth orbit is the other side of the triangle. Then trigonometry will play a role and you will calculate
the other two sides of the triangle which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will result in sharpen images. Another advantage is that you don't have deal with light that is
scattered all over by the atmosphere. You don't also have to deal with light pollution. The major
scientific advantage of space telescopes that being above the atmosphere means you can observe
much more with different wave lengths. Observing from the ground will be harder. We can observe
frequencies within the radio and the optic al range. The major disadvantage is the size. The larger
the mirror on the space telescope then the more light will be gathered up and more detail we can
resolve. But also we are limited on the size that we can currently send up, the Hubble is an example.
But yet again we are only limited by the design, but telescopes don't cause limitations in space they
are only limited as equipment to observe the universe in different waves lengths of light the only
main limitation that stand in our way is our technology. Earth bound telescopes are the same thing to
expect they are real limitations for earth bound observers and this is in our

The Big Bang Theory Of The Universe Essay
Evidence pointed towards that the universe was expanding, but this was not enough to separate the
Big Bang theory from its' rivals. A few decades after the redshift concept was discovered, scientists
detected groundbreaking evidence that was considered the smoking gun. Arno Penzias and Robert
Wilson detected the remnants of radiation created from the Big Bang. This cosmic background
radiation was the thermal radiation left over from the Big Bang. It was collected in the form as
omnidirectional microwaves, which was red–shifted because of the expansion of the universe.While
they were not able to detect large quantities of cosmic background radiation, the principle of
overdetermination allowed them to make claims from this evidence. They deduced that this
radiation must of come from a Big Bang event were protons and neutrons formed hydrogen atom.
This was the smoking gun to the beginning of the universe, it revealed that only an event like the
Big Bang could create this radiation. All the evidence collected suggested that an event like the Big
Bang would be the only explanation to what scientists had collected. The Big Bang theory became
the most probable theory against its rivals, but scientists were tasked with an even more difficult
problem. They needed to be able to explain how the Big Bang resulted in the unique universe we
observe around us. With the Big Bang theory established, scientists needed to understand how this
theory could create our observable

Redshift: Pieces Of Evidence Of The Big Bang Theory
Fourteen billion years ago, there was nothing. Suddenly matter began expanding. As the point that
contained all the matter and energy in the Universe expanded, it began cooling off. This theory is
called the Big Bang Theory. The Big Bang Theory has so much evidence to prove that it actually
happened. Redshift is one of the pieces of evidence. In a video about the Big Bang and Redshift the
guy said that in the late 1900s, astronomers were looking at the galaxies when they realized that the
light from the galaxies was redshifted. This meant that the galaxies are moving away from each
other. Since Redshift shows us that the galaxies are moving away from each other, the Universe is
expanding. This piece of evidence is the most important because

Big Bang Research Paper
The whole universe began with the big bang/big bang model which explains the theory holding that
in just a couple seconds the universe originated, from the instant explosion of a extremely small
nebulae. Approximately 15 billion years ago all matter in the universe today existed in an incredibly
hot and dense state, from which it expanded and cooled slowly coalescing into stars and galaxies we
have today. As the big bang was taking place only the lightest of elements would be able to form
(hydrogen and helium) seeing that due to such a tremendous extent of heat the first elements would
have to form under the condition that they are not neutral atoms or atomic nuclei. Roughly 14 billion
years ago the first galaxies started to form, soon after ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Penzias and Wilson discovered Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation which is the the radiation
that fills the universe and can be detected in every direction. The COBE and WMAP probes were
satellites launched by NASA to map the background microwave radiation and measure temperature
differences across the sky. These two satellites in particular confirm that CMBR is in fact true.
Today the universe is constantly expanding and is expected to continue doing so for forever. The
galaxies outside of our own this means that no matter what galaxy you happen to be in, all the other
galaxies are moving away from you. There is several theories of how the universe will end but i
support the thought that it will keep expanding until it reaches a sudden halt then forcing it to
collapse on

