Compare and contrast leadership principles of the 20th century with those advocated for leaders of the 21st century; Provide evidence to support the style of leadership that will work best for you in a given school leadership role; Provide examples of how contingency and situational leadership theories inform contemporary leadership practices

1. SADI
2022-2023
Chapter 2:
Establishing a Framework for
Leadership
Course: Educational Administration and Leadership 1
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2. Learning Outcomes
• Provide a definition of leadership for 21st-century schools
that is aligned with the Professional Standards for Educational
Leaders (PSEL);
• Compare and contrast leadership principles of the 20th
century with those advocated for leaders of the 21st century;
• Provide evidence to support the style of leadership that will
work best for you in a given school leadership role;
• Provide examples of how contingency and situational
leadership theories inform contemporary leadership
practices;
• List the sources of power and give an example of how each
source might be used by leaders of 21st-century schools;
• Provide examples of how leadership theories of the 20th
century inform leadership practices of the 21st century.
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3. Let me hear your voice!
• What is leadership?
• Are people born to be leaders?/ Can people learn to become
leaders?
• What personal characteristics (special personalities or physical traits)
distinguish effective leaders from nonleaders?
• What leadership behaviors distinguish effective leaders from
ineffective leaders?
• Do leaders tell people what to do, closely monitor their
performance, and admonish them if things are not done as
prescribed?
• Do leaders articulate a vision and inspire other members of the
organization to share that vision?
As society becomes more complex, schools
become equally complex, placing a greater
demand on individuals who lead them.
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4. Leadership Defined
… is a process used by leaders to give purpose to the collective efforts of
members of the organization while influencing them to work collaboratively
in an environment of mutual respect and trust.
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Influence
Goal
Attainments
Followers
Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A.
(2011). Educational administration:
Concepts and practices. (6th ed). London:
Cengage Learning.
… is a process whereby one
individual influences other
group members toward the
attainment of defined or
organizational goals (Lunenburg, &
Ornstein, 2011)

5. Leadership Defined
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• Have self-efficacy, (are confident,
know who they are and what they want
to accomplish,and take initiative to
achieve the desired outcome)
• have a vision of what the school
organization needs to achieve and
can inspire others to share that
vision
• have a deep knowledge of their skills
and attributes, as well as the skills and
attributes of others, and can motivate
and energize the individuals with
whom they work to use their skills
and attributes to achieve a shared
vision
Effective leaders
of today’s schools

6. The Professional Standards for Educational Leaders (2015)
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The primary focus
of the standards is
student learning and
foundational
principles of
leadership.

7. Collaborative Leadership
The practice of collaboration
requires School leaders to
identify their own limitations
and the strengths of others to
fill such voids
… is the influential behavior of an individual who persuades followers to go
over and above routine policies, procedures, and directives, replacing
compliance and conformity with commitment.
Example:
If a principal’s strengths lie in
curriculum & instruction, he might
employ an assistant principal who is
good at financial management.
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In performing the above functions, the Professional Standards for
Educational Leaders advocates collaborative leadership as the type
that is likely to be most effective in 21st-century schools.
Question: What is
Collaborative leadership?

8. Trait Theories
Behavior
Theories
Contingency
Theories
Focus on personal traits
that distinguish leaders
from non-leaders and
effective leaders from
ineffective leaders
Compare the
behaviors of effective
and ineffective
leaders to see how
successful leaders
behave
Effective leadership
depends on the
interaction of leader’s
personal traits, behavior,
and factors in the context
of the situation the leader
leads
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There is no one best way to function in a
given school situation.
Leadership: A Historical Perspective

9. The Personal Characteristics and Traits of Leaders
Do leaders have distinctive
Traits and personal
characteristics?
The Dispositions of
School Leaders
The assumption
around trait
theory was that
some individuals
were born with
traits that made
them successful
leaders.
Many studies identify
traits and dispositions
consistently associated
with leaders who
generate positive
outcomes for
themselves, their
followers, as well as
the organizations they
lead (see Table 2.2)
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Disposition refers to the concept as the leader’s inclination to act in a
certain way, usually guided by their beliefs and values
(individuals who are persistent, self-confident, have drive, and value
honesty and integrity)

