The document provides an overview of geology and geological investigation methods. It discusses the internal structure of Earth, including the crust, mantle, and core. It also describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Finally, it introduces common structural features in rocks, such as bedding, folds, faults, joints, cleavage, and veins. The lesson aims to teach students about the origin and components of Earth through examination of rocks and geological techniques.

1. LESSON PLAN
Week:
Taught By: -------------
Date: _______
Subject: Introduction to Mining Methods/ Techniques Course
Time: 120 min
Topic: Introduction to Origin and age of Earth
Objective(s):Student will know about
Internal Structure of Earth
Classification and types of Rocks
Introduction to Structural Features of Rocks
Skill Focused on: Introduction to Geology and Geological Investigation
Resources: Marker, Board, Multimedia
Text book: Introduction to investigate Rocks parameters & Techniques developments
Methodology:
First I’ll give brief introduction about Geology & Geological Methods
Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's solid materials, including rocks, minerals, and the processes
that shape and alter them over time. It is a broad field that encompasses various sub-disciplines, such as
mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, and sedimentology.
Geologists investigate the Earth's history, structure, and composition to understand how it has evolved
over millions of years. They also study geological processes, such as plate tectonics, erosion, and
deposition, which shape the Earth's surface and create its diverse landscapes.
Geological investigation is a fundamental aspect of geology, involving the systematic collection and
analysis of geological data to answer specific questions or solve problems. It is often conducted through
fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and the use of specialized tools and techniques.
The primary goals of geological investigation include:
Understanding Earth's history: Geologists examine rocks and fossils to decipher the
Earth's past environments, climate changes, and the evolution of life forms.
Mapping and characterizing rock formations: Geologists create detailed maps of geological
features, such as mountains, valleys, and underground structures. They analyze rock types,
mineral composition, and structural patterns to understand the geologic history and potential
resources.
Identifying natural resources: Geologists play a crucial role in locating and assessing
valuable natural resources like minerals, fossil fuels, groundwater, and metals. They study
the geological conditions that favor resource formation and develop strategies for their
sustainable extraction.
Assessing geological hazards: Geologists study geological hazards, including earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, landslides, and floods. They analyze past events, monitor present
conditions, and develop models to predict and mitigate potential risks.
Environmental impact assessment: Geologists evaluate the environmental impact of human
activities, such as mining, construction, and land development. They provide
recommendations for sustainable practices and help mitigate potential negative
consequences.

2. Geological investigation involves various techniques and tools, including geological mapping, remote
sensing, geophysical surveys, laboratory analysis of rock samples, and the use of computer models and
simulations.
Overall, geology and geological investigation play a crucial role in understanding Earth's past, present,
and future, as well as in addressing environmental challenges and sustainable resource management.
Introduction to Origin and age of Earth
The origin and age of Earth is a fascinating topic in geology and planetary science. Scientists have
developed several theories to explain how our planet formed and estimate its age based on various lines of
evidence. Here's a brief introduction to the origin and age of Earth:
Origin of Earth: The prevailing scientific theory for the origin of Earth is the nebular
hypothesis. According to this theory, about 4.6 billion years ago, our solar system began as a
vast cloud of gas and dust called a nebula. This nebula started to collapse under its own
gravity, and as it did, it began to spin faster and flatten into a rotating disk.
At the center of this disk, a protostar called the Sun formed. Meanwhile, the remaining
material in the disk coalesced to form planet esimals, small rocky bodies that eventually
grew into the planets, including Earth. Through a process called accretion, these
planetesimals collided and merged over millions of years, gradually building up the Earth to
its present size.
Age of Earth: Determining the age of Earth is a complex task that involves multiple lines of
evidence. The most widely accepted method to estimate the age of Earth is radiometric
dating, specifically through the measurement of isotopes in rocks and minerals.
Radiometric dating relies on the decay of radioactive isotopes, which are unstable forms of
elements that decay at a predictable rate over time. By measuring the ratio of parent isotopes
to their decay products in rocks, scientists can determine the amount of time that has passed
since the rock formed.
The oldest rocks on Earth, found in Western Greenland and Western Australia, have been
dated to be around 3.8 to 4.4 billion years old. These ages provide a minimum estimate for
the age of Earth, as they represent the time when solid rocks first formed on our planet's
surface.
Additionally, scientists have studied meteorites, which are remnants from the early solar
system, and have obtained ages of approximately 4.6 billion years. This age is considered the
best estimate for the age of Earth, as it represents the time when the solar system formed.
It is important to note that while the age of Earth is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years,
the formation of our planet and the early stages of its history involved dynamic processes
and ongoing changes. The study of rocks, minerals, and other geological evidence allows
scientists to reconstruct Earth's past and understand its evolution over time.
In summary, Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a rotating disk of gas
and dust in our solar system. Scientists have determined the age of Earth through radiometric
dating of rocks and minerals, with the oldest rocks found on Earth dating back to around 3.8
to 4.4 billion years.