George Lemaitre And The Big Bang Theory
Good morning/afternoon Ms Jungmann and class.
Now we all know that before life has begun, there was nothing. But the big bang theory is a
scientific way to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe.
George Lemaitre is the priest and physicist who was born in 1894 in Charleroi, Belgium that
perhaps made the greatest discovery in modern cosmology, the discovery that our universe is
expanding. In his early age, he was attracted to both theology and science but was soon interrupted
by World war 1. However, after the war, he soon studied theoretical physics and in 1923 he was
ordained as an abbe. Lemaitre then pursued his scientific studies and studied astronomy at
Cambridge University and returned to Belgium to become a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
George called this the 'primeval atom ' but we know it as the 'Big Bang ' (Edel Fletcher, 2017).
5. Moving on to 1948, the year where an alternate theory is presented by Fred Hoyle, who
questioned the 'primeval atom ' theory (Edel Fletcher, 2017).
6. The 1950s, the time where doubts and a new perspective was born as the scientific community
divided. Big bang versus Steady state (Edel Fletcher, 2017).
7. However, in the 1980s is when the Big Bang Theory gained its popularity from its clear
observations, data, and evidence (Edel Fletcher, 2017).
8. But in 1965, the Cosmic Microwave Background was discovered when the Bell Labs ' Holmdale
Horn Antenna in New Jersey picked up a buzzing sound which came in different directions in the
sky. Its pretty much an electromagnetic radiation left over from an early stage of the universe in the
Big Bang cosmology (Edel Fletcher, 2017).
9. Then in 1980, a fellow professor called Alan Guth who proposed the idea of inflation, a process
where the universe extremely undergo a rapid expansion after the event of the big bang (Edel
Fletcher, 2017).
10. 1989, the time when the Cosmic Microwave Background Explorer Satellite was launched (Edel
Fletcher, 2017).
11. Lastly, the future, 2020. The predictable year of when the future cosmologist would be
developing an even deeper understanding of how everything

Essay on The Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang Theory
Why is the Universe expanding? What is Cosmic Back Ground Radiation (CBR)? There are many
questions asked about our Universe, which we know so little about. Scientists, in their attempt to
answer these and other confrontations, have found one idea that seems to explain much of what we
don't understand: The Big Bang Theory.
An explosion of incomprehensible speed was the beginning of our known Universe and existence.
At that time matter as small as the head of a pin inflated to become larger than the visible Universe
of today in less than one millisecond. The newly born Universe cooled very quickly and continued
to grow. Still, the heat was too great for normal elementary particles like protons and neutrons to ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There were many people who worked together to come up with the present theory of creation.
Edwin Hubble, Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson and Alan Guth all contributed greatly to the formation
of the Big Bang theory.
Edwin Hubble used his large telescope to see far away stars and galaxies. He knew that the elements
in the stars reflected back specific colors, and you could tell what a star was made of by its color ?
DNA?. Hubble noticed that this pattern had been slightly shifted to the red side of the spectrum,
otherwise called a red shift. He knew, based on the Doppler effect, that a red shift was caused by the
stretched wavelengths of an object moving away from a point. If the galaxies he had observed had
shifted to the red side then it meant that they were moving away from Earth. He also discovered that
the galaxies were moving away from each other, as well.
With these observations in mind, Hubble announced that the universe was expanding. He then came
to this syllogism: If the universe is expanding, then at one point it was smaller. The result of his
postulations was the Big Bang theory.
Another mystery of the universe was the Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR). CBR is made up of
photons throughout the universe that are floating for no apparent reason in space. Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson spent their lives trying to explain the origin of this radiation and why it is still
existent today. Their discoveries

Scipod Persuasive Speech
There's a buzz in this community about an asteroid that will pass in 2028. The public wants to know
if it will be any danger. I'm jake Rosenbloom, and this is the SciPod. Today I will be discussing
about the Universe's creation, and the things inside it. There are many theories suggesting how the
Universe was created. The most widely accepted theory is the Big Bang Theory. It says, the universe
expanded exponentially from "Time 0". Another theory is "Steady State Theory" which states the
density of all the matter in the universe is expanding at the same rate as the size of the Universe.
Basically, the Universe is steadily expanding. We know the Universe is expanding due to Redshift.
Red shift is the decrease or increase in the wavelength of