10. Traits, Dispositions, and Leader Effectiveness
Effective leaders, inside and outside the field of
education, exhibit these traits
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11. Studies of
Leader
Behavior
 Focus on what effectives leaders do.
‘What types of behaviors do effective leaders
exhibit?’
 Different from Trait theories, which focus on
what effective leaders are
To answer to this question,
 researchers studied the different patterns of behavior
used by leaders to complete organizational tasks
Studies conducted at …
 The University of Iowa: 3 styles of leader behavior
 The Ohio State University: 2 dimensions of leader behavior
 The University of Michigan: 3 dimensions of leader behavior
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The effects of leader behaviors on organizational
outcomes: job satisfaction,morale,and
productivity.

12. The University of Iowa (1939): 3 styles of leader behavior
The studies looked at the effects of different styles
of leader behavior on the group
The studies suggested that leadership can be
classified on the basis of how the leader handles
several decision-making situations
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Autocratic
(authoritarian) democratic laissez-faire

13. The University of Iowa: 3 Styles of leader behavior
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14. Initiating structure (Rask-oriented leader
behaviors)
• consisted of behaviors related to the
degree to which leaders defined their
behavior and the behavior of followers for
the completion of tasks within an
organization
• A leader focuses directly on organizational
performance goals, organizes and defines
tasks, assigns work, establishes channels
of communication, delineates relationships
with subordinates,and evaluates work
group performance.
Consideration (People-oriented
leader behaviors)
• consisted of behaviors related to the
degree to which the leader
expressed concern for the welfare of
other individuals in the organization.
• A leader exhibits trust, respect,
warmth , support, and concern
for the welfare of subordinates.
The Ohio State University: Dimensions of Leader Behavior
2 Dimensions of Leader Behavior
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The studies aimed to identify leader behaviors necessary
for the attainment of group and organizational goals.
Questions: ‘What types of behavior do leaders display? What effect do
these leader behaviors have on work group performance and satisfaction?’

15. The Ohio State University: Dimensions of Leader Behavior
The combination of high structure/high consideration leads to higher
satisfaction and performance among the other three combinations.
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Initiating structure
• Leaders who initiate structure assign
staff members to particular tasks,
maintain definite standards of
performance, emphasize meeting
deadlines, encourage the use of
uniform procedures, let staff members
know what is expected of them, and
see to it that staff members are
working up to capacity
Consideration
• Leaders who manifest
consideration listen to
staff members‘ ideas,
are friendly and
approachable,treat all
staff members as
equals, and frequently
use employee ideas.

16. Organizational Dimensions
Theorized by
Getzels and Guba
(1957), the school
is an organization
consisting of two
independent and
interacting
dimensions:
Normative &
Idiographic
Leaders must motivate followers to expend the necessary energy
to reach school goals and reward them according to their
accomplishments
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17. The research focused on identifying relationships among leader behavior, group
processes, and measures of group performance, using Likert’s theory of
organization (1961, 1967): 3 types of leader behaviors differentiated leader
effectiveness from ineffectiveness
Task-oriented behavior
• Effective leaders
focused on followers,
set work standards that
were high but
obtainable, carefully
organized tasks,
identified the methods
to be used in carrying
them out, and closely
supervised the work of
followers
Relationship-oriented
behavior
• Effective leaders
emphasized the
development of
interpersonal relationships
while focusing on the
personal needs of followers
and the development of the
kinds of relationships that
would motivate followers to
set and achieve high-
performance goals.
The University of Michigan: Tasks, Relationships, and
Participative Leader Behavior:
Participative leadership
behavior
• Effective leaders made
extensive use of group
supervision, rather than the
separate supervision of each
follower.
• Leaders are directive,
constructive, and supportive,
allowing some degree of
autonomy regarding group work
• This enhances follower
participation in decision
making, communication,
cooperation, and resolving
conflict
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18. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1985)
Relation
ship
Task
Concern for
production (task),
• the degree to which
leaders focus on
task completion, set
clear objectives,
and establish
processes and
procedures to
achieve those
objectives
• Blake and Mouton theorized that a leader might fall somewhere in
between these two dimensions.
• They plotted five locations on a grid, each describing a unique
leadership style.
Concern for people
(relationship),
• the degree to which
leaders give
consideration to the
needs and interests
of followers when
selecting
approaches to use
in completing
organizational tasks
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Blake and Mouton developed another two-dimensional of leadership
orientation ‘the Managerial Grid (presently Leadership Grid)’ as a tool for
identifying a leader's style.

