Thermal Decomposition of Copper Carbonate

Investigation of the Thermal Decomposition of Copper...
Investigation of the Thermal Decomposition of Copper Carbonate
Aim:
Copper has two oxides, Cu2O, and CuO. Copper carbonate, CuCO3 decomposes on heating to form
one of these oxides and an equation can be written for each possible reaction
Equation 1: 2CuCO3 (s) Cu2O (s) + 2CO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Equation 2: CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
The aim of this experiment is to prove which equation is correct. This can be done by volumetric
analysis i.e. calculating the volume of gas produced. This is then compared to the calculated volume
of gas produced in each equation and the equation with the nearest volume of gas is correct.
This is a thermal decomposition reaction and when an element like copper can form two oxides,
which one forms is based ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is also not sufficient to simply consider the stability of a compound with respect to its elements. It
is necessary to consider the stability of copper
(I) oxide with respect to copper (II) oxide, as well as with respect to copper and oxygen.
It would also be important to consider the stability of CuCO3 with respect to both oxides, to see
which reaction is energetically most likely. So it is clear that the value of Î"Hf suggests that Cu2O
will be formed, but that this will not necessarily be the case because of the other factors involved.
Copper (II) compounds are by far the most common they are called
"cupric". Copper (I) compounds "cuprous" compounds are far less common. Copper atoms most
readily go to oxidation state +2, by a variety of reactions. Cupric compounds are unstable in the
presence of water, so must either be insoluble or form complexes with other molecules. The
equations are written in moles and through my background knowledge
I now know the definition of a mole, 1mole of any substance contains the same number of particles
as 12g of carbon–12. 1 mole of any element contains 6.01 x 1023 atoms. 1 mole of a molecular
compound contains 6.01 x 1023 molecules.
This means that in a reaction in which 2 molecules of one substance react with 1 molecule of
another for instance the formation of water: 2H2 + O2 2H2O, 2 moles of hydrogen molecules will

react with
1 mole of oxygen molecules to give 2 moles of water molecules. For an element, the mass
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Chemical Substance Of Hydrogen Atoms
Introduction:
Water is a chemical substance composed atomically of an oxygen atom, and two hydrogen atoms,
giving it the chemical formula H2O . It has a bent molecular structure, with the centralised oxygen
atom at the top of the molecule with two lone pairs of electrons above it, and the two hydrogen
atoms branching out below, each connected to the oxygen by covalent bonds. VSEPR (Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory is utilised in chemistry for the prediction of a molecules geometry.
This theory was constructed off the idea that valence electron pairs around an atom have a tendency
to repel each other, thus forcing the molecule to organise itself in a manner that creates the least
possible electron repulsion. By observing a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the electrons are positioned closer to the oxygen atom, the upper segment of the molecule is
slightly negatively charged (gaining negative charge from electron) and the lower segment is
slightly positively charged (losing negative charge from electron) . Therefore water is a polar
molecule.
A polar molecule is a molecule that possesses a negative charge at one end, and a positive charge at
another end, caused by the positioning of the electrons due to electronegativity. However, a
molecule can have a positive and a negative charged end and still be non–polar. Dipoles are a
measure of polarity that are caused by a variation in electronegativity. The difference in
electronegativity results in an atom having a greater pull on the shared pair of electrons. If the shape
of a molecule causes equal dipole magnitude and an equal distance between the dipole vectors, then
the dipoles cancel out and the molecule is considered non–polar .A polar molecule possesses a
neutral net charge as the positive and negative sections of the molecule eliminate an imbalance in
charge. Polarity is exclusive to covalent bonded compounds, as electron sharing is required in order
for partial positivity and partial negativity to occur. The only covalent molecules that don't contain
polar bonds are those including atoms that possess an equal electronegativity, such as H2, or O2, as
neither atom possesses a larger attractive force than the other acting upon the electrons .