The Influence Of The Hubble Telescope
"Equipped with his five senses, man explores the universe around him and calls the adventure
science." This remark was by Edwin Hubble, the man that the Hubble telescope was named after.
The telescope made many amazing discoveries in the field of astronomy, as well as the man himself
did. It was said that Edwin Hubble revolutionized the field of astrophysics. Biography.com states,
"His research helped prove that the universe is expanding and he created a classification system for
galaxies that has been used for several decades." He made many contributions to science, as did the
Hubble telescope, and that is why this invention is one of the greatest in the history of science.
Biography.com cites that Edwin Hubble was born on November 20th, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It also proves that because of the new things we have found out, we can begin to look even deeper to
uncover more of the unknown about our universe. By the Hubble Telescope getting images of the
Butterfly Nebula, we can truly see how stars are formed. This helps support the theory of the
Nebular Hypothesis because now that we have images of a nebula and how stars form from it, we
can prove that that was the way our star, the Sun, was formed. The discovery of dark matter helps us
realize how much mass there truly is in the universe and can help us determine the future of the
universe. Hubble discovering the age of the universe helps us to date when certain events have
occurred and have an understanding of how long it took for it to form. It has also proved the Big
Bang Theory because it discovered distant galaxies using redshift and shows how the universe came
from a small area and started expanding, which is still continuing today. Overall, Hubble's
discoveries have opened up the door to many more

Hubble Space Telescope Research Paper
Hubble Space Telescope "We find them smaller and fainter, in constantly increasing numbers, and
we know that we are reaching into space, farther and farther, until, with the faintest nebulae that can
be detected with the greatest telescopes, we arrive at the frontier of the known universe."– Edwin
Hubble. Edwin Hubble was a man known for his immaculate discoveries leading to better
understanding the universe. The telescope built in honor of him did not fail to carry on his legacy.
This essay will take you through Hubble's life story, the Hubble space telescope's description, the
telescope's discoveries, and the implications of the telescope to our understanding of the universe.
First of all, Edwin Hubble was the inspiration of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This essay took you through the implications of the telescope to our understanding of the universe,
the telescope's discoveries, , the Hubble space telescope's description, and Hubble's life story. As a
wise man once said, "We find them smaller and fainter, in constantly increasing numbers, and we
know that we are reaching into space, farther and farther, until, with the faintest nebulae that can be
detected with the greatest telescopes, we arrive at the frontier of the known universe."– Edwin

What Did Feynman Say About How Science Works
1. What did Feynman say about how Science works?
Feynman simply explains how to find a new law in science: first we guess it, then we compute the
consequences of the guess to see if its right through experiments/nature/observation. If it disagrees
with experiment its wrong. He says that that simple statement is the key to science and it doesn't
matter who or when the guess was made.
2. How does spectroscopy tell us what Stars are made of?
When elements are heated they emit light at certain wavelengths which we perceive as colors.
Spectroscopy analyzes all the wavelengths in a particular beam of light and this information can be
used to determine what elements the source of the light contains. So with any object that emits light,
we can determine what ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We can then determine how far away the galaxy is by observing the brightness of the stars. If a
galaxy is too far away for us to distinguish individual stars, astronomers can use SuperNovas. We
know from experience how much light output a SuperNovae emits, so we can determine how far
away the galaxies are. Supernovae's can be used to measure the distance to galaxies as far as 10
billion light years away.
5. What is the Hubble Law, or Hubble Constant?
The Hubble Constant is the unit of measurement used to describe the expansion of the universe. The
Hubble Constant states that the farther a galaxy is away from us, the faster it is moving away from
us. Hc = 42 miles/second ÷ 3 million Light Years
6. How do we get the age of the universe?
We can get the age of the universe simply by reversing the equation. Light travels incredibly fast,
around 186,000 miles per second. First we need to calculate how fast light travels in a year:
186,000 mi/sec (3600s/1hr)(24hr/1day)(365day/1year) = 5.866 x 1012
That's how far light travels in 1 lightyear, so now we multiply by 3 million:
(5.866 x 1012)(3 x 106) = 1.76 x