19. Table 2.4 Descriptors of Leader Behavior According to Blake and Mouton
Leader develop good relations among
colleagues.
Leader uses power, authority, and control
to maximize production.
Leader completes the minimum
requirements necessary to remain
employed
Leader maintains the status quo and
displays an attitude of “go along to get
along.”
Leader emphasizes a high concern for
both task completion and maintenance of
positive interpersonal relationships with
people
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Leader–Follower Relationships
How do leaders interact with followers?
• says that leaders create in-groups will have
higher performance ratings, less turnover, and
greater job satisfaction.
• emphasizes that leaders have different
sorts of relationships with different
subordinates.
Proposed by
George Graen
and Fred
Dansereau, the
leader–member
exchange (LMX)
model of
leadership
• The unique relationship of leader’s attempt to
delegate and assign work roles produces two
types of leader–member exchange interactions:
• In-group exchange: trust and respect.
• Out-group exchange: lack of trust and
respect

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Leader–Follower Relationships
• Routinization occurs as the relationship
becomes well established.
• It is at this stage that similarities (for the in-
group) and differences (often accentuated
for the out-group) become cemented.
• Role-taking happens early in a follower’s
work experience.
• Here the leader offers opportunities and
evaluates the follower’s performance and
potential
The process of
the relationship
developed as
follows:
• Role-making is the stage where a role is
created based on a process of trust building.
• This is a fragile stage, and any perceived
betrayals can lead to the follower being
dropped from the developing in-group
and assigned to the out-group.

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Behavioral
Dimension
The
University
of Iowa
The Ohio
State
University
University
of Michigan
Managerial
Grid
Task-oriented leader
behavior
Autocratic
style
Initiating
structure
Task-oriented
behavior
Concern for
production
Relationship-oriented
leader behavior Democratic
style
Considerati
on
Relationship-
oriented leader
behavior Concern for
people
Participation-oriented
leader
participative
leadership
behavior
Laissez-
faire style
Summary

23. Contingency and Situational
Leadership Theories
• Instead, effective
leadership behavior
is "contingent" on the
situation
‘the interaction of the
leader's personal traits,
the leader's behavior,
and factors in the
leadership situation’
• Efforts to discover
the one best set of
leader traits and
the one best set of
leader behaviors
in all situations
have failed.
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• In the late 1970s, a group
of researchers and school
administrators are more
likely to believe that the
practice of leadership is
too complex to be
represented by a single
set of traits or behaviors.
The questions we ask regarding contingency leadership shift:
• From … "Is authoritarian, initiating structure, production-centered
leadership more effective than democratic, consideration, employee-
centered leadership?"
• To a different question: "In what situations will production-centered
leadership be effective, and under what set of circumstances will
employee-centered leadership be effective?"

