методичка гнф

PART 1
Text 1
Geology (4500)
1. Learn the words and word combinations before reading:
solid matter ['sOlId'mxtq] - твёрдое вещество
encompass - [in'kAmpqs] - охватывать
breakdown - ['breikdaun] - распад
constituent - [kqn'stitjuqnt] - составная часть, компонент
to be in excess of– быть больше чем…
aqueous - ['eikwiqs] - водный, водяной
vapour - ['veipq] - пар, испарения
tripoli ['trIpqlI] – трепел
suffuse [sq'fjHz] –наполнять, заполнять
gemstone – полудрагоценный, фианит
nitrogen - ['naitrqdZqn] - азот
exogenous processes – экзогенные процессы - рельефообразующие процессы,
происходящие на поверхности
trough - [trOf] - синклиналь, впадина
diverse transformations -[dai'vWs] - различные трансформации
2. Mind the the prononciation of the following words:
Geology - [dZi'OlqdZi]; Geologist - [dZi'OlqdZist]; Geological -[dZiq'lOdZikql];
Earth - [WT]; biosphere ['baIq"sfIq] ; lithosphere ['lITq"sfIq]; hydrosphere
['haIdrq"sfIq]; atmosphere ['xtmqs"fIq].
3. Read and translate the text:
Geology (from Greek: geo, "earth"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. to talk about
the earth) is the science and study of the solid matter that constitutes the Earth.
Encompassing such things as rocks, soil, and gemstones, geology studies the
composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape
Earth's components. It is one of the Earth sciences. The age of the Earth, determined
on the basis of the known rate of breakdown of radioactive elements entering the
crust, is calculated to be in excess of 4,000 Ma*
. Geologists help to locate and
manage the Earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as metals
such as iron, copper, and uranium. Additional economic interests include gemstones