The Modern Scientific Origin Story
The Merriam–Webster dictionary defines the term "nothing" as "one of no interest, value, or
consequence" (merriam–webster.com). However, this nothingness embarked the start of the Modern
Scientific Origin Story. This origin story is far from other origin stories as it uses the different
branches of science to put great detail and truth to how the universe began. This story is also
composed of a series of the different thresholds of increasing complexity, these thresholds mark the
events that happened after the expansion of the universe that is impossible to turn back to or repeat.
The biggest mystery of the universe is how nothing turned into something. As a matter of fact, no
scientist or intellect can tell what exactly are the ingredients– ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In spite of this, how could life possibly emerge? The answer is within the skies. It rained for
millions of years and seas of lava eventually turned into seas of water, becoming a gateway for life
to possibly emerge. Along with this are the other goldilocks conditions such as energy and chemical
elements, mostly carbon which Earth is in abundance of. So now that the Earth became a hospitable
place in which life could emerge, how did it really emerge? Life emerged under the oceanic vents
where simple elements formed amino acids that are keys to creating protein and nucleotides that are
keys to creating DNA– the deoxyribose nucleic acid is the key to life as it contains genetic
information for what is to come. Life came from the oceanic vents which had enough heat energy
and chemical energy to form the first prokaryotes– the simplest form of cells without a nucleus and
was created through photosynthesis. Then it evolved into something that is more complex which is
the eukaryote which now has a nucleus and organelles that are crucial to life. As life in water
emerged and the eukaryotes bonded together creating multi–celled organism, the development of
brains made it possible for life to move to land. This sudden event created mammals which unlike
aquatic animals, have fur and the more obvious qualities of life. These qualities are what scientists
call as

Edwin Hubble Research Paper
Life and Discoveries of Edwin Hubble
Edwin Hubble was a pioneer astronomer who highly attributed to the study of the physical universe.
He completely changed our understanding of the universe by demonstrating that our universe is
larger than what was previously thought and that the universe is expanding (Brown, n.d.). These
discoveries were also some of the first to support the theory behind the creation of the universe, the
Big Bang (Sandage, 1989).
Edwin Powell Hubble was born November 20, 1889 in Marshfield, Missouri, U.S. (Edwin P.
Hubble, 2006). Shortly after his birth, his parents Virginia James and John Hubble along with their
children moved to Wheaton, Illinois where Edwin would grow up. Growing up, Edwin Hubble was
a bright student ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, Hubble understood that teaching was not for him, so after one year he wrote to Moulton,
his astronomy professor at University of Chicago, about rejoining the university as a graduate
student. Hubble studied at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin, which was equipped with a 40 inch
refractor. His first discovery was made when comparing images of nebulae over a few years. He
noticed that there were faint changes occurring in the nebulae demonstrating that changes in nebulae
could occur (Osterbrock, 1990).. Hubble completed his doctorate in 1917(Brown, n.d.), to which his
thesis was titled "Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae." His thesis would foreshadow many
of his future discoveries as it emphasized that the nebulae exist outside of the Milky Way and
possibly millions of light years away (Osterbrock, 1990). Upon completion of his Ph.D., Hubble
was offered a job at Mount Wilson Observatory near Pasadena, California (Brown, n.d.). The
observatory was home to the most powerful telescope in the world at that time, the new 100–inch
Hooker Telescope. It was here where Hubble would stare at the stars and discover so much about the
cosmos (Osterbrock,

Wilson And Penzias: The Cosmic Microwave Universe
When you turn on your old analog TV get that fuzzy black–and–white static, about one percent of
the screen is filled with signal left over from the Big Bang. In 1964, Robert Wilson and Arno
Penzias, two scientists working for Bell Labs, were using a radio antenna to search for microwaves
emitted by the Milky Way. To their surprise, they discovered a faint signal that continued to show up
in their readings, no matter which direction they pointed the radio telescope. Once they considered
all of the possible interferences, including cleaning pigeon feces on the equipment, Wilson and
Penzias concluded that the signal in question must be real. Arno and Wilson had accidently
discovered the Cosmic Microwave Background, an accident that won them the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1978. The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) was first proposed by Ralph Alpher
and Robert Herman in 1948 when they theorized that there should be a low intensity microwaves
left over from the early universe. They calculated the value of the radiation to be 5 Kelvin (
compared to today's accepted 2.725 K ). Their proposals to radio astronomers to search for such a
signal were largely ignored, due to the difficulty of observing such a faint, isotropic (same in all
directions) signal and the fact that the model of a steady state universe was still accepted over the
expanding "big bang" models. At the time, Hubble had already confirmed that the universe was
expanding, and steady state theorists believed the