24. Contingency
and
Situational
Leadership
Theories
Fiedler
Contingency
Model;
Vroom–
Yetton
Normative
Decision Model
Vroom–Jago
Revised
Model
Path–Goal
Theory
Hersey–
Blanchard
Situational
Leadership
Theory
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25. Fiedler’ Contingency Model (1976):
2 types of leadership styles
• The leader with a relationship-
oriented style completes tasks by
developing positive relationships
with followers
• The leader with a task-oriented
style is primarily concerned
with completing tasks
Fiedler Contingency Model (1979)
The effectiveness of the
leader is the result of the
interaction of the two factors:
• the consistent interaction that
occurs between a leader and a
group in a given situation
• the degree to which a particular
situation enables a leader to exert
influence over a group
Leadership
style
Situational
favorableness
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26. Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1976):
task-oriented style & relationship-oriented style
 Fiedler developed an index called the Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale
with a set of 16 bipolar adjectives along an 8-point scale to measure leadership
style.
 The leader uses this scale to complete a three-step process.
 1st step, he or she is asked to think of all the persons with whom he or she has worked ;
 2nd step describes the one with whom he or she preferred to work least.
 3rd step requires the leader to describe the individual using the bipolar scales.
How can the leader's LPC score be interpreted?
• If the least-preferred coworker is described using positive concepts, the leader
is considered relationship-oriented, and If the opposite is true, then the
leader is considered task-oriented
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27. Leader–member
relations:
• the degree to which
the leader is accepted
by the followers and
receives their loyalties
and support: the quality
of the relationship between
the leader and the
follower/group.
Task structure:
• the extent to which
tasks are standardized,
documented, and
controlled: the nature of
the subordinate's task–
whether it is routine
(structured) or complex
(unstructured).
Leader position power :
• the extent to which the
leader has the authority
to assess follower
performance and give
rewards or punishments:
to hire and fire, give pay raises
and promotions, and to direct
subordinates to task
completion.
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Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1976): Situational favorableness: 3
situational factors determine the effective styles
• Do my subordinates
accept me as a
leader?”
• Do my subordinates
perform unambiguous,
easily understood tasks?
• Do I have power to
reward and punish?

28. Leader–member
relations
• The assumption is
that if subordinates
respect and trust the
leader, it will be
easier for the leader
to exercise influence
in accomplishing
tasks .
Task structure
1. the extent of goal clarity (i.e., the degree
to which the task requirements are known
by subordinates),
2. the multiplicity of goal paths (i.e.,
whether there are many or few
procedures for solving the problem),
3. the extent of decision verifiability (i.e.,
whether performance can be easily
evaluated), and
4. the solution specificity (i.e., whether there
are one or many correct solutions).
Leader position
power
• The more position
power held by the
leader, the more
favorable the
leadership
situation
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Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1976): Situational favorableness: 3
situational factors determine the effective styles
• When the task to be performed is
highly,it enables the leader to set
performance standards and hold
subordinates accountable.
• When the task is unstructured, the leader may be
in a poor position to evaluate subordinate
performance.
• because the goals are unclear,there are
multiple paths to achieve them,and the
leader may possess no more knowledge
about the task than the subordinates

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The combination of 3
leadership
characteristics yields
8 leadership situations
wherein the leader is
either in a very
favorable position, a
very unfavorable
position, or
somewhere between
the 2 poles.

30. Vroom–Yetton Normative Decision Model
Vroom andYetton (1973) analyzed the effects of leader behavior on decision
quality and follower acceptance of the decision.
Decision acceptance:
• is the degree of
follower commitment
to implement a
decision effectively.
The Vroom–Yetton model posits that follower participation will result in higher-quality
decisions when followers possess the relevant information and are willing to
participate in the decision-making process.
Decision quality :
• refers to the objective
aspect of the decision
that affects group
performance aside
from any effects
mediated by decision
acceptance.
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• Should a leader make decisions alone or involve
followers? What factors can help a leader determine how
to make decisions?