3. Internal Structure of Earth
The internal structure of Earth is divided into several layers based on their composition, physical
properties, and behavior. The three primary layers are the crust, mantle, and core. Let's explore each layer
in more detail:
Crust: The Earth's crust is the outermost layer and the thinnest of the three. It is composed primarily of
solid rock and is divided into two main types: the continental crust and the oceanic crust.
Continental Crust: The continental crust is thicker, with an average thickness of about 35 to
40 kilometers (22 to 25 miles). It consists of various types of rocks, including granite,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.
Oceanic Crust: The oceanic crust is thinner, averaging about 5 to 10 kilometers (3 to 6
miles) in thickness. It is mainly composed of basaltic rock, which is denser than the
continental crust.
Mantle: The mantle is the layer beneath the crust and is the largest layer of Earth. It extends
approximately 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) below the Earth's surface. The mantle is primarily
composed of solid rock, but it is capable of flowing very slowly over long periods, similar to the behavior
of a very thick liquid.
The mantle is further divided into two regions:
Upper Mantle: The upper mantle is closer to the crust and is composed of solid rock. It is
characterized by a process called convection, where heat from the Earth's core causes the rock
to slowly circulate, driving plate tectonics and other geological processes.
Lower Mantle: The lower mantle is situated below the upper mantle and extends down to
about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles). It is under immense pressure and heat, causing the rock
to be in a solid but pliable state due to the high temperature and pressure.
Core: The core is the innermost layer of Earth and is divided into two regions: the outer core and the
inner core.
Outer Core: The outer core is a liquid layer composed primarily of molten iron and nickel. It
surrounds the solid inner core and is approximately 2,300 kilometers (1,430 miles) thick. The
outer core's high temperature and the movement of the molten metal generate Earth's magnetic
field.
Inner Core: The inner core is the solid center of Earth, with a radius of about 1,220
kilometers (760 miles). It is composed mainly of solid iron and nickel due to the intense
pressure at the core's center. The inner core is under extreme pressure, which keeps it solid
despite the high temperature.
The internal structure of Earth and its layers play a significant role in shaping the planet's geological
activity, including plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, and the generation of the Earth's magnetic field.
Understanding the Earth's internal structure is essential for studying geology, seismology, and other
related fields.