Clusters Case Study
We introduce the beginning phase of the Cluster Hiding in Plain Sight (textit{CHiPS}) survey with
the aim to discover new galaxy clusters surrounding bright point sources. We also present
textit{Chandra} observations of a newly discovered low–shift, z=0.2230, galaxy cluster with a
central quasar, PKS1353–341. After removing the quasar brightness from the cluster core, we
determine various properties of the cluster down to the center core. The average temperature of the
cluster gas is $4.3pm1.9$ keV with an increase from 5 keV at the center up to almost 10 keV. A
short central cooling time around 400 Myr points to it being a strong cool–core cluster. Comparing
the cluster's properties with those of known clusters (e.g., the total mass ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
There are two primary modes of AGN feedback which allow the supermassive black hole at the
center of its host galaxy to affect the final stellar mass of the galaxy. The first mode is the kinetic
mode, driven by radio jets, and the second mode is the quasar mode, or radiative mode, which
relates to radiation from the accretion disk~citep{2012Fabian,2012McNamara}. The kinetic mode
has been intensively studied specifically in galaxy clusters, which require feedback to prevent
overcooling~citep{2006Rafferty,2007McNamara} via radio jets and bubbles~citep{2011Fabian}.
In contrast, due to the relative lack of central cluster galaxies in the quasar mode, the impact of
radiative feedback on clusters is poorly understood~citep{1998Silk}.
Four examples of galaxy clusters hosting central quasars are H1821+643~citep{2010Russell}, 3C
186~citep{2005Siemiginowska, 2010Siemiginowska}, IRAS 09104+4109~citep{2012Sullivan},
and the Phoenix cluster~citep{2012McDonald}. However, the small number of such objects is
insufficient to paint a complete picture of the effects of quasar mode feedback on cluster cores.
Therefore, a larger sample of these objects is necessary for our understanding of feedback, including
its duty cycle, its correlation with radiative cooling, and the distinction between the effects of type I
and type II quasars on clusters~citep{2015Kirk}.
One possible way to uncover more of these objects comes from the surprise discovery of the

Big Bang Timeline
Timeline of The Big Bang
The broadly accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our universe is the Big Bang model,
which states that the universe began as an incredibly hot, dense point roughly 13.7 billion years ago
before expanding into a large, unexplored cosmos; home to an unknown amount of planets and
systems.
The universe begins with a cataclysm that generates space and time, as well as all the matter and
energy the universe will ever hold. For an incomprehensibly small fraction of a second, the universe
is an infinitely dense, hot fireball. At 10–35 to 10–33 seconds a runaway process called "Inflation"
causes a vast expansion of space filled with this energy. The inflationary period is stopped only
when this energy is transformed into matter and energy as we know it.
After inflation, one millionth of a second after the Big Bang, the universe continues to expand but
not nearly so quickly. The most basic forces in nature become distinct: first gravity, then the strong
force which holds nuclei of atoms together, followed by the weak and electromagnetic forces. By
the first second, the universe is made up of fundamental particles and energy: quarks, electrons,
photons, neutrinos and less familiar types. These particles merge together to form protons and
neutrons. These protons and neutrons come together to form the nuclei of simple elements:
hydrogen, helium and lithium. It will take another 300,000 years for electrons to be captured into
orbits around these nuclei