and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice,
quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium.
The atmosphere (from the Greek atmo- air and sphaere - sphere) is the layer of
the air which envelops the earth. Essentially it consists of nitrogen and oxygen with a
small quantity of water vapours, carbon dioxide and certain rare noble gases, notably
argon.
The hydrosphere (Greek – hydro-water) is the aqueous shell which includes all
the natural waters – the waters of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, which cover more than
70 of the earth’s surface, and also the underground waters, suffusing the rocks of
the earth.
The lithosphere (Greek – lithos- stone) is the outer solid shell of the earth.
That’s the very thing interesting for geologists.
The lithosphere comprises several shells. The outer cover (shell) of the Earth,
known as the Earth's crust, is the shell on which we live and the one accessible for
our investigation. We obtain most of information concerning the Earth from our
studies of the composition and structure of the Earth's crust. Throughout this vast
span of time the Earth's crust has been undergoing continual changes.
Forces within the Earth, the so-called endogenous (internal) forces, have caused
parts of the crust to be uplifted or lowered as well as folded and buckled into high
mountains and deep troughs. Always, the exogenous (external) forces of the Earth
such as the wind, water, and extreme variances of temperature have been at work
wearing away all land areas above the sea. While high mountains in one region were
being worn away to flat plains, the lowlands in other areas were being elevated into
highlands. Thus, portions of the Earth's crust have repeatedly been raised to great
heights and then worn away.
The lithosphere is composed of rocks, such as granite, basalt, sandstone,
limestone. Rocks are complex natural bodies, composed of chemically and physically
simpler bodies called minerals. Examples of minerals are quartz, feldspar and mica
which form granite or calcite which is a basic constituent of such rocks as limestone
and marble. Minerals in turn are a combination of separate chemical elements.
Minerals are “natural bodies”, individualized physically or chemically, arising in the
earth’s crust as a result of physico- chemical processes, without any particular
interference into these processes by man.
The biosphere (Greek bios- life) is the envelope of the earth which is the site
of organic life. This sphere of life as it were*
, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and
upper part of lithosphere is a material factor in the diverse transformations and
changes occurring in the parts of the earth near the surface. Living organisms destroy
and alter rocks and minerals that had formed earlier, which gives rise to*
new
compounds and new minerals; furthermore, they themselves furnish*
the material for
the accumulation of organic rocks, such as limestones, tripoli, chalk, coal, etc.
Notes:
* Ma – mega anna (lat.) – 106
years, i.e. one million years
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* as it were – так сказать
* to give rise to – вызывать, давать повод
* furnish – снабжать, предоставлять
4. Revise the grammatical value of the underlined words. (Clue: they are participles),
name their functions in the sentence.
5. After reading the text answer the following questions:
1. What is geology as a science? 2. How many shells does the Earth have?
What are they? 3. What does the atmosphere consist of? 4. What is hydrosphere?
What waters does it include? 5. What is the outer solid shell of the Earth? What is it
composed of? 6. What parts of the Earth does the biosphere occupy?
6. Shortly describe each shelf enveloping the Earth.
Text 2
The subject matter of geology (2800)
to be abundant in - [q'bAndqnt] - быть в изобилии
to apply - [q'plai] - применять, использовать, употреблять (to)
basis (pl bases) - ['beIsIs] / ['beIsJz] - базис, основа, основание, фундамент
be concerned with - [ kqn'sWnd] - интересоваться чем либо
significance -[sig'nifikqns] - значение, смысл, важность
foresee - предвидеть, предвосхищать, предсказывать
hazard -['hxzqd] - случайное событие, катаклизм
mudflow – сель
margin - ['ma:dZin] - граница, margins of continents – границы материка
shallow sea - ['Sxlqu] - мелководное море
subdivision -['sAbdi"viZqn] - подразделение
epoch - ['i:pOk] - эпоха, время, век
fossil – ['fOsl] - ископаемое, окаменелость (останки животных или растительных
организмов, сохранившиеся в земной коре с прежних геологических эпох)
be very cautious ['kLSqs] - быть очень осторожным
2. Mind the prononciation of the following geological names:
Palaeozoic ["pxliq' zqVIk] , Archeozoic ["Rki' zqVIk],
Proterozoic ["prquterqu' zqVIk], Mesozoic ["mFsqu' zqVIk],
Cenozoic ["sJnqu'zqVIk], Cambrian [`kxmbriqn],
Ordovician ["LdqV'vISIqn], Silurian [sai'luqriqn],
Devonian [de'vquniqn], Carboniferous ["kRbq'nIfqrqs],
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Permian ['pWmiqn], Jurassic [dZu'rxsik],
Triassic [traI'xsIk], Cretaceous [krI'teISqs],
Quaternary [kwq'tWnqrI]
Geology is the science studying the history of the earth’s development.
Geology gives the possibility to establish how the geography of the earth’s surface
changed in different periods of the earth’s existence. Studying geology one comes to
know what animals and plants existed in the far off past and what changes the organic
world was subjected to.
The subject matter of geology is to explain the causes and regularities of all the
changes. Geology is concerned with minerals, rocks, organic remains and with
modern geological processes.
Geology has an extremely practical significance, constituting a theoretical
basis of searching and prospecting for different useful materials, all of which being
rocks or minerals.
Geologists work to understand the history of our planet. The better they can
understand Earth’s history the better they can foresee how events and processes of the
past might influence the future. Here are two examples:
1) The processes acting upon the Earth cause hazards such as landslides,
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Geologists are working to understand these
processes well enough to avoid building important structures where they will be
damaged. If geologists learn a lot about volcanic mudflows of the past then that
information can be very useful in predicting the dangerous areas where volcanic
mudflows might strike in the future. Intelligent people should be cautious when
considering activities or property development in these areas.
2) Geologists have worked hard to learn that oil and natural gas form from
organic materials deposited along the margins of continents and in shallow seas upon
the continents. They have also learned to recognize the types of rock that are
deposited in these near-shore environments. This knowledge enables them to
recognize potential oil and natural gas source rocks.
TIME. The major subdivisions of geologic time are based on organic processes
– changes in animal and plant life.
The time of earth’s crust development is divided into eras; they represent
differences of life forms. Eras are subdivided into periods and this subdivision is
based on the type of life existing at the time and on major geologic events like
mountain building and plate tectonic movement. Periods are subdivided into epochs
based on more specific and shorter time periods of life and geologic events. Then
there are ages.
In the course of formation of the earth’s crust different rocks were being
developed. The names applied to the divisions of geologic time and those of the rocks
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were not the same, but for reach division of the time scale there is a corresponding
one of the rock scale. Thus we have:
TIME SCALE ROCK SCALE
Era Group
Period System
Epoch Series
age stage
There are 5 eras and five corresponding groups of rocks. They are:
Archeozoic era and group
Proterozoic era and group
Palaeozoic era and group
Mesozoic era and group
Cenozoic era and group
Archeozoic and Proterozois eras are not abundant in organic fossils and as a
rule are not subdivided into periods, epochs and ages. The Palaeozoic era and group
are subdivided into Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and
Permian periods. The Mesozoic era has three periods: Jurassic, Triassic and
Cretaceous periods. The Cenozoic era has three periods: Palaeosoic, Neogenic and
Quaternary periods. Each of all these periods is represented by different forms of
organic life.
4. Divide the underlined ing–form words into gerund, participle and verbal noun
groups.
5. See to what passive tense forms are used in the text.
6. Tell your understanding of:
- the subject matter of geology;
- the main tasks of geologists;
- the major subdivisions of geologic time and those of the rocks.
Text 3
Rocks (6400)
connote - [kO'nqut] - обозначать, подразумевать
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specimen - ['spesimin] - образец, экземпляр
exposure - [iks'pquZq] - подвергание воздействию, обнажение (горных пород)
igneous - ['igniqs] - изверженный
crystallization - ["kristqlai'zeiSqn] - кристаллизация
abyssal - [q'bisql] - глубинный, изверженный, абиссальный
adjacent geological stratum - [q'dZeisqnt] - смежный геологический слой
host - [hqust] - принимать, притягивать
tungsten - ['tANstqn] - вольфрам
uranium - [ju'reinjqm] - уран
granite - ['grxnit] - гранит
chromium - ['krqumjqm] - хром
occurrence - [q'kArqns] - залегание, месторождение
texture - ['tekstSq] - строение, структура минералов, почвы, поверхности
geometry - [dZi'Omitri] - геометрия
distortion - [dis'tLSqn] - кручение, перекручивание
facies - внешний вид, общий облик, фация
index mineral – руководящий материал
gneiss - [nais] - гнейс, порода, состоящая из шпата, кварца и слюды
valuable - ['vxljuqbl] - ценный, полезный
sillimanite - силлиманит
kyanite ['kiq"nit] -кианит, дистен
staurolite ['storq"lit] – ставролит
olivines - оливин, хризолит, перидот
pyroxenes - ['pairOksJn] - пироксен
amphiboles - ['amfq"bol] – обманка (любая группа минералов с комплексом
силикатных материалов, содержащих кальций, натрий, магний, алюминий и
ионы железа или их соединение)
mica - ['maikq] - слюда
feldspar - ['feldspa:] - полевой шпат
Broadly speaking a rock is an assemblage of one or (most commonly) two or
more minerals (specific chemical compounds) that form a part of the Earth’s solid
body. A “rock” normally connotes an individual “specimen” – one that can be held in
one’s hand or is larger but detached from its outcrop (exposure of the rock’s source)
so that it has visible boundaries. We know all rocks to fall into three great divisions
termed: 1) sedimentary, 2) igneous, 3) metamorphic. In this text we’ll read about two
of them: igneous and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks (from Latin “ignis”, fire) are one of the three main rock types.
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock).
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Igneous rocks that have solidified without reaching the surface are termed
intrusive or abyssal. Those which have flown out on the surface as lava before
solidifying are termed effusive or volcanic.
Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed
beneath the surface of the Earth’s crust. These have diverse properties, depending on
their composition and how they were formed. Igneous rocks make up approximately
ninety-five percent of the upper part of the Earth’s crust, but their great abundance is
hidden on the Earth’s surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks are geologically important because:
 their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of
the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature
and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and of other pre-existing
rocks that melted;
 their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating
and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time
sequence of events;
 their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment,
allowing tectonic reconstitutions;
 in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for
example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites,
whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with
gabbros.
Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes.
Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogy,
chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.
Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of an existing rock
type, the protolith, in a process called metamorphism, which means “change in
form”. The protolith is subjected to heat and pressure (temperatures greater than 150
to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars) causing profound physical and chemical
change. Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are
classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies).
They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to
high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can be
formed by tectonic processes such as continental collisions which cause horizontal
pressure, friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the
intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth’s interior. The study of
metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth’s surface following erosion and uplift)
provides us with very valuable information about the temperatures and pressures that
occur at great depths within the Earth’s crust. Some examples of metamorphic rocks
are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.
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Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and
pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals include
sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.Other minerals, such as
olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in
metamorphic rocks, but are not necessarily the result of the process of
metamorphism. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks.
They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically
unchanged during the metamorphic process. However, all minerals are stable only
within certain limits, and the presence of some minerals in metamorphic rocks
indicates the approximate temperatures and pressures at which they were formed.
3. Determine the form of the underlined tense structures.
4. Find the gerunds in the text.
5. After reading the text answer the following questions:
1. What is a rock? 2. What are the main rock types? 3. What does the word “igneous”
mean? 4. How many per cent of the upper part of the Earth’s crust do the igneous
rocks make up? 5. Why are igneous rocks so geologicaly important? 6. What does the
word “metamorphism” mean? 7. What does the study of metamorphic rocks provide
us with? 8. What metamorphic minerals can you name?
Text 4
Sedimentary rocks (4500)
common - ['kOmqn] - распространенный, общий, часто встречающийся
dolomite - ['dOlqmait] - доломит
conglomerate - [kqn'glOmqrqt] - конгломерат (сцементированная обломочная
горная порода)
chemogenic - [kemq'dZenIk] - химогенный
clastic rock - ['klxstik] - обломочная горная порода
overburden - ["quvq'bWdn] - покрывающий сверху
pressure - ['preSq] - давление
squeeze - [skwJz] - сжимать, сдавливать, образовывать трещины
layer - ['leiq] - слой, пласт, прослойка
connate fluids - ['kOneit 'flHid] - реликтовые воды
expel - [iks'pel] - выбрасывать, выталкивать
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diagenesis - ['daIqdZenisis]–диагенез, перестройка минералов (совокупность
физических и химических превращений рыхлых осадков на дне водных
бассейнов под воздействием температур и давлений верхней зоны земной коры)
chemical - ['kemikql] - химический
stratum / pl. strata - ['stra:tqm] - пласт, напластование, формация
superposition - ['sju:pqpq'ziSqn] - напластование
gradation - [grq'deiSqn] - постепенный переход от одной стадии к другой, из
одного состояния в другое, сортировка
gap - [gxp] - брешь, промежуток, щель
unconformity - ['Ankqn'fLmiti] - несогласное напластование
lithification - ['litifi"keiSqn] - окаменение, литификация
equal - ['Jkwql] - одинаковый
size - размер
boulder - ['bquldq] - валун, глыба, большой камень
cobble - ['kObl] - булыжный камень, булыжник; крупная галька
successive - [sqksesIv] - следующий один за другим, последовательный
Sedimentary rocks formed from sediments cover 75-80% of the Earth’s land
area, and include common types such as chalk, limestone, dolomite, sandstone,
conglomerate and shale. According to the agents involved in the deposition of
sedimentary rocks we may have: 1) mechanically formed sediments (clastic rocks), 2)
chemically formed sediments (chemogenic rocks), 3) organically formed sediments
(organic rocks), 4) rocks of mixed origin.
Sedimentary rocks are formed because of the overburden pressure*
as particles
of sediment are deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the
particles in suspension. As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (or
‘lithostatic’) pressure squeezes the sediment into layered solids in a process known as
lithification (‘rock formation’) and the original connate fluids are expelled. The term
diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes,
including cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during
and after its lithification, exclusive of surface weathering.
Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. That new rock
layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition.There are
usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods in
which no new sediments were being laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers
were raised above sea level and eroded away. The layers may vary as to kind of
material, colour, texture and thickness.
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The products of rock decay vary greatly in size, but when subjected to the
action of running water they are sorted and graded into particles of approximately
equal size in accordance with the strength of current. Grouped then according to the
size beginning with the coarsest, the following names for this material may be
employed: 1) boulders and cobbles (the coarsest), 2) gravel, 3) sand, 4) clay.
Gradation of these into each other is very common. They are unconsolidated
mechanical sediments.
Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of Earth.
They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is
considered a type of sedimentary rock. Differences between successive layers
indicate changes to the environment which have occurred over time. Sedimentary
rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they
form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.
The sedimentary rocks cover only 5% of the total of the Earth’s crust.
All rocks disintegrate when exposed to mechanical and chemical weathering at
the Earth’s surface. Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock into particles
without producing changes in the chemical composition of the minerals in the rock.
(ice, water, heating and cooling). Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rock by
chemical reaction. In this process the minerals within the rock are changed into
particles that can be easily carried away.
Sedimentary rocks are economically important in that they can easily be used
as construction material because they are soft and easy to cut. In addition,
sedimentary rocks often form porous and permeable reservoirs in sedimentary basins
in which petroleum and other hydrocarbons can be found.
Notes:
* overburden pressure – давление покрывающих пластов
* as to – относительно
3. Find in the text the equivalents:
вовлеченный в осаждение, механически сформированные осадки, называемые
слоями, процесс известный как породообразование, смешанного
происхождения, сохраненные останки, химическое выветривание, охлаждение,
экономически важные, давление покрывающих пластов.
4. Make the resume of the text.
5. Answer the question: why are sedimentary rocks so important for petroleum
geophysicists?
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Text 5
Composition of rocks (5400)
occur - [q'kW] - залегать, встречаться, происходить
occurrence - [q'kArqns]– месторождение минерала, место залегания руды
crystalline structure -['kristqlain] - кристаллическая структура
common - ['kPmqn]– широко распространенный
halide - [ʹhælaıd] - галоидное соединение, галид
sulfide -['sAlfaId] - сульфид, сернистое соединение
sulfate - ['sAlfeIt] - сульфит, соль серной кислоты
luster - ['lAstq]– глянец, блеск
constituent - [kqn'stItjuqnt] – составная часть, элемент
transparent - [trxn'spxrqnt] - прозрачный
brittle - ['brItl]– хрупкий, ломкий. неустойчивый
effervesce - ["efq'ves] - выделяться в виде пузырьков, шипеть
substitute for – заменять на что-либо, подменять
Most rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are defined by geologists as
naturally occurring inorganic solids that have a crystalline structure and a distinct
chemical composition. Of course, the minerals found in the Earth's rocks are
produced by a variety of different arrangements of chemical elements. A list of the
eight most common elements making up the minerals found in the Earth's rocks is
described in Table 1.
Element Chemical
Symbol
Percent Weight in
Earth's Crust
Oxygen O 46.60
Silicon [ʹsılıkən] Si 27.72
Aluminum [əʹlu:mınəm] Al 8.13
Iron [ʹaıən] Fe 5.00
Calcium Ca 3.63
Sodium Na 2.83
Over 2000 minerals have been identified by earth scientists. Table 2 describes
some of the important minerals, their chemical composition, and classifies them in
one of nine groups.
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The Element Group includes over one hundred known minerals. Many of the
minerals in this class are composed of only one element. Geologists sometimes
subdivide this group into metal and nonmetal categories. Gold, silver, and copper are
examples of metals. The elements sulfur and carbon produce the minerals sulfur,
diamonds, and graphite which are nonmetallic.
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Table 2: Classification of some of the important minerals found in rocks.
Group Typical Minerals Chemistry
Elements
Gold Au
Silver Ag
Copper Cu
Carbon (Diamond and Graphite) C
Sulfur S
Sulfides
Cinnabar [ʹsınəbɑ:] HgS
Galena [gəʹli:nə] PBS
Pyrite [ʹpaı(ə)raıt] FeS2
Halides
Fluorite [ʹflʋ(ə)raıt] CaF2
Halite [ʹhælaıt] NaCl
Oxides
Corundum [kəʹrʌndəm] Al2O3
Cuprite [ʹkju:praıt] Cu2O
Hematite [ʹhi:mətaıt] Fe2O3
Carbonates
(Nitrates and Borates)
Calcite [ʹkælsaıt] CaCO3
Dolomite [ʹdɒləmaıt] CaMg(CO3)2
Malachite [ʹmæləkaıt] Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
Sulfates
Anhydrite [ænʹhaıdraıt] CaSO4
Gypsum [ʹdʒıps(ə)m] CaSO4 -2(H2O)
Phosphates (Arsenates,
Vanadates, Tungstates,
and Molybdates)
Apatite [ʹæpətaıt] Ca5(F,Cl,OH)(PO4)
Silicates
Albite [ʹælbaıt] NaAlSi3O8
Augite [ʹɔ:dʒaıt]
(Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe, Al)(Al,
Si)2O6
Beryl [ʹberıl] Be3Al2(SiO3)6
Biotite [ʹbaıətaıt] K (FE, Mg)3AlSi3O10(F, OH)2
Hornblende [ʹhɔ:nblend]
Ca2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Al,
Si)8O22(OH)2
Microcline KAlSi3O8
Muscovite [ʹmʌskəvaıt] KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F, OH)2
Olivine [ʹɒlıvi:n] (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
Orthoclase [ʹɔ:θəkleıs] KAlSi3O8
Quartz [kwɔ:ts] SiO2
Organics Amber [ʹæmbə] C10H16O
13