4. Classification and types of Rocks
Rocks are classified into three main types based on their formation processes and composition: igneous
rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Let's explore each type in more detail:
Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava.
They can be further categorized into two types:
Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks: These rocks form when magma cools and solidifies
beneath the Earth's surface. The slow cooling allows for the formation of large mineral
crystals. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite and gabbro.
Extrusive (Volcanic) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed when lava reaches the Earth's
surface and rapidly cools down, often in volcanic eruptions or volcanic environments. The
quick cooling process results in the formation of smaller mineral crystals. Examples of
extrusive igneous rocks include basalt and rhyolite.
Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed through the accumulation and consolidation of
sediments, which are particles of minerals, rocks, or organic material that have been transported and
deposited by wind, water, or ice. They are typically layered and often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks
can be further classified into three types:
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed from the accumulation and cementation
of broken fragments of pre-existing rocks. Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks include
sandstone, shale, and conglomerate.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks form when dissolved minerals precipitate out of
water by evaporation or through chemical reactions. Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks
include limestone, gypsum, and rock salt.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed from the accumulation and compaction
of organic material, such as plant or animal remains. Examples of organic sedimentary rocks
include coal and some types of limestone.
Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks, either igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks, undergo changes in their mineral composition, texture, and
structure due to high temperature, pressure, and/or chemical activity within the Earth's crust.
Metamorphic rocks can be further classified into two types:
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks have a layered or banded appearance due to the
alignment of minerals under intense pressure. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks
include slate, schist, and gneiss.
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks lack distinct layering or banding and are
typically composed of minerals that have recrystallized without preferred orientation.
Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble and quartzite.
It's important to note that rocks can undergo transformations between these types over geological time
scales through the rock cycle, which involves processes such as melting, erosion, deposition, and
metamorphism. The classification of rocks helps geologists understand the Earth's history, geological
processes, and the formation of different rock types in various environments.

5. Introduction to Structural Features of Rocks
Structural features of rocks refer to the various characteristics and arrangements of rock formations that
provide information about their deformation, stress history, and geological processes. These features can
be observed on both small and large scales and help geologists understand the tectonic history and
mechanical behavior of rocks. Here are some common structural features:
Bedding/Stratification: Bedding refers to the layering or stratification of sedimentary rocks.
It occurs as sediment accumulates over time, resulting in distinct horizontal layers. These
layers can vary in thickness, composition, and texture, providing clues about the depositional
environment and the history of sedimentation.
Folds: Folds are bends or curves in rock layers that occur due to the application of pressure
over time. They are common in regions where tectonic forces compress or deform the Earth's
crust. Folds can have various shapes, such as anticlines (upward folds) and synclines
(downward folds). They reveal information about the compression, folding, and deformation
history of rocks.
Faults: Faults are fractures or cracks in rocks along which there has been displacement.
They occur when rocks are subjected to stress that exceeds their strength, resulting in
movement along the fault plane. Faults can be classified as normal faults (resulting from
tensional forces), reverse faults (resulting from compressional forces), or strike-slip faults
(resulting from horizontal shearing forces). They play a significant role in the formation of
mountains, earthquakes, and the redistribution of rock masses.
Joints: Joints are fractures in rocks without significant displacement. They occur as a result
of the rock's response to stress, but unlike faults, there is no noticeable movement along the
fracture plane. Joints often form a network of intersecting fractures and can influence the
permeability and strength of rocks. They provide pathways for fluid flow, affect the
weathering and erosion of rocks, and can influence the formation of mineral deposits.
Cleavage and Foliation: Cleavage and foliation are planar features that develop in rocks
due to the alignment of mineral grains or the preferred orientation of minerals. Cleavage
refers to the tendency of rocks to break along planes of weakness, resulting in smooth,
parallel surfaces. Foliation is the development of parallel alignment of minerals, giving rocks
a layered or banded appearance. Cleavage and foliation are commonly observed in
metamorphic rocks and provide information about the direction and intensity of deformation.
Veins: Veins are mineral-filled fractures or cracks in rocks. They form when mineral-rich
fluids percolate through existing fractures and deposit minerals in the open spaces. Veins can
vary in size and mineral composition and are important sources of valuable minerals such as
gold, silver, and copper.
Understanding and analyzing these structural features in rocks allow geologists to reconstruct the
geological history of an area, determine the forces and processes that have shaped the rocks, and gain
insights into the tectonic events and deformation that have occurred over time.

6. Activity – 1 Earth parts as a global nature. Investigate the structural features.
Activity – 2 Types of rocks and properties.
Success Criteria:
 Assessment plan
A couple of question will be asked from students to clarify the understanding of the whole class, for
example
 What are Terminologies link with rock structural faults.
 Discussion on Different techniques and its types of rocks.
C.W: Write down the Types of Rocks.
H.W: Write On importance of Earths properties as a structural.