What Are Zeolites?
What are zeolites?
According to (ref) the mineralogist community define a zeolite as a 'crystalline aluminosilicate, with
4–connected tetrahedral framework structure enclosing cavities occupied by large ions and water
molecules, both of which have considerable freedom in movement, permitting ion exchange and
dehydration'. This definition allows us to evaluate three components of a zeolite; a 4–connected
framework, counter balancing ions (also referred to as an extra framework ion) and an adsorbed
phase (in this case it is the water molecules within the structure.). Due to the diverse nature of the
zeolite family, they exist in many forms differing in structure and chemistry, therefore the definition
proposed above is restricted to certain types, aluminosilicates. Therefore, among minerals we will
familiarise ourselves with materials that carry zeolite properties but are not equivalent to the
definition proposed by mineralogists. One example would be the mineral wenkite; it has an
interrupted framework with only 3 oxygen's coordinated to the silicon atom, [O3–Si–OH].
Regardless of this difference and any other differences apparent in a zeolite mineral they still belong
to the zeolite family. Therefore, a more deviated definition which considers all zeolites is a zeolite is
an open framework composed of voids and pores where the movement of ions and molecules are not
limited.
Zeolite minerals share the general formula Mm+ . [Si1–xAlxO2] . nH2O where M is a metal cation,
Mm+

The History of Chemistry Essay
History of Chemistry
Chemistry has been around for a various amount of years. The beginning of chemistry was first
acknowledged in 10,000 BC. The ancient civilizations used technologies that came to become the
makeup of the many branches of chemistry. These early civilizations would extract metal from ores,
make pottery and glazes, beer and wine fermentation, extraction of chemicals from plants for
medicine, making fat into soap, making glass, and many chemistry related tasks were done.
Alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results.
Robert Boyle wrote The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, and in this book it he talks about the difference
between chemistry and alchemy. Although was not the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Henry Cavendish had isolated hydrogen in 1766. He soon called "inflammable air." In 1773, Carl
Wilhelm Scheele discovered oxygen. He came to call this "fire air." Scheele had not published his
achievement soon enough, and Joseph Priestley did instead. Priestley revered to oxygen as
"dephlogisticated air." He had also invented soda water. In 1789 Antoine Lavoisier, father of modern
chemistry, established the law of conservation of mass, Lavoisier's law. He had made a system
which named chemical compounds. This was put into his book called Methods of Chemical
Nomenclature in 1787. This chemical compound naming system is still used today. John Dalton
proposed Dalton's law in 1803. This law describes the relationship the makeup in a mixture of gases
and the pressure that each contributes to the mixture. Dalton had also proclaimed in 1803 that all
matter was composed of small indivisible particles. In 1808 he published New System of Chemical
Philosophy where he proposed a modern atomic theory. In this book he made an outline of the
identification of the atomic theory. Dalton claimed that atoms of a given element possess unique
characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms existed. Those three types are simple
(elements), compound (simple compounds), and complex (complex molecules). There were many
uncertainties about Dalton's published book. In 1811, Amedeo

Atomoic and Sub-atomic Participles, Questions and Answers
1. a)
Copper is formed by metallic bonds. This is because it is formed by a strong attraction between the
closely packed positive metal ions and because these are surrounded by delocalised electrons to
form outer shells. Due to this, we can also deduce that its structure is a Giant Metallic Lattice,
meaning that it has a high melting and boiling point, conducts electricity and is insoluble.
Bromine formed by covalent bonds in between two bromine atoms, since bromine is a diatomic
element. Each bromine atom shares one electron with each other, in order to complete their outer
shell. Its structure is Simple Covalent Lattice, meaning that its melting and boiling point are low.
Due to the weak forces of attraction between the molecules. b)i) E ii) C iii) F iv) B
2. Ferr– examples: Ferrell, Ferredoxin, Ferromagnetically, Ferrocene, Ferret, Ferrous, Ferric,
Ferrocyanide.
The prefix "Ferr–"means that something contains iron.
–phile examples: Amphiphile, Paedophile, Electrophile, Nucleaphile, Hydrophile.
The suffix "–phile" means that there is an attraction to something. For example if chlorine is
hydrophile (hydro means water or liquid), it means that it has a tendency to interact with water or
dissolve in it.
3. a) There are certain changes that occur when a solid is heated and then melts. In a solid, all the
particles are packed together and the only motion that they have is vibration. When a solid is heated,
its particles start to