The sulfides form an economically important class of minerals. Many of these
minerals consist of metallic elements in chemical combination with the element
sulfur. Most ores of important metals such as mercury (cinnabar - HgS), iron (pyrite -
FeS2), and lead (galena - PbS) are extracted from sulfides. Many of the sulfide
minerals are recognized by their metallic luster. But on account of their usual sparing
occurrence in rocks only one of them, pyrite, has a special importance as a rock –
making mineral.
The halides are a group of minerals whose principle chemical constituents are
fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine. Many of them are very soluble in water.
Halides also tend to have a highly ordered molecular structure and a high degree of
symmetry. The most well-known mineral of this group is halite (NaCl) or rock salt.
The oxides are a group of minerals that are compounds of one or more metallic
elements combined with oxygen, water, or hydroxyl (OH). The minerals in this
mineral group show the greatest variations of physical properties. Some are hard,
others soft. Some have a metallic luster, some are clear and transparent. Some
representative oxide minerals include corundum, cuprite, and hematite.
The carbonates consist of minerals which contain one or more metallic
elements chemically associated with the compound CO3. Most carbonates are lightly
colored and transparent when relatively pure. All carbonates are soft and brittle.
Carbonates also effervesce when exposed to warm hydrochloric acid. Most geologists
considered the Nitrates and Borates being subcategories of the carbonates. Some
common carbonate minerals include calcite, dolomite, and malachite.
The sulfates are a mineral group that contains one or more metallic element in
combination with the sulfate compound SO4. All sulfates are transparent or
translucent and soft. Most are heavy and some are soluble in water. Rarer sulfates
exist containing substitutes for the sulfate compound. For example, in the chromates
SO4 is replaced by the compound CrO4. Two common sulfates are anhydrite and
gypsum.
The phosphates are a group of minerals of one or more metallic elements
chemically associated with the phosphate compound PO4. The phosphates are often
classified together with the arsenate, vanadate, tungstate, and molybdate minerals.
One common phosphate mineral is apatite. Most phosphates are heavy but soft. They
are usually brittle and occur in small crystals or compact aggregates.
The silicates are by far the largest group of minerals. Chemically, these
minerals contain varying amounts of silicon and oxygen. It is easy to distinguish
silicate minerals from other groups, but difficult to identify individual minerals
within this group. None are completely opaque. Most are light in weight. The
construction component of all silicates is the tetrahedron. A tetrahedon is a chemical
structure where a silicon atom is joined by four oxygen atoms (SiO4). Some
representative minerals include albite, augite, beryl, biotite, hornblende, microcline,
muscovite, olivine, othoclase, and quartz.
The organic minerals are a rare group of minerals chemically containing
hydrocarbons. Most geologists do not classify these substances as true minerals. Note
14

that our original definition of a mineral excludes organic substances. However, some
organic substances that are found naturally on the Earth that exist as crystals resemble
and act like true minerals. These substances are called organic minerals. Amber is a
good example of an organic mineral.
Notes:
* on account of - из-за, вследствие, на основании
3. Read the following sentences and say if they are taken from the text or not, if they
are not correct, correct them.
1. According to geologists minerals are naturally occurring organic solids that
have a crystalline structure and a distinct chemical composition. 2. The Elements
Group includes over two hundred known minerals. 3. Only one of sulfide minerals
has a special importance as a rock-making mineral, it’s mercury. 4. All carbonates are
not soft and brittle. 5. Phosphates are usually brittle and occur in small crystals or
compact aggregates.
4. Say:
- the most common elements making up the minerals found in the Earth's rocks.
- what organic minerals are.
- which group of minerals is the largest one.
PART 2
Text 1
Origin of Oil and Gas (4200)
decay - [dI'keI]– распад, разложение
trap - [trxp] – n трапп, ловушка(нефти или газа), моноклиналь; v улавливать,
поглощать, отделять, останавливать, задерживать, удерживать
yield - [jJld] – n урожай, добыча, выход; прогиб; поддувание (почвы); v давать
какой то результат, производить, выпускать
algae ['xldZJ] pl от alga - водоросли
kerogen - bituminous material occurring in shale and yielding oil when heated
to be mature – подоспеть, прийти (о сроке), созреть
protein - ['prqutJn] - белок, протеин
trigger - ['trIgq] - вызывать, играть роль спускового механизма, инициировать
squeeze - [skwJz] - сжимать, сдавливать, выжимать
expel - [Ik'spel]– выталкивать, выбрасывать
fracture - ['frxktSq] - перелом, разрыв, трещина
blob - [blPb] - капля, шарик
tarry - ['txrI] - дёгтеобразный, смолистый, просмолённый
viscous - ['vIskqs] - вязкий, вязкостный
15

Oil and gas are derived almost entirely from decayed plants and bacteria.
Energy from the sun, which fuelled the plant growth, has been recycled into useful
energy in the form of hydrocarbon compounds - hydrogen and carbon atoms linked
together.
Of all the diverse life*
that has ever existed comparatively little has become, or
will become oil and gas. Plant remains must first be trapped and preserved in
sediments then be buried deeply and slowly 'cooked' to yield oil or gas. Rocks
containing sufficient organic substances to generate oil and gas in this way are known
as source rocks.
Whether oil or gas is formed depends partly on the starting materials. Almost
all oil forms from the buried remains of minute aquatic algae and bacteria, but gas
forms if these remains are deeply buried. The stems and leaves of buried land plants
are altered to coals. Generally these yield no oil, but again produce gas on deep
burial.
On burial the carbohydrates and proteins of the plant remains are soon
destroyed. The remaining organic compounds form a material called kerogen.
Aquatic plants and bacteria form kerogen of different composition from woody land
plants.
The processes of oil and gas formation resemble those of a kitchen where the
rocks are slowly cooked. Temperatures within the Earth's crust increase with depth so
that sediments, and kerogen which they contain, warm up as they become buried
under thick piles of younger sediments.
As a source rock, deposited under the sea or in a lake, becomes hotter
(typically >100o
C), long chains of hydrogen and carbon atoms break from the
kerogen, forming waxy and viscous heavy oil. At higher temperatures, shorter
hydrocarbon chains break away to give light oil and then, above about 160o
C, gas.
Once a source rock has started to generate oil or gas it is said to be mature. The
most important products generated are gas, oil, oil containing dissolved gas, and gas
containing dissolved oil which is called gas condensate. Condensate is the light oil
which is derived from gas condensates to be found at high underground temperatures
and pressures.
Migration
Much oil and gas moves away or migrates from the source rock. Migration is
triggered both by natural compaction of the source rock and by the processes of oil
and gas formation. Most sediments accumulate as a mixture of mineral particles and
water. As they become buried, some water is squeezed out and once oil and gas are
formed, these are also expelled. If the water cannot escape fast enough, as is often the
case*
from muddy source rocks, pressure builds up. Also, as the oil and gas separate
16