The Big Bang
The universe is a magnificent place. There are thought to be more than 100 billion galaxies, each,
with 100 billion stars (Hawking 48). There are vast clouds of gas, light years across, each taking on
its own dazzling shape and color. In our solar system alone, there are planets asteroids, comets and
moons. For millennia, humans have attributed the workings and beauty of the cosmos to the divine.
Slowly, we learned that laws governed the motion of these celestial bodies, laws which would come
to be known as the laws of physics. It was not a god that was making the planets orbit the sun, but
gravity. Through observations, mankind learned of new laws, and discarded old ones that no longer
matched the observations. Eventually, a prediction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When infrared radiation becomes redshifted, it appears to be microwaves, which have even longer
wavelengths than infrared radiation. At around the same time Dicke and Peebles were making this
prediction, in 1965, two physicists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey, Arno Penzias
and Robert Wilson, were receiving a lot of microwave interference with their equipment (Hawking
55). They had a very sensitive microwave detector, and were receiving this interference no matter
where they pointed the detector. They eventually concluded that the interference was everywhere,
and from outside the atmosphere, and extremely uniform. It was the same no matter what time of
day, or year. This meant the microwaves they were detecting were originating from outside of the
solar system, and even the galaxy (Hawking 55). It was eventually realized that this microwave
background was the same that Dicke, Peeples, and Gamow had predicted. Penzias and Wilson had
found the "glow" of the Big Bang. In 1992, COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer satellite) was able
to find slight variations in the microwave background. This meant that the early universe was not
completely even, allowing matter to clump together and structures to form such as galaxies
(Hawking 56). The amount of evidence for the Big Bang was rising, and it was starting to seem like
an extremely probable theory. It was predicted that when the universe first started to expand in the
Big Bang, there were small

The Big Bang Theory And The Revolution Of A New Generation
The Big Bang Theory What exactly is the Big Bang Theory? I know before starting this essay I
knew very little of what it consisted. I figured that the Big Bang Theory had something to with the
era of a new generation. One in which started after the extinction of dinosaurs to be quite honest. As
I learn more about astronomy, this topic struck an interest and technically the big bang theory isn't
something that occurred but rather something that happened. It started the beginning of what we
now call the universe.
When we ask astronomers what the big bang theory entails, it is simplified as the explanation on
how the universe started or began. The universe was not what it currently is today and in order to
understand our universe we have to obviously start from somewhere so why no start to the
beginning?
According to astronomers there is little known about how the universe was started but as far as we
know it started with a gravitational singularity. Singularities are believed to exist at the center of
black holes. The singularities then inflated over the next 13.8 billion years to what we see in the sky
today. It's hard to look back in time and see how the universe came about, but astronomers can
somewhat summarize the birth through mathematical theory and models of how the Big bang theory
came about. Although Astronomers weren't able to see how the universe came about, they are able to
see an expansion through a phenomenon known as the cosmic microwave background which is

The First Three Minutes: A Modern View Of The Universe
The universe we know today is big and dark, with billions of galaxies. In the beginning of the
universe it was thought to be much different. It was small, dense, and hot. In the book The First
Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe, Weinberg explains the early stages of
the Universe with what happened during the time of the Big Bang. He explains the first three
minutes of the very early universe and then the early universe. At the beginning there was zero time
where the whole Universe was compressed into a one. From there during the "one–hundredth of a
second...the temperature of the universe was about a hundred thousand million degrees Centigrade"
(Page8). The Universe was made up of photons, electrons, positrons, quarks and ... Show more
Which means that they at one point must have been touching each other. To help verify this was
Edward Hubble who found there is a directly proportional "relation between Redshift and Distance"
(pg.22). Meaning galaxy's light spectrum increases in wavelength from the light we receive from a
galaxy and the speed with which it moves away from earth. He used that to calculate the distance of
the galaxy from Earth, and then approximated the age for the universe. "There is... a way to confirm
that the galaxies are really moving apart, as indicated by the red shifts"(page32). This discovery was
a great importance to the Standard Model. Once it was clear that the universe was expanding,
Hubble proceeded to calculate the speed the galaxies that are moving away from us. A constant now
called "Hubble's constant", which determines that galaxies increase in constant proportion to their
distance. The next thing important to the Standard Model was the Theory of General Relativity
published by Albert Einstein. His model predicted an expanding universe; "in order to achieve a
model that fit...Einstein was forced to mutilate his equation by introducing a term called
cosmological constant"(page 35). Which made the formula consistent with a static Universe. The
next important thing about the Standard Model was when the radiation expanded, dropped
frequency and gained wavelength. There was "diffuse background of radio static left over from near
the beginning of the universe"(page46). "Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, set out to use the
antenna to measure the intensity of the radio waves emitted from our galaxy at high galactic
latitudes, out of the planes of the Milky Way"(page46). Which confirmed the Standard Model theory
that remained