The Sweet Hereafter Essay
Character development keeps an audience interested. Being able to pull emotion out of the main
character allows the audience to feel the pain or excitement that is being portrayed. In director Atom
Egoyan's "The Sweet Hereafter," Dolores Driscoll brings out the sadness that her character is
feeling. You can sense the pain and distress that she bears. Yet, in the novel, The Sweet Hereafter, by
Russell Banks', Dolores does not grow as a character. The audience never deciphers if Dolores
understands the tragic events. The film explores Dolores' character, which adds depth, while the
book illustrates Dolores on the surface and denies her any sort of personal growth.
In Russell Banks' novel, The Sweet Hereafter, a small town suffers a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Dolores never conceding to her own grief leaves her character in the position of a narrator, not a
character that one can easily relate to. Dolores never cries. She never questions why it happened to
her, why it happened in her town. There is never an ounce of emotion that comes from her chapter.
Dolores never becomes a real person. Who can survive this horrific accident and not mention their
sorrow once? She serves as an outside source that relays the facts instead of an emotionally
vulnerable character with whom the reader can connect.
In the movie, Atom Egoyan wants his audience to associate with the characters. He does everything
possible to show that Dolores Driscoll is just the average person. She cannot keep herself from
crying in her interview with Mitchell Stephens, or in deposition with the other lawyers. The grief
overcomes her as it would any other person in the same sort of situation. During her interview with
Mitchell, Dolores is obviously having issues dealing with the trauma. She continuously refers to the
children in the present tense, as if they are still with her. She is having psychological troubles that

Essay about Chemistry
Chemistry Aim: I am trying to find out whether the equation 2CuCO3 ® Cu2O + 2CO2 + ½O2 or
the equation CuCO3 ® CuO + CO2 is correct for the decomposition of copper carbonate.
Introduction: This is my background research, this information may help me when I am trying to see
which equation is correct. I have used the book Chemistry 1 by OCR as my reference.
Relative Atomic Mass: This is the mass of an atom of the element relative to the mass of an atom of
carbon–12 which has a mass of exactly 12.
Relative Molecular Mass: This is the mass of a molecule of a compound relative to an atom of
carbon–12.
Mole: This is the unit of an atom of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Equation 1 produces the most gas.
Number of moles = Volume of Gas (cm3) = 80cm3
Molar Volume (cm3) 24000cm3
= 0.0033 moles of gas
1.25 moles of gas is produced from 1 mole of copper carbonate (CuCO3)
» 0.0033 moles of gas is produced from (0.0033)
1.25
= 0.00264 moles of Copper Carbonate
m = n x M M[CuCO3] = [63.5 + 12 + (3 x 16)] = 123.5g mol 1
0.00264 x 123.5g mol 1
= 0.33g of CuCO3

I can now work out how much gas 0.33g of CuCO3 will give in equation 2:
n = m = 0.33g = 0.00267 moles of Copper Carbonate
M 123.5g mol 1
1 mole of CuCO3 gives 1 mole of gas
0.00267 moles of CuCO3 gives 0.00267 moles of gas.
Volume of gas (cm3) = number of moles x molar volume (cm3)
= 0.00267 x 24000 cm3
= 64cm3
I can now carry out the experiment and compare the actual value with the two predicted values I
have just calculated. Which ever value is closest to the actual value is the correct value and so its
equation will be the correct equation.
Method
I will now carry out a risk assessment of the

Human Science And Natural Science
Disagreement may aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences because
disagreement leads to new discoveries. Disagreement is about gathering reliable knowledge as well
as using this newfound knowledge, and occurs when a group fails to reach a consensus over the
logic of an argument. Knowledge is composed of facts, information, and skills acquired by a person
through experience or education. Two areas of knowledge that are impacted by disagreement are
human science and natural science. Human science is the study of human behavior and how humans
gather information. Natural science is a branch of science that deals with the physical world. In
order for a disagreement to occur, one must be familiar with the subject and have his or her own
prediction that is different from the norm. Therefore, to advance knowledge in the areas of human
and natural science, people must disagree. The roles of logic, reason, and emotion will be
investigated to see how they are used to help gain new knowledge in both human and natural
science. Many knowledge claims in human and natural science are based on theories. Jean Lamarck
proposed the theory of evolution in 1801. The theory of evolution proposed by Lamarck was based
on the idea that organisms had to change their behavior to survive. For instance, if a giraffe stretched
it neck for a long period of time to reach the leaves as the top of the tree, then a "nervous fluid"
would flow in the neck and make it longer. Thus, its

A Study On A Molecular Dynamic
A Molecular dynamic (MD) simulation is employed to examine the indentation response of Al/a–Si
nano core–shell. The modified embedded atom method (MEAM) is used to compute the interaction
between Al and a–Si. The deformation behavior of the a–Si shell and Al core under a spherical
indented is investigated. Moreover, this study explore the effects of a–Si density, indenter– radius
size, and core/shell ratio size on the structural deformation of Al/a–Si core shell nanostructure.
Background The transition from micro–particles to nano–particles opened a window to colossal
changes in properties of the materials. Nanomaterials show novel characteristics that make them
feasible for the improvement and development of new technologies. Thereby, nanostructures enclose
a great potential for application in fields like electronics, optoelectronics, magnetic storage,
tribology, and biomedicine [1]. Practical adaptation of nanoparticles for specific applications
frequently requires complex designs. Core–shell nanoparticles are formed of an inner material (core)
and an outer layer of another material (shell). The selection of materials for the core and shell
depends on the functionality of the nanoparticle. The shell acts as coating that increase the global
particle stability of the core; in most cases it helps to modify thermal stability, allows surface
modification, and decreases reactivity. The core usually complements the structure with the
additional physical properties of the