from the kerogen during generation, they take up more space and create higher
pressure in the source rock. The oil and gas move through minute pores and cracks
which may have formed in the source rock towards more permeable rocks above or
below in which the pressure is lower.
Oil, gas and water migrate through permeable rocks in which the cracks and
pore spaces between the rock particles are interconnected and are large enough to
permit fluid movement. Fluids cannot flow through rocks where these spaces are very
small or are blocked by mineral growth; such rocks are impermeable. Oil and gas also
migrate along some large fractures and faults which may extend for great distances if
as a result of movement, these are permeable.
Oil and gas are less dense than the water which fills the pore spaces in rocks so
they tend to migrate upwards once out of the source rock. Under the high pressures at
depth gas may be dissolved in oil and vice versa so they may migrate as single fluids.
These fluids may become dispersed as isolated blobs through large volumes of rock,
but larger amounts can become trapped in porous rocks. Having migrated to
shallower depths than the source rocks and so to lesser pressures the single fluids
may separate into oil and gas with the less dense gas rising above the oil. If this
separation does not occur below the surface it takes place when the fluid is brought to
the surface. Water is always present below and within the oil and gas layers, but has
been omitted from most of the diagrams for clarity.
Migration is a slow process, with oil and gas travelling between a few
kilometres and tens of kilometres over millions of years. But in the course of many
millions of years huge amounts have risen naturally to sea floors and land surfaces
around the world. Visible liquid oil seepages are comparatively rare, most oil
becomes viscous and tarry near the surface as a result of oxidation and bacterial
action, but traces of natural oil seepage can often be detected if sought.
Notes:
* of all the diverse life – из всего многообразия жизненных форм
* as it often the case – как это часто бывает
3. Say what verb forms are underlined and name their functions.
4. Answer the following questions:
1. What is a source rock? 2. Under what conditions is the gas formed from algae and
bacteria? 3. What is kerogen? 4. When is viscous heavy oil formed? 5. Where do oil
and gas migrate? 6. Is oil less dense than the water which fills the pore space?
Text 2
Trapping Oil and Gas (2750)
17

spill point – точка разлива
fracture -['frxktSq] - раскол, трещина, разрыв
bubble out ['bAbql 'aut] – подниматься пузырьками, бить ключом
break – разрыв, сдвиг, малый сброс
impervious - [im'pWvjqs] - непроходимый, непроницаемый, не пропускающий
(влагу и т. п.)
reservoir bed - ['rqzqvwa:] - пласт-коллектор
fault traps - ловушка, образованная сбросом
domed arch - [a:tS] - куполообразная арка
fold - [fquld] - складка, флексура
folded – складчатый
petroleum-bearing formation – нефтеносная свита
combination trap – комбинированная ловушка
truncated - ['trANkeitid] - усеченный, укорачивать, сокращать
pinch - [pIntS] - геол. выклиниваться (о жиле ; тж. ~ out)
piercement dome [piqsi'ment 'dqum]- купол протыкания, протыкающий купол
spindle top – вершина с углублением
Oilfields and gasfields are areas where hydrocarbons have become trapped in
permeable reservoir rocks, such as porous sandstone or fractured limestone.
Migration towards the surface is stopped or slowed down by impermeable rocks such
as clays, cemented sandstones or salt which act as seals. Oil and gas accumulate only
where seals occur above and around reservoir rocks so as to stop the upward
migration of oil and gas and form traps, in which the seal is known as the cap rock.
The migrating hydrocarbons fill the highest part of the reservoir, any excess oil and
gas escaping at the spill point where the seal does not stop upward migration. Gas
may bubble out of the oil and form a gas cap above it; at greater depths and pressures
gas remains dissolved in the oil. Since few seals are perfect, oil and gas escape
slowly from most traps.
A hydrocarbon reservoir has a distinctive shape, or configuration, that prevents the
escape of hydrocarbons that migrate into it. Geologists classify reservoir shapes, or traps,
into two types: structural traps and stratigraphic traps.
Structural Traps
Structural traps form because of a deformation in the rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons. Two examples of structural traps are fault traps and anticlinal traps.
Fault Traps
The fault is a break in the layers of rock. A fault trap occurs when the
formations on either side of the fault move. The formations then come to rest*
in
18

such a way that, when petroleum migrates into one of the formations, it becomes
trapped there. Often, an impermeable formation on one side of the fault moves
opposite a porous and permeable formation on the other side. The petroleum
migrates into the porous and permeable formation. Once there, it cannot get out
because the impervious layer at the fault line traps it.
Anticlinal Traps
An anticline is an upward fold in the layers of rock, much like a domed arch in
a building. The oil and gas migrate into the folded porous and permeable layer and
rise to the top. They cannot escape because of an overlying bed of impermeable
rock.
Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps form when other beds seal a reservoir bed or when the
permeability changes within the reservoir bed itself. In one stratigraphic trap, a
horizontal, impermeable rock layer cuts off, or truncates, an inclined layer of
petroleum-bearing rock. Sometimes a petroleum-bearing formation pinches out—
that is, an impervious layer cuts it off. Other stratigraphic traps are lens-shaped.
Impervious layers surround the hydrocarbon-bearing rock. Still another occurs
when the porosity and permeability change within the reservoir itself. The upper
reaches of the reservoir are nonporous and impermeable; the lower part is porous
and permeable and contains hydrocarbons.
Other Traps
Many other traps occur. In a combination trap, for example, more than one
kind of trap forms a reservoir. A faulted anticline is an example. Several faults cut
across the anticline. In some places, the faults trap oil and gas. Another trap is a
piercement dome. In this case, a molten substance—salt is a common one—pierces
surrounding rock beds. While molten, the moving salt deforms the horizontal beds.
Later, the salt cools and solidifies and some of the deformed beds trap oil and gas.
Spindle top is formed by a piercement dome.
Notes:
* come to rest – наткнуться, уткнуться
* seal – относительно непроницаемая горная порода, которая формирует барьер
или подобие шапки над или вокруг нефтяного пласта, так, что флюиды не в
состоянии двигаться за пределы пласта.
3. Match the word combinations in the first column with their Russian equivalents in
the second one.
Porous sandstone Слои горной породы
Cap rock нарушенная сбросами антиклиналь
Reservoir shape Пористый песчаник
Layers of rock Точка разлива
Fault trap Разломная моноклиналь
19

Faulted anticline Очертания месторождения
Spill point Покрывающая порода
4. Answer the following questions:
1. Where do hydrocarbons become trapped? 2. What stops the upward migration of
oil and gas? 3. What are traps? 4. When does a fault trap occur? 5. What is an
anticline trap? 6. When do stratigraphic traps form?
Text 3
How much oil and gas (3650)
at a profit – с прибылью
porosity - [pL'rO siti] - пористость, ноздреватость; скважинность
permeability - ["pWmjq'biliti] - проницаемость, проходимость
well log – промысловая геофизика, каротаж
rock matrix - ['meitriks] -материнская порода; цементирующая среда
core - колонка породы, керн
fluid saturation ["sxCq'reISqn] - насыщенность флюидом
fraction – фракция, частица
pressure ['preSq] - давление; сжатие, стискивание
drive [draiv]- передача; вытеснение (нефти из коллектора газом, водой)
пластовый режим, проходить (горизонтальную выработку), штрек по
простиранию пород
sealing [sJliN] fault – непроводящий сброс ант. nonsealing – проводящий
drillsteam test- апробирование пласта испытателем на скважине
drilling rate log = drilling time log – диаграмма скорости проходки скважины;
механический каротаж
mud log – газовый каротаж, геохимическое и геофизическое исследование
скважин по буровому раствору
tracer – изотопный индикатор
20

When deciding whether to develop a field, a company must estimate how much
oil and gas will be recovered and how easily they will be produced. Although the
volume of oil and gas in place can be estimated from the volume of the reservoir, its
porosity, and the amount of oil or gas in the pore spaces, only a proportion of this
amount will be recovered. This proportion is the recovery factor, and is determined
by various factors such as reservoir dimensions, pressure, the nature of the
hydrocarbon, and the development plan.
More specifically, petroleum engineers have to know:
-- the pore spaces of a rock (porosity). Porosity is the volume fraction of space not
occupied by the rock matrix. Not only average porosity is important but also porosity
distribution, both vertically and horizontally. Reservoir porosity is determined from
measurements on cores and well logs using relationships that are somewhat
empirical.
-- how the pore spaces are interconnected (permeability), if permeability is good and
the reservoir fluids flow easily, oil, gas and water will be driven by natural depletion
into the well and up to the surface.
-- the nature of the fluids filling the pore spaces (fluid saturation). Expansion of the
gas cap and water drives oil towards the well bore. Gas and water occupy the space
vacated by the oil. In reservoirs with insufficient natural drive energy, water or gas is
injected to maintain the reservoir pressure.
-- the energy or pressure that may cause the fluids to flow (drives). Pressure is the
driving force in oil and gas production. Reservoir drive is powered by the difference
in pressures within the reservoir and the well, which can be thought of as a column of
low surface pressure let into the highly pressured reservoir.
-- the vertical and areal distribution of reservoirs and pore-connected spaces, and
-- barriers to fluid flow (sealing and nonsealing faults, stratigraphic barriers, etc.).
These facts have to be determined from available information, which probably
consists of: surface seismic, gravity, magnetic, and other geophysical data, borehole
logs of various types, cores taken in boreholes, analyses of fluids recovered in
drillstem tests, production and pressure data, specialized geophysical measurements,
occasionally tracer data, and drilling rate logs, mud logs, and other well data.
Well logs, geologic background, and well-to-well log correlations
supplemented by seismic character studies (will be seen further) give an overall
picture of the stratigraphy and stratigraphic changes across the reservoir, and pro-
duction and pressure data (and occasionally tracer data) give information about the
connectivity of reservoir members between wells. Surface geophysical data, while
lacking the vertical resolution of borehole logs and cores, provides the only data
source that gives detailed information about areal distributions.
The proportion of oil that can be recovered from a reservoir is dependent on the
ease with which oil in the pore spaces can be replaced by other fluids like water or
gas. Tests on reservoir rock in the laboratory indicate the fraction of the original oil in
21

