Management and Leadership Chapter 11

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Chapter 11
Leadership in Schools
•Leadership is often regarded as the single
most important factor in the success or
failure of schools (Bass 1990)

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Leadership Defined
• Bennis (1989) considered leadership is like beauty, it is
hard to define, but we know when we see it.
• Martin M. Chemers (1997) stated that leadership is a
process of social influence in which one person is able
to enlist the aid and support of others in accomplishment
of common task.
• Katz and Kahn (1978) identify three major components
of leadership 1) an attribute of an office or position, 2)
characteristic of a person, and 3) a category of actual
behaviour.

3. •Rodney T. Ogawa and Steven T. Bossert (1995) stated
that leadership is a quality of school organizations, which
flows broadly through social networks and roles.
•Mark A. Smylie and Ann W. Hart (1999) support for
leadership as an organizational property of school.
Leadership defined broadly: a social process in which a member or
members of a group influence the interpretation of events, choice of
goals/outcomes, organization of work activities, motivation,
abilities, power relations, and shared orientations.
• As a social influence process and a specialized role,
leadership is comprised of both rational and emotional
elements
Continue….
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4. Aristotle thought that individuals are born with
characteristics that would make them leaders
•Early Trait Research
five general categories
•Capacity - intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality,
judgment.
•Achievement- scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments.
•Responsibility – initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, self-
confidence, desire to excel
•Participation – activity, cooperation, adaptability, humor.
•Status – socioeconomic position, popularity.
Trait, Skills, and Leadership
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5. According to Yukl (2002), personality traits are relatively stable
dispositions to behave in a particular way. Five particularly important;
•Self-confident leaders are more likely to set high goals for themselves
and their followers.
•Stress-tolerant leaders are likely to make good decisions, to stay calm,
and to provide decisive direction to subordinates in difficult situations.
•Emotionally mature leaders tend to have an accurate awareness of
their strengths and weaknesses and to be oriented toward self-
improvement.
•Integrity means that the behaviours of leaders are consistent with their
stated values and that they are honest, ethical, responsible, and
trustworthy.
•Extroversion or being outgoing, sociable, and comfortable in groups.
Personality Traits
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6. •Task and interpersonal needs are two underlying dispositions that
motivate effective leaders.
•Power needs refer to motives of individuals to seek positions of
authority and to exercise influence over others.
•Achievement orientation includes a need to achieve, desire to excel,
drive to succeed, willingness to assume responsibility and a concern
for task objectives.
•High expectations for success of school administrators refer to their
belief that they can do the job.
•Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability to organize and carry out a
course of action, is related to leader performance and transformational
leadership (Bass and Riggio, 2006)
Motivational Traits
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7. •Technical skills mean having specialized knowledge
about and being adapt at a specific type of work, activity,
and procedure.
•Interpersonal skills encompass an understanding of
feelings and attitudes of others and knowing how to work
with people in individual and cooperative work
relationships.
•Conceptual or cognitive skills involve the abilities to
form and work with concepts, to think logically, and to
reason analytically. Meaning help leaders develop and
use ideas to analyze, organize and solve complex
problems.
Skills
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8. •Laissez-faire Leadership
absence of transactions with followers. These leaders avoid
expressing views or taking action, avoid or delay decisions, ignore
responsibility, provide little feedback. Most passive, least effective
of three types.
•Transactional Leadership
motivate followers by exchanging rewards for services. Leaders
identify what followers want and try to provide it as reward for
effort. Respond to followers’ immediate self-interest. Exchanges are
economic: pursued on basis of cost-benefit.
• Contingent reward leadership: leader behaviors focus on role and
task requirements, provide rewards contingent on performance
• Active management-by-exception: leaders maintain high levels of
vigilance to ensure standards are met, take corrective action quickly
• Passive management-by-exception: leaders fail to intervene until
problems are serious.
Three Types of Leadership
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9. •Transformational Leadership
 Idealized influence builds trust and respect in followers
 Inspirational motivation changes the expectations of group
members to believe that the organization’s problems can be
solved (Atwater and Bass, 1994)
 Intellectual stimulation addresses the problem of creativity
(Atwater and Bass, 1994)
 Individualized consideration means that transformational
leaders pay particular attention to each individual’s needs for
achievement and growth.
Continue…
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Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
• Defined and redefined by House (1971, 1973, 1996) and House and
Mitchell (1974).
• Core assumption: followers will be motivated if they feel capable of
doing the work, they believe efforts will produce desired outcomes,
and rewards will be worthwhile
• Leaders complement task environments, subordinates’ abilities,
and compensate for deficiencies
Five basic leader behaviors related to situational factors
• Path-goal clarifying behaviors: make subordinates’ needs and
preferences contingent on effective performance. When task
demands are satisfying but ambiguous, path-goal clarifying
behaviors will motivate.
• Achievement-oriented leader behavior: encourage excellent
performance, set challenging goals, seek improvements, show
confidence. Will be effective when subordinates have individual
responsibility and control over work.

11. • Supportive leader behavior: show concern for welfare, create
psychologically supportive environment, and consider
subordinates’ needs and preferences. Will be most necessary
when situation is dangerous, monotonous, stressful,
frustrating. Will have limited effect when tasks are
intrinsically satisfying or situation is not stressful.
• Value-based leader behavior: appeal to followers’ values,
enhance self-efficacy, and tie self-worth to contributing to
leader’s mission. Define the vision for the group and support
with symbolic behaviors. Will produce intergroup conflict
when values in the leader’s vision conflict with dominant
coalition or prevailing culture.
• Shared leadership: share leader behaviors with members of
the work group. Will enhance cohesiveness and performance
when work is interdependent within the work unit.
Continue….
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Individualized consideration
• Individualized consideration: leaders pay particular
attention to each individual’s needs for growth and
achievement
• Leaders act as mentors—help followers and colleagues develop
potential and take responsibility for own development
• Create new learning opportunities in supportive climate
• Recognize and accept individual differences in needs and values
• Use two-way communication, and interact personally with others

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Research findings
• Research on transformational leadership clarifies these
generalizations:
• Idealized influence and inspirational leadership most satisfying and
effective (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990)
• Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived to lead
more effective organizations, and have subordinates that exert greater
effort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)
• Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacher
perceptions of student goal achievement, and student grades
(Leithwood 1994)
• Influences three psychological characteristics of staff: perception of
school characteristics, commitment to change, and organizational learning
• Depends upon attending to all four “I’s”, with individualized
consideration as a base
• Support for Leithwood’s claims from other studies: Silins (1992), Marks
& Printy (2003)

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Distributed leadership
• Distributed leadership models challenge the assumption that one person has to
be in charge to make change happen
• Multiple sources across the organization provide leadership in numerous tasks,
such as budgets, evaluations, emergency management, and change processes
• Proponents say it’s necessary because school organizations are so complex
and tasks so wide-ranging that no one person can manage all
• Ogawa & Bossert (1995): leadership is an organizational quality—flows
through the networks of roles, and varies over time and across schools
• Spillane et al (2001, 2003): leadership defined around the technical core-- “the
identification, acquisition, allocation, coordination, and use of social, material,
cultural resources necessary to establish the conditions for…teaching and
learning”
• School reform initiatives focus on shared or distributed leadership, as in
Accelerated Schools, America’s Choice, and Success for All, which have
more leadership positions than comparison schools (Camburn, Rowan and
Taylor, 2003)

15. Analyze of transformational leadership in your school
organization. Think of a principal or other leader with
whom you have worked. Describe the individual using
the factors of transformational leadership and how
followers reacted.
Activity 1
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