31. Vroom–Yetton Normative Decision Model
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Vroom–Jago Revised Model (1988) presented a decision tree
to help leaders determine the “best” approach under
different combinations of circumstances
time constraints
the geographical
dispersion of the
followers
the amount of
follower
information

32. Expectancy:
A belief that job-related effort will result in a
certain performance level
People want
different things from
the organization
(Good salary,job
security,advancement,
and challenge).
An individual's
behavior
is a result of
conscious
choice.
People join
organizations with
expectations
about their needs,
motivations, and
past experiences
Expectancy theory is based
on four assumptions.
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people will choose
among
alternatives so as
to optimize
outcomes for them
personally.
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom, 1969)

33. Expectancy Theory
(c) the desirability of the
reward that will be
received as a result of
completing the assigned
task
(b) Their ability to
achieve the desired
level of performance
(a) their ability
to successfully
complete an
assigned task
… advises that the motivational level of school faculty members
will depend on their mental expectations about:
The theory advocates a connection among:
the efforts of the individual, the possibility of a high level of performance,
and the desirability of the reward
resulting from completing a task at a highly successful level
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34. Based on the expectancy theory, House (1971) emphasizes impact of leadership behavior
on subordinates . Path–Goal Theory holds that the effective leader clarify the routes that
followers must travel to reach work-goal attainment and remove any roadblocks or pitfalls.
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Path–Goal Theory
Appropriate type of
behavior depends on
How Do Leaders Help
Followers?
• Supportive Leader: is approachable, maintains a pleasant work
environment, is considerate,and shows concern for the needs and well-
being of followers.
• Directive Leader: sets performance standards,lets followers know what
is expected of them, schedules the work, and establishes specific
directions.
• Participative Leader: consults with followers concerning work-related
matters and takes their opinion into consideration when making decisions.
• Achievement-Oriented Leader: stresses excellence in performance,
sets goals that are challenging, and shows confidence in the ability of
followers to achieve challenging performance standards.
followers:
(characteristics,
abilities & needs)
work
environment
(task structure, formal
authority system &
workgroup
characteristics)
He identified
four styles:

35. Provided some understanding of the relationship between effective
leadership styles and the maturity level of followers
What is maturity level?
… the extent to which a follower demonstrates the ability to perform a task
(job maturity) and his or her willingness to accept responsibility (motivational level) for its
completion.
Hersey, Blanchard, & Natemeyer, (1979) developed a leadership
effectiveness model consisting of two dimensions of leader behavior
Task behavior :
• the extent to which the leader
engages in one-way communication
by explaining what is to be done,
how it is to be done, and when it is
to be completed
Relationship behavior :
• the extent to which the leader
engages in two-way
communication to provide
supportive and facilitative
behaviors.
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Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory of Situational
Leadership (1996)

36. Directing style:
• Leaders provide
followers with specific
instructions regarding
completion of a task and
closely supervise their
performance
throughout the process
Coaching style:
• give specific directions,
closely supervise the
task, explain directions,
solicit suggestions,and
support the progress
toward task completion
Supporting style:
• Leaders facilitate and
support the efforts of the
followers toward task
accomplishment and share
responsibility for decision
making with them
Delegating style:
• Leaders may find it
acceptable to turn over
the responsibility for
decision making and
problem solving to
followers.
• Using all possible
combinations of the
2 dimensions,
leadership
behaviors were
aligned in four
quadrants.
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37. Power and Authority
• A leader has legal
(legitimate) power that is
vested in his or her
position, or role, in the
organizational hierarchy
• Leaders are able to
influence followers
because of the
strength of their
personality
(charismatic)
• Leaders control,
administer punishment to
followers for
noncompliance with the
leader’s directives, or
reward them for selected
behaviors.
• is derived from the
special ability and/or
knowledge possessed
by the leader and
needed by followers
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38. Power and Authority
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Regardless of the source of power, the manner in which a
leader exerts power and authority determines to some extent
the leader’s effectiveness

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• Taken collectively, these studies offer two basic elements
concerning effective leadership:
• concern for people
• concern for task completion.
• Finding the delicate balance between these two elements appears to
be the leadership challenge
Chapter Summary

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