place that can be recovered. Viscous oil is difficult to displace by less viscous fluids
such as water or gas as the displacing fluids tend to channel their way towards the
wells, leaving a lot of oil in the reservoir.
Each oil and gas reservoir is a unique system of rocks and fluids that must be
understood before production is planned. Of course all these facts are to be
determined and calculated by a very synergistically working team of development
geologists, geophysicists and petroleum engineers using all the available data to
develop a mathematical model of the reservoir. Computer simulations of different
production techniques are tried on this reservoir engineering model to predict
reservoir behaviour during production, and select the most effective method of
recovery. For example, if too few production wells are drilled water may channel
towards the wells, leaving large areas of the reservoir upswept.
Factors, such as construction requirements, cost inflation and future oil prices
must also be considered when deciding whether to develop an oil or gas field. When
a company is satisfied with the plans for development and production, they must be
approved by the Government, which monitors all aspects of oil field development.
3. Explain the words:
porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, sealing and nonsealing faults, drillstem tests,
stratigraphic changes across the reservoir, areal distribution.
4. Answer the questions:
1. How can the volume of oil and gas in place be estimated? 2. What is the reservoir
porosity determined from? 4. What gives detailed information about areal
distributions? 5. What do a geologist and a geophysicist have to know about oil
reservoirs?
Text 4
Discovering the underground structure (6300)
pattern - ['pxtn]– образец, пример, структура, форма
density -['densiti] - распределение определенного количества чего-либо на
единицу площади, объема, длины, и т.д.; плотность, удельный вес
altitude - ['xltitHd] - высота, высокие места, высота над уровнем моря
subsurface picture – подповерхностная картина
delineation wells - [di"lini'eiSqn] - описательная скважина
geometric framework – геометрическая структура
spatial elements - ['speiSql] - пространственные элементы
slicing – нарезание
validate - ['vxlideit] - подтверждать
22

laterally – горизонтально
selected event – выделенная волна
travel time – время пробега
resolution – разрешение, разрешающая способность
strong acoustic impedance [im'pJdqns] contrast – сильный контраст акустического
сопротивления
acquisition configuration – конфигурация сбора, приема
downhole hardware - аппаратное обеспечение скважины
Large-scale geological structures that might hold oil or gas reservoirs are
invariably located beneath non-productive rocks, and in addition this is often below
the sea. Geophysical methods can penetrate them to produce a picture of the pattern
of the hidden rocks. Relatively inexpensive gravity and geomagnetic surveys can
identify potentially oil-bearing sedimentary basins, but costly seismic surveys are
essential to discover oil and gas bearing structures.
Sedimentary rocks are generally of low density and poorly magnetic, and are
often underlain by strongly magnetic, dense basement rocks. By measuring
'anomalies' or variations from the regional average, a three-dimensional picture can
be calculated. Modern gravity surveys show a generalised picture of the sedimentary
basins. Recently, high resolution aero-magnetic surveys flown by specially equipped
aircraft at 70 - 100m altitude show fault traces and near surface volcanic rocks.
Initially 3D seismic surveys were used over the relatively small areas of the oil
and gas fields where a more detailed subsurface picture was needed to help improve
the position of production wells, and so enable the fields to be drained with maximum
efficiency. Nowadays 3 D seismic surveys are used for more detailed information
about the rock layers, to plan and monitor the development and production of a field.
The seismic information is integrated with well logs, pressure tests, cores, and other
engineering/geoscience data from the discovery and delineation wells to formulate an
initial field development plan. As more wells are drilled, logged, and tested, and
production histories are recorded, the interpretation of the 3-D data volume is revised
and refined to take advantage of the new information. Aspects of the interpretation
that were initially ambiguous become clear as an understanding of the field builds,
and inferences from the seismic data become more detailed and reliable. The 3-D
data volume evolves into a continuously utilized and updated management tool that
impacts reservoir planning and evaluation for years after the seismic survey was
originally acquired.
Types of 3-D Seismic Analyses
23

The interpretations that a geophysicist might perform with 3-D seismic data
can be grouped conveniently into those that examine the geometric framework of the
hydrocarbon accumulation, those that analyze rock properties, and those that try to
monitor fluid flow and pressure in the reservoir.
These analyses affect and significantly improve decisions that must be made
about volume of reserves, well or platform locations, and recovery strategy.
The first general grouping is geometric framework. It’s a collective term for
such spatial elements as the attitudes of the beds that form the trap, the fault and
fracture patterns that guide or block fluid flow, the shapes of the depositional bodies
that make up a field's stratigraphy, and the orientations of any unconformity surfaces
that might cut through the reservoir.
By mapping travel times to selected events, displaying seismic amplitude
variations across selected horizons, isochroning between events, noting event
terminations, slicing through the volume at arbitrary angles, compositing horizontal
and vertical sections, optimizing the use of color in displays, and using the wide
variety of other interpretive techniques available on a computer workstation, a
geophysicist can synthesize a coherent and quite detailed 3-D picture of a field's
geometry.
The second general grouping of 3-D seismic analyses involves the qualitative
and quantitative definition of rock properties. Amplitudes, phase changes, interval
travel times between events, frequency variations, and other characteristics of the
seismic data are correlated with porosity, fluid type, lithology, net pay thickness, and
other reservoir properties. The correlations usually require borehole control (well
logs, cuttings, cores, etc.) both to suggest initial hypotheses and to refine, revise, and
test proposed relationships. An interpreter develops a hypothesis by comparing a
seismic parameter in the 3-D volume at the location of a well to the well's informa-
tion, often through the intermediary of a synthetic seismogram or 2-D or 3-D seismic
model. The hypothesis is then used to predict rock properties between wells, and
subsequent drilling validates (or invalidates) the concept. Gas saturation in sandstone
reservoirs is probably the rock property that has been most successfully mapped by 3-
D seismic surveys. The presence of free gas typically lowers sharply the seismic
velocity of relatively unconsolidated sandstones and creates a strong acoustic
impedance contrast with surrounding rock. The contrast produces a seismic amplitude
anomaly. Since the early 1970s, this "bright spot" effect has been widely exploited to
detect gas saturation with standard 2-D seismic sections. When the effect occurs in 3-
D volumes, gas-saturated sandstones can be accurately mapped laterally across fields
at multiple producing horizons.
The third general grouping of 3-D seismic analyses consists of those designed
to monitor the actual flow of the fluids in a reservoir. Such flow surveillance is
possible if one (1) acquires a baseline 3-D data volume at a point in calendar time, (2)
allows fluid flow to occur through production and/or injection with attendant
pressure/temperature changes, (3) acquires a second 3-D data volume a few weeks or
months after the baseline, (4) observes differences between the seismic character of
24

the two volumes at the reservoir horizon, and (5) demonstrates that the differences
are the result of fluid flow and pressure/ temperature changes.
The standard 3-D seismic data volume is acquired with source and receivers at
the Earth’s surface. It is logistically possible to put sources and/or receivers in
boreholes and to record part or all of the 3-D data volume with this downhole
hardware. This approach is an active area of research. Depending on the acquisition
configuration, one records various kinds and amounts of reflected and transmitted
seismic energy, which can then be sorted to provide information on geometric
framework, rock properties, and flow surveillance, just like surface surveys.
Advantages of downhole placement are that higher seismic frequencies generally can
be recorded, thereby improving resolution, and that surface-associated seismic noise
and statics problems are lessened or avoided. The main disadvantages are that source
and receiver plants are constrained by the physical locations of available boreholes;
borehole seismology can be affected by tube waves and the like, so downhole
placement is not noise-free; a borehole source cannot be so strong as to damage the
well; and the logistics and economics of operating in boreholes are complex, though
not necessarily always worse than operating on the surface. One can imagine a time
when borehole seismic sources and receivers might be standard components of the
hardware run into wells and accepted as routine and valuable devices for reservoir
characterization and flow surveillance.
The petroleum industry's twenty-year experience with 3-D seismic surveying is
an example of a technological and economic success. Today, the investment in a 3-D
survey typically results in fewer development dry holes, improved placement of
drilling locations to maximize recovery, recognition of new drilling opportunities,
and more accurate estimates of hydrocarbon volume and recovery rate. These
outcomes improve the economics of development and production plans and make the
surveys cost effective.
Notes:
* to take advantage of - воспользоваться
* "bright spot" effect – эффект «яркого» пятна
2. Find the sentences in the text with the word “drilling” and determine its grammar
form.
3. What are ing – forms in the sentence below:
By mapping travel times to selected events, displaying seismic amplitude variations
across selected horizons, isochroning between events, noting event terminations,
slicing through the volume at arbitrary angles, compositing horizontal and vertical
sections, optimizing the use of color in displays, and using the wide variety of other
interpretive techniques available on a computer workstation, a geophysicist can
synthesize a coherent and quite detailed 3-D picture of a field's geometry.
25

4. Answer the questions:
1. When is 3-D seismic survey used? 2. What interpretations can the geophysicist get
with 3-D seismic method? 3. What does geometric framework comprise in? 4. Can
you name qualitative and quantitative definitions of the rock structure? 5. Where are
the standard 3-D seismic data receivers located? 6. Why 3-D surveying method is
more appreciated nowadays?
ADDITIONAL READING
Tasks of a Professional Geologist (11200)
Statement by the National Association of State Boards of Geology (ASBOG®), a
non-profit organization comprised of state boards that have developed and administer
national competency examinations for the licensure/registration of geologists. (in all
the states in the U.S. and the territory of Puerto Rico) The following areas of
professional practice contain generalized and some specific activities which may be
performed by qualified, professional geologists.
Professional geologists may be uniquely qualified to perform these activities based
on their formal education, training and experience. Under each major heading is a
group of activities associated with that specific area of geoscience practice. The
major areas of professional, geologic practice include, but are not limited to:
Research; Field Methods and Communications; Mineralogy; Petrology;
Geochemistry; Stratigraphy; Historical, Structural, Environmental, Engineering, and
Economic Geology; Geophysics; Geomorphology; Paleontology; Hydrogeology;
Geochemistry; and Mining Geology and Energy Resources. These areas are
specifically included in the ASBOG® examinations to assure geologic competency.
Again, this list represents only a cross-section of possible activities, and does not
include all potential professional practice activities.
Also included in this publication is a listing of "Other related activities which
may be performed by qualified Professional Geologists." These activities, although
not specifically geoscience in content, may be performed by a qualified, professional
geologist.
Research, Field Methods and Communications
! Plan and conduct field operations including human and ecological health, safety,
and regulatory considerations
! Evaluate property/mineral rights
! Interpret regulatory constraints
! Select and interpret appropriate base maps for field investigations
! Determine scales and distances from remote imagery and/or maps
! Identify, locate and utilize available data sources
26