Evidence Of The Big Bang Cosmology
The second evidence of the Big Bang is the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which is the
electromagnetic radiation left over from the time of recombination in Big Bang cosmology. It
represents the first light that travelled in the universe, at the time when the first atoms were formed
and the universe was transparent. The scientists Alpher and Hermann deduced that before the
recombination epoch, everything was plasma and the light rays would be continually scattered by
the particles they encountered (protons, neutrons, electrons), because many particles were charged.
During the recombination period, (around 300,000 years after the Big Bang, time taken from the
universe to cool down to 3,000 degrees Kelvin), the universe had cooled sufficiently ... Show more
COBE's measurements also provided another key of evidence of the Big Bang: the CMB has a near–
perfect black–body spectrum. an object with a constant temperature that absorbs all radiation that
hits it
A blackbody spectrum is produced by an isothermal, opaque and non–reflecting object. Because of
the universality of the blackbody spectrum, it is possible to convert any spectral measurement into a
brightness temperature at the measured wavelength. The unique character of a blackbody spectrum
is that the brightness temperature of a blackbody is the same at all wavelengths (this is why every
wavelength in the CMB is 1 mm).
Furthermore, in order to make a blackbody spectrum, an object has to be opaque, non–reflective and
isothermal. Thus a star, which is opaque, does not produce it because it has cooler outer layers and
hotter deeper layers. Thus the universe should have been a dark (since photons weren't free to
escape), non–reflecting and isothermal plasma. (10)
Even though the temperature of the universe changes as it evolves, it looks isothermal because the
redshifting of radiation makes the universe appear to have exactly the same temperature as

Key Properties Of Galaxy Clusters
section{Results} label{sec::result}
The fact that this galaxy cluster was not identified by textit{ROSAT} as a cluster suggests that there
may be a hidden population of galaxy clusters hosting extreme central galaxies (i.e. starbursts and/or
QSOs). Table~ref{table::keyvalue} shows the key properties of both PKS1343–341 which are
derived in this work ($R_{500}, M_{500}, M_{rm{gas},500}, T_x, L_x, t_{rm{cool},0},
rm{SFR}$) and other similar clusters, including Abell 1795 (a strong cool core cluster) and 3C 186
(a quasar–mode cluster).
begin{deluxetable*}{ccccc}
tabletypesize{footnotesize}
tablecaption{Key properties for the galaxy clusterlabel{table::keyvalue}}
tablecolumns{0}
tablewidth{0pt}
tablehead{ colhead{Property ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We assume that the cluster is located at the same redshift as the central AGN.}
tablenotetext{b}{$T_x$ is measured from 0.15$R_{500}$ to 1.0$R_{500}$.}
tablenotetext{c}{SFR is measured from the UV luminosity of the BCG for PKS1353–341. (see
Section~ref{sec::sfr})}
tablenotetext{d}{Most of the numbers for Abell 1795 are from~citet{2006VikhlininA}, except
SFR is from~citet{2005Hicks}.}
tablenotetext{e}{All the numbers of 3C 186 are
from~citet{2005Siemiginowska,2010Siemiginowska}}
tablenotetext{f}{$0.85,R_{500}$ is the edge of the chip to guarantee the luminosity calculation.}
tablenotetext{g}{These numbers are from~citet{2010Russell,2014Walker}}
tablenotetext{h}{The cooling radius is defined to be a radius at which the cooling time fell to 7.7
Gyr while the cooling rate is defined within the cooling radius.}
end{deluxetable*}
In the following sections, we discuss morphology and different derived properties of the cluster,
involving the gas fraction, entropy, total hydrostatic mass and its cooling time.
subsection{X–ray and Optical Morphology}
begin{figure}[!ht]

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