! Plan and conduct field operations and procedures to ensure public protection
! Construct borehole and trench logs
! Design and conduct laboratory programs and interpret results
! Evaluate historic land use or environmental conditions from remote imagery
! Develop and utilize Quality Assurance/Quality Control procedures
! Construct and interpret maps and other graphical presentations
! Write and edit geologic reports
! Interpret and analyze aerial photos, satellite and other imagery
! Perform geological interpretations from aerial photos, satellite and other imagery
! Design geologic monitoring programs
! Interpret data from geologic monitoring programs
! Read and interpret topographic and bathymetric maps
! Perform geologic research in field and laboratory
! Prepare soil, sediment and geotechnical logs
! Prepare lithological logs
! Interpret dating, isotopic, and/or tracer studies
! Plan and evaluate remediation and restoration programs
! Identify geological structures, lineaments, or fracture systems from surface or
remote imagery
! Select, construct, and interpret maps, cross-sections, and other data for field
investigations
! Design, apply, and interpret analytical or numerical models
Mineralogy/Petrology
! Identify minerals and their physiochemical properties
! Identify mineral assemblages
! Determine probable genesis and sequence of mineral assemblages
! Predict subsurface mineral characteristics on the basis of exposures and drill holes
! Identify and classify major rock types
! Determine physical properties of rocks
! Determine geotechnical properties of rocks
! Determine types, effects, and/or degrees of rock and mineral alteration
! Determine suites of rock types
! Characterize mineral assemblages and probable genesis
! Plan and conduct mineralogic or petrologic investigations
! Identify minerals and rocks and their characteristics
! Identify and interpret rock and mineral sequences, associations, and genesis
Geochemistry
! Evaluate geochemical data and/or construct geochemical models related to
rocks and minerals
! Establish analytical objectives and methods
! Make determinations of sorption/desorption reactions based upon aquifer
mineralogy
27

! Assess the behavior of dissolved phase and free phase contaminant flow in
groundwater and surface water systems
! Assess salt water intrusion
! Design, implement and interpret fate and transport models
! Identify minerals and rocks based on their chemical properties and constituents
Stratigraphy/Historical Geology
! Plan and conduct sedimentologic, and stratigraphic investigations
! Identify and interpret sedimentary structures, depositional environments, and
sediment provenance
! Identify and interpret sediment or rock sequences, positions, and ages
! Establish relative position of rock units
! Determine relative and absolute ages of rocks
! Interpret depositional environments and structures and evaluate post-depositional
changes
! Perform facies analyses
! Correlate rock units
! Interpret geologic history
! Determine and establish basis for stratigraphic classification and nomenclature
! Establish stratigraphic correlations and interpret rock sequences, positions, and ages
! Establish provenance of sedimentary deposits
Structural Geology
! Plan and conduct structural and tectonic investigations
! Develop deformational history through structural analyses
! Identify structural features and their interrelationships
! Determine orientation of structural features
! Perform qualitative and quantitative structural analyses
! Map structural features
! Correlate separated structural features
! Develop and interpret tectonic history through structural analyses
! Map, interpret, and monitor fault movement
! Identify geological structures, lineaments, fracture systems or other features from
surface or subsurface mapping or remote imagery
Paleontology
! Plan and conduct applicable paleontologic investigations
! Correlate rocks biostratigraphically
! Identify fossils and fossil assemblages and make paleontological interpretations
for age and paleoecological interpretations
Geomorphology
! Evaluate geomorphic processes and development of landforms and soils
! Identify and classify landforms
! Plan and conduct geomorphic investigations
28

! Determine geomorphic processes and development of landforms and soils
! Determine absolute or relative age relationships of landforms and soils
! Identify potential hazardous geomorphologic conditions
! Identify flood plain extent
! Determine high water (i.e. flood) levels
! Evaluate stream or shoreline erosion and transport processes
! Evaluate regional geomorphology
Geophysics
! Select methods of geophysical investigations
! Perform geophysical investigations in the field
! Perform geological interpretation of geophysical data
! Design, implement, and interpret data from surface or subsurface geophysical
programs including data from borehole geophysical programs
! Identify potentially hazardous geological conditions by using geophysical
techniques
! Use wire line geophysical instruments to delineate stratigraphic/lithologic units
! Conduct geophysical field surveys and interpretations, e.g. petrophysical wellbore
logging devices, seismic data (reflection and refraction), radiological, radar, remote
sensing, electro-conductive or resistive surveys, etc. Includes delineation of mineral
deposits, interpretation of depositional environments, formation delineations,
faulting, salt water contaminations-intrusion, contaminate plume delineations and
other
! Identify and delineate earthquake/seismic hazards
! Interpret paleoseismic history
Hydrogeology/Environmental Geochemistry
! Plan and conduct hydrogeological, geochemical, and environmental investigations
! Design and interpret data from hydrologic testing programs including monitoring
plans
! Utilize geochemical data to evaluate hydrologic conditions
! Develop and interpret groundwater models
! Apply geophysical methods to analyze hydrologic conditions including geophysical
logging analysis and interpretation
! Determine physical and chemical properties of aquifers and vadose zones
! Define and characterize groundwater flow systems
! Develop water well abandonment plans including monitoring and public water
supply wells
! Develop/interpret analytical, particle tracking and mass transport models
! Design and conduct aquifer performance tests
! Define and characterize saturated and vadose zone flow and transport
! Evaluate, manage, and protect groundwater supply resources
! Potentiometric surface mapping and interpretation
29

! Design and install groundwater exploration, development, monitoring, and
pumping/injection wells
! Develop groundwater resources management programs
! Plan and evaluate remedial-corrective action programs based on geological
factors
! Evaluate, predict, manage, protect, or remediate surface water or groundwater
resources from anthropogenic (man's) environmental effects
! Characterize or determine hydraulic properties
! Interpret dating, isotopic, and/or tracer surveys
! Determine chemical fate in surface water and groundwater systems
! Make determinations of sorption/desorption reacti
ons based upon aquifer
mineralogy
! Assess the behavior of dissolved phase and free phase contaminant flow in
groundwater and surface water systems
! Assess and develop well head protection plans and source water assessment
delineations
Engineering Geology
! Provide geological information and interpretations for engineering design
! Identify, map, and evaluate potential seismic and othergeologic-geomorphological
conditions and/or hazards
! Provide geological consultation during and after construction
! Develop and interpret engineering geology investigations, characterizations,
maps, and cross sections
! Evaluate materials resources
! Plan and evaluate remediation and restoration programs for hazard mitigation and
land restoration
! Evaluate geologic conditions for buildings, dams, bridges, highways, tunnels,
excavations, and/or other designed structures
! Define and establish site selection and evaluation criteria
! Design and implement field and laboratory programs
! Describe and sample soils for geologic analyses
! Describe and sample soils for material properties/geotechnical testing
! Interpret historical land use, landforms, or environmental conditions from
imagery, maps, or other records
! Conduct geological evaluations for surface and underground mine closure and land
reclamation
! Laboratory permeability testing of earth and earth materials
Economic Geology, Mining Geology, and Energy Resources
(including metallic and non-metallic ores/minerals, petroleum and energy resources,
building stones/materials, sand, gravel, clay, etc.)
30

! Plan and conduct mineral, rock, hydrocarbon, or energy resource exploration
and evaluation programs
! Implement geologic field investigations on prospects
! Perform geologic interpretations for rock, mineral, and petroleum deposit
evaluations, resource assessments, and probability of success
! Perform economic analyses/appraisals
! Provide geologic interpretations for mine development and production activities
! Provide geologic interpretations and plans for abandonment, closure, and restoration
of mineral and energy development or extraction operations
! Identify mineral deposits from surface and/or subsurface mapping or remote
imagery
! Predict subsurface mineral or rock distribution on basis of exposures, drill hole, or
other subsurface data
! Evaluate safety hazards associated with mineral, petroleum, and/or energy
exploration and development
! Determine potential uses and economic value of minerals, rocks, or other natural
resources
Other related activities which may be performed by qualified Professional
Geologists
! Implement siting plans for the location of lagoons and landfills
! Environmental contaminant isocontour mapping
! Conduct water well inventories
! Determine geotechnical aquifer parameters
! Land and water (surface and ground water) use utilized in planning, land usage,
and other determinations
! Determine sampling parameters and provide field oversight.
Emergency response activities and spill response planning including
implementation and coordination with local, state, and federal agencies
! Develop plans and methods with law enforcement, fire, emergency management
agencies, toxicologists and industrial hygienists to determine methods of protection
for public health and safety
! Provide training related to hazardous materials and environmental issues related
to hazardous materials
! Develop plans and methods with biologists for protection of wildlife during spill
events
! Prepare post spill assessments and remediation plans
! Develop and implement site safety plans and environmental sampling plans
! Provide educational outreach related to geological, geotechnical, hydrologic,
emergency response and other activities
! Respond to natural disaster events (i.e. floods, earthquakes, etc.) for protection of
human health and the environment
! Participate in pre-planning for spill events in coastal or other environmentally
sensitive environments
31

! Develop resource(s) and infrastructure vulnerability assessment plans and reports
related to potable and non-potable water supplies, waste water treatment facilities,
etc.
Some more information about rocks (3800)
Dykes are intersecting veins. In inclination dykes may vary from vertical to
horizontal. Sometimes we may observe them extend, outward from larger masses of
intruded rocks.
Effusive or volcanic rocks occur in the forms of domes, sheets and flows. Domes
are the names of arched accumulations of lava solidified in the form of beds similar
to those of sedimentary rocks.
Sheets are formed on the surface from quiet outwelling of highly molten
materials through a) localized opening or volcanic vents and hence connected with
volcanic eruptions or b) from fissures not connected with volcanic eruptions. Sheets
are similar in form to sedimentary strata and extend to large areas.
Flows are formed in the same manner as sheets but they fill negative reliefs such
as valleys and flumes. Flows are much smaller in size than sheets.
Igneous rocks are characterized by a holocrystal line (or granular-crystalline),
glassy and porphyritic structure.
Igneous rocks are subdivided according to their chemical composition. Based
upon the silicon oxide content the rocks are divided into ultra acid, acid average,
basic and ultra basic. The amount of silica present exercises an important influence
on the crystallization of the magma. The many hundreds of analyses that have been
made of igneous rocks show them to contain the following principal oxides, silica,
alumina, iron oxides, ferric, ferrous, magnesia, lime, soda, and potash. These
principal oxides as composing igneous rocks do not exist as free oxides, excepting a
few cases with but a few exceptions only in small amounts.
TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROOKS.
By texture of an igneous rock is meant size, shape and manner of aggregation of
its component minerals. It is considered to be an important means of determining the
physical conditions under which the rock was formed at or near the surface or at
some depth below and hence is recognized to be one of the important factors in the
classification of igneous rocks.
Some rocks are sufficiently coarse-grained in texture for the principal mineral to
be readily distinguished by unaided eye. In others their minerals are too small to be
seen even with the aided eye. There are also those in which no minerals appeared to
have crystallized. Instead the magma has solidified as a glass.
KINDS OF TEXTURE.
Expressing so closely the conditions under which rock magmas solidify the
texture is recognized to be an important property of rocks and one of the principal
factors in their classifications.
32

In megascopic description of igneous rocks five principal textures were reported
to exist. They are glassy, dense or felsitic, porphyritic, granitoid and fragmental.
According to the size of mineral grains we may recognize: 1) fine-grained ; 2)
medium-grained; 3) coarse-grained rocks.
DESCRIPTION OF SOME IGNEOUS ROOKS.
Granites are known to be composed of feldspar and quartz usually with mica or
hornblende, rarely pyroxene.
The chemical composition of granite is now regarded to be of less economic
importance than the mineral composition.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
The usual colour of granite is reported to be some shade of grey though pink or
red varieties are likely to occur depending chiefly upon that of the feldspar and the
proportion of the feldspar to the dark minerals. Specific gravity ranges from 2.65 to
2.75. The percentage of absorption is very small. Crushing strength is very high
ranging from 15.000 to 20.000 pounds per square inch (psi).
These properties render the rock especially desirable for building purposes.
DIORITE. MINERAL COMPOSITION.
The diorites are granular rocks which are known to be composed of plagioclass as
the chief feldspar and hornblende or biotite or both.
Augite is likely to be present in some amount and some ortho - class occurs in all
diorites. The name diorite is applied to those granular rocks in which hornblende is
found to equal or exceed feldspar in amount. Because of the fine-grained texture it is
not possible in many cases to determine by megascopic examination the dominant
feldspar.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
The most important points to be observed in the chemical composition of
normal diorites are lower silica content but notably increased percentages of the
bases, iron, lime and magnesia over the granites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
Diorites are usually of a dark or greenish colour, sometimes almost black
depending upon the colour of hornblende and its proportion to feldspar. They have a
higher specific gravity than granites, ranging from 2.82 to 5.0. They show a high
compressive strength and a low percentage of absorption.
More information about sedimentary rocks (4500)
Organic sedimentary rocks are given this name because of their having been formed
partly or wholly from organic material. The most widely spread are: limestones,
chalk, dolomites, radio-larites, spongiolites, tripoli, caustobioliths.
Sedimentary rocks of chemical origin include a series of deposits owing to their
origin processes that are chemical in character and formed chiefly by concentration
through evaporating aqueous solutions, changes of temperature, loss of carbon
33

dioxide, etc., aided more or less in some cases by the action of organic life (plants
and animals) and resulting in precipitating insoluble salts. These may be subdivided
into carbonates, siliceous rocks, ferrugineous rocks (iron ores), sulphates and haloids.
Sedimentary rocks of mixed origin include the rocks which may be formed: 1) partly
from clastic and partly from organic material; 2) from clastic material and that of
chemical origin; 3) from the material of chemical or of organic origin; 4) from
materials of clastic, organic and chemical origin. Their being of mixed origin results
in some properties similar to those of rocks of organic, chemical and clastic origin.
The term "metamorphic", when broadly applied, includes any change or
alteration that any rock has undergone. It involves changes that are both physical and
chemical, and the rock so altered may have been originally of sedimentary or igneous
origin.
The alteration includes changing in mineral composition or texture or both. This
change being sometimes very great obscures the primary characters of the original
rock, rendering the possibility of defining the source rock almost impossible.
Chemical composition of metamorphic rocks varies greatly because of the source
material having been of widely different composition.
The chemical composition of many rocks is not greatly changed during the process
of metamorphism; hence, metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks frequently
show the composition characteristic of their class. Chemical analysis therefore
frequently forms an important criterion for discriminating between metamorphose
sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Mineral composition of metamorphic rocks being dependent on chemical
composition leads to wide variations in mineral content of metemorphic rocks. It has
been shown that certain, minerals such as the feldspathoids (nepheline and sodalite)
are characteristic of igneous rocks. Likewise there are certain minerals which are
considered to be characteristic of metamorphic rocks.
Mineral composition often becomes at important criterion in distinguishing
metamorphosed sedimentary from metamorphosed igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rocks include: marls, clayey limestones, arenaceous limestones,
and others.
As has been stated before, igneous rocks occur in the form of batholiths,
laccoliths, stocks, dykes; etc. The mode of occurrence of metamorphic rocks depends
on the kind of rocks they have been formed from. We shall speak mostly about
sedimentary rocks because of their being of more practical importance.
The principal morphological units of sedimentary rocks are beds (layers). The layers
may vary as to kind of material, colour, texture and thickness. Variations in
thickness of individual layers may range from a very smell fraction of an inch up to
one hundred feet and more. If we use the terms "layer" or "bed" which are synonym,
we refer to thicker divisions. If the divisions were thinner we should use the term
"lamina". "Stratum" is generally applied to a single bed or layer of rock while a group
of beds deposited in sequence one above another and during the same period of
34

geologic time is known as a formation or suite. The formation may include beds of
both homogeneous and heterogeneous rocks.
Every bed or suite of beds has thickness. We distinguish a true thickness true
thickness, a horizontal thickness and vertical thickness. The true thickness is the
length of the perpendicular line from any point on the top of the bed to the bottom of
this bed. The horizontal thickness is the length of the horizontal line from any point
on the top to the bottom drawn across. The vertical thickness is the length of the
vertical line drawn from any point on the top to the bottom.
Beds of rocks may be observed in outcrops. The outcrops occur as artificial or
natural ones. As a rule the primary occurrence of sediments is almost horizontal. If
there is any displacement as to primary position of beds, we call this displacement a
dislocation or faulting.
If the dislocation is not accompanied by discontinuity, it is called a plicative
dislocation should there-be any discontinuity, a disjunctive dislocation" would
result.
Both plicative and disjunctive dislocations are the result of movements of the
earth's crust. Had there been no crustal movements, no dislocations would have
occurred. If the crustal movements are horizontal or nearly so, plicative dislocations
result; if they are vertical or approximately vertical, the dislocations will be
disjunctive. Plicative dislocations are often accompanied by disjunctive ones, or vice
versa.
The occurrence of beds may be conformable and unconformable, of gentle dip
and folded, transgressive etc.
The position of the bed in space is defined by the elements of its occurrence, that
is, by strike and dip.
A strike of a bed is the direction of the line of its intersection with a horizontal
plane.
A dip of the bed is its inclination as to the horizontal plane.
Geophysical survey methods (after G. Pratt) (2000)
Survey method Measured parameter Physical Property Major Applications
Potentials
Gravity Spatial variations in
the local strength of
the gravitational field
of the Earth
Local variations in
density
Mapping of regional
structures, sedimentary
basins, salt diapers, plutonic
intrusions delineation, sand
and gravel deposits, depth to
bedrock
Magnetics Spatial variations in Local variations in Mapping of regional
35

the local strength of
the geomagnetic field
susceptibility and
remanence
structures, airborne surveys,
igneous intrusions, sea floor
spreading, salt structures,
mineral deposits, buried
environmental hazards,
archeology
Electrical
Resistivity Earth resistance
(applied voltage /
measured current)
Electrical
resistivity
(conductivity)
Mineral prospecting,
engineering and
hydrogeology, contaminant
mapping, construction site
investigation, groundwater
Induced
polarization (IP)
Voltage decay, or
frequency dependent
resistance
Electrical
capacitance
Detection of disseminated
mineral deposits, aquifer
mapping, contaminant
mapping
Self-potential
(SP)
Natural electric
potential
Electro-chemical
activity
Mineral prospecting, graphite
detection, hydrogeology,
geothermal studies
Electromagnetic
(EM)
Secondary (induced)
electromagnetic fields
Electrical
conductivity and
inductance
Deep mineral prospecting,
airborne surveys, conducting
faults, groundwater studies,
detection of underground
pipes and cables, agricultural
studies
Ground
Penetrating
Radar
Traveltimes,
amplitudes, waveforms
of reflected
electromagnetic pulse
Electrical
conductivity, radar
image
Shallow sedimentary
structures, water table
detection, bedrock mapping,
mapping of hydrocarbon
contaminants
Seismic
Earthquake,
Microseismic
Location of
earthquake, traveltime
of elastic waves
Compressional,
shear velocity,
fracture location
Earth mapping at all scales
from global to mine
excavation
Refraction Traveltimes,
of refracted elastic
waves
Compressional,
shear wave
velocities
Crustal scale to engineering
scale mapping of rock types,
structural boundaries,
foundations, hydrogeology
Reflection Traveltimes, Compressional, Oil and gas exploration, site
36

of reflected elastic
waves
shear wave
contrasts, density
contrasts, seismic
image
surveying, bedrock mapping,
detection of shallow faults
and cavities.
Preparing to Drill (4100)
Once the site has been selected, it must be surveyed to determine its boundaries, and
environmental impact studies may be done. Lease agreements, titles and right-of way
accesses for the land must be obtained and evaluated legally. For off-shore sites, legal
jurisdiction must be determined.
Once the legal issues have been settled, the crew goes about preparing the land:
1. The land is cleared and leveled, and access roads may be built.
2. Because water is used in drilling, there must be a source of water nearby. If
there is no natural source, they drill a water well.
3. They dig a reserve pit, which is used to dispose of rock cuttings and drilling
mud during the drilling process, and line it with plastic to protect the
environment. If the site is an ecologically sensitive area, such as a marsh or
wilderness, then the cuttings and mud must be disposed offsite -- trucked away
instead of placed in a pit.
Once the land has been prepared, several holes must be dug to make way for the rig
and the main hole. A rectangular pit, called a cellar, is dug around the location of the
actual drilling hole. The cellar provides a work space around the hole, for the workers
and drilling accessories. The crew then begins drilling the main hole, often with a
small drill truck rather than the main rig. The first part of the hole is larger and
shallower than the main portion, and is lined with a large-diameter conductor pipe.
Additional holes are dug off to the side to temporarily store equipment -- when these
holes are finished, the rig equipment can be brought in and set up.
Setting Up the Rig
Depending upon the remoteness of the drill site and its access, equipment may be
transported to the site by truck, helicopter or barge. Some rigs are built on ships or
barges for work on inland water where there is no foundation to support a rig (as in
marshes or lakes). Once the equipment is at the site, the rig is set up. Here are the
major systems of a land oil rig:
 Power system
 large diesel engines - burn diesel-fuel oil to provide the main source of
power
 electrical generators - powered by the diesel engines to provide
electrical power
 Mechanical system - driven by electric motors
37

 hoisting system - used for lifting heavy loads; consists of a mechanical
winch (drawworks) with a large steel cable spool, a block-and-tackle
pulley and a receiving storage reel for the cable
 turntable - part of the drilling apparatus
 Rotating equipment - used for rotary drilling
 swivel - large handle that holds the weight of the drill string; allows the
string to rotate and makes a pressure-tight seal on the hole
 kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers rotary motion to the turntable
and drill string
 turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating motion using power from
electric motors
 drill string - consists of drill pipe (connected sections of about 30 ft /
10 m) and drill collars (larger diameter, heavier pipe that fits around the
drill pipe and places weight on the drill bit)
 drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts up the rock; comes in
many shapes and materials (tungsten carbide steel, diamond) that are
specialized for various drilling tasks and rock formations
 Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that lines the drill hole, prevents the hole
from collapsing, and allows drilling mud to circulate
 Circulation system - pumps drilling mud (mixture of water, clay, weighting
material and chemicals, used to lift rock cuttings from the drill bit to the
surface) under pressure through the kelly, rotary table, drill pipes and drill
collars
 pump - sucks mud from the mud pits and pumps it to the drilling
apparatus
 pipes and hoses - connects pump to drilling apparatus
 mud-return line - returns mud from hole
 shale shaker - shaker/sieve that separates rock cuttings from the mud
 shale slide - conveys cuttings to the reserve pit
 reserve pit - collects rock cuttings separated from the mud
 mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed and recycled
 mud-mixing hopper - where new mud is mixed and then sent to the
mud pits
 Derrick - support structure that holds the drilling apparatus; tall enough to
allow new sections of drill pipe to be added to the drilling apparatus as drilling
progresses
 Blowout preventer - high-pressure valves (located under the land rig or on the
sea floor) that seal the high-pressure drill lines and relieve pressure when
necessary to prevent a blowout (uncontrolled gush of gas or oil to the surface,
often associated with fire)
38

Anatomy of an oil rig
Drill-mud circulation system
ЧТЕНИЕ ХИМИЧЕСКИХ ФОРМУЛ
39

Латинские буквы, входящие в уравнения или обозначающие названия
химических элементов, читаются как английские буквы в алфавите.
В формулах химических соединений и уравнений химических
реакций цифра перед обозначением элемента указывает число молекул и
читается следующим образом:
2MnO2 [‘tu:’molikju:lz əv ‘em ‘en ‘ou ’tu:]
Знаки «+» и «–», стоящие в левом верхнем углу, обозначают
положительную и отрицательную валентность иона:
Н+ hydrogen ion [‘haidridZən ‘aiən] или
univalent positive hydrogen ion [ju:ni’veilənt ‘pozitiv ‘hai- dridZən ‘aiən]
Cu++
divalent positive cuprum ion [‘daiveilənt ‘pozətiv ‘kju:prəm ‘aiən]
Al
+++
trivalent positive aluminium ion [‘tri: veilənt ‘pozətiv ,ælju’minijəm aiən]
Cl
–
negative chlorine ion [‘negətiv ‘klo:’ri:n ‘aiən] или
negative univalent chlorine ion [‘negətiv ‘ju:ni’veilənt ‘klo:’ri:n ‘aiən]
Знак «–» или «:» обозначает одну связь и не читается:
.. Cl
:Cl : ÷
:Cl:C:Cl или Cl ¾ C ¾ Cl [‘si: ‘si: ‘el ‘fo:]
:Cl: ú
Cl
Знак «=» или «::» обозначает две связи и также не читается:
..
:О::С::О: или О=С=О [‘si: ‘ou ‘tu:]
Знак «+» читается: plus, and или together with
Знак «=» читается: give или form
Знак «→» читается: give, pass over to или lead to (пример 3)
Знак «←» читается: forms или is formed from (пример 8) или
form или are formed (пример 7: так как подлежащее во мн. ч.)
( ) round brackets [‘raund ‘brækits] – круглые скобки
[ ] square brackets [‘skwεə ‘brækits] – квадратные скобки
·(x) multiplication sign (знак умножения) (пример 10)
Примеры чтения химических формул
40

1. 4KCl [‘fo:’molikju:lz əv ‘ke ‘si: ‘el]
2. 4HCl + O2 = 2Cl2 + 2H2O [‘fo:’molikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘si: ‘el plAs ‘ou
‘tu: ‘giv ‘tu: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘si: ‘el ‘tu: ənd ‘tu: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘ou]
3. Zn + CuSO4 = Cu + ZnSO4 [‘zed ‘en ‘plAs ‘si: ‘ju: ‘es ‘ou ‘fo:
‘giv ‘si: ‘ju: ‘plAs ‘zed ‘en ‘es ‘ou fo:]
4. PCl3 + 2Cl → PCl5 [‘pi: ‘si: ‘el ‘θri: plAs ‘tu: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘si:
‘el ‘giv ‘pi: ‘si: ‘el ‘faiv]
5. H2 + J2 ← 2HJ [‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘plAs ‘dZei ‘tu: ‘fo:m ənd a: ‘fo:md
frəm ‘tu: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘dZəi]
6. C2H2 + H2O → CH3CHO [‘si: ‘tu: ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘plAs ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘ou
giv ‘si: ‘eit∫ ‘θri: ‘si: ‘eit∫ ‘ou]
7. N2 + 3H2 ← 2NH3 [‘en ‘tu: ‘plAs ‘θri: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘tu:
‘fo:m ənd a: ‘fo:md frəm ‘tu: ‘molikju:lz əv ‘en ‘eit∫ ‘θri: ]
8. AcOH ← AcO-
+ H+
[‘ei ‘si: ‘ou ‘eit∫ ‘fo:mz ənd iz ‘fo:md ‘frəm ‘ei ‘si: ‘negətiv ‘oksidZən ‘aiən
‘plAs ‘haidrodZən ‘aiən ]
H
|
H — H — C — H [‘si: ‘eit∫ ‘fo:]
|
H
9. Al2 (SO4)3 [‘ei ‘el ‘tu: ‘raund ‘brækits ‘oupənd ‘es ‘ou ‘fo ‘raund ‘brækits
‘klousd ‘θri: ]
10. a·b=c a multiplied by b equals c
Contents:
41

Part 1
Text 1 Geology (4500)
Text 2 The subject matter of geology (2800)
Text 3 Rocks (6400)
Text 4 Sedimentary rocks (4500)
Text 5 Composition of rocks (5400)
Part 2
Text 1 Origins of Oil and Gas (4200)
Text 2 Trapping Oil and Gas (2750)
Text 3 How much oil and gas (3650)
Text 4 Discovering the underground structure (6300)
Texts for additional reading
42

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