Essay Sch4U Final Exam Study Note
Chemistry Exam Study Sheet
Organic Chemistry Study of compounds to which carbon is the principal element. Carbon is special
because it has 4 bonds.
Functional Groups Organic substances are organized into organic families. Organic Families – group
of organic compounds with common structural features. o Each family has a recognizable physical
property and a specific structural arrangement. o Each combination is referred to as a functional
group. o Even though many functional groups exist, they essentially consist of only 3 main
components. ▪ Carbon– carbon multiple bonds ▪ Single bonds between a carbon atom and a more
electronegative atom. ▪ Carbon atom double bonded to an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
o They go through substitution reactions o Hydrogen atoms are easily replaced.
Organic Halides o Group of compounds that include common products such as Freon's
Naming Organic Halides o Consider the halogen atom as an attachment on the parent hydrocarbon
chain. o The halogen name is shortened to either fluros, chloros, bromo, or iodo.
Properties of Organic Halides: o The presence of the halogen atom (ie – Cl) on a hydrocarbon chain
makes the molecule polar. o Halogens are more electronegative than carbon and hydrogen o Due to
polarity, will have higher boiling points.
Naming Alcohols o The –OH functional group is named – 'Ol' o The parent alkane is the longest
carbon chain to which an –OH group is attached o When an alcohol contains more than 2 carbon
atoms abd more than two –OH groups, a number system is used. o Different isomers have different
properties o Poly Alcohols: o Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group. o Suffixes are
diol and triol.
Ethers o General formula is R–O–R o There is an oxygen bond to 2 alkyl group which are on either
side o Is a bent molecule
Naming ethers o Ether is named by adding any to the prefix of the smaller hydrocarbon group.
Preparing Ethers from Alcohols o Ether are formed when two alcohols

Weinberg's A Designer Universe Essay
Weinberg's A Designer Universe
The phenomenon of the creation of the universe has baffled many for some time. The question of
whether or not a designer/God put together this most intricate world in a personal quest or project
leaves many in great debate. Was life brought about by some evolutionary feat? Or, in opposition,
did an intelligent being create life with perfection in mind? Both questions can be answered in many
different ways. Steven Weinberg, writer of A Designer Universe, offers his thoughts, through
abduction, regarding the likelihood of a designer creating the universe.
Such an abduction, in which Weinberg expresses his opinion, relies on premises or declarative
statements that the conclusion proves most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first most convincing argument that Weinberg presents to the reader, points toward a universe
created by something other than a deity. Weinberg touches on carbon synthesis. He points out that
the creation of the carbon atom can be easily explained through science. Thus, if carbon developed
through some random reaction within the universe. Once this carbon develops the likelihood of
more carbon developing is great. Hence, carbon being the basis of life, life would be able to exist
through this atomic theory. Furthermore, this reaction can be simply explained by scientists without
the use of some intelligent designer. So, Weinberg concludes that, in fact, a designer does not exist,
or the carbon was produced by chance without a designer. This argument shows that the perfection
of a conscious deity doesn't need to exist for the essential beginning of life. This argument of
Weinberg's clearly implements what philosophers call the "No Surprise Principle". Because the
conclusion that Weinberg makes points toward all of his premises, the conclusion makes the
premises most unsurprising, thus leading to the basis of the "No Surprise Principle".
In a further argument, Weinberg again expresses via abduction that a divine creator was not the
founder of all life. Weinberg touches on his opinion of the "Big Bang Theory". He suggests that if
more than one big bang occurred and more than one universe exists

Free Will Essay examples
Free Will
Everything that happens has a cause and every cause has an effect. Effect strictly follows cause
every time.
This is an necessary logical tool for humans in understanding the world around them. Because
humans understand the concept of time it means that they can then understand that some things
always happen after other things. Spotting these patterns allows them to then deliberately cause
certain effects by mimicking or instigating the cause they had previously observed.
If effect did not follow cause reliably each and every time then it would become very difficult to
survive as we learn from repeated exposure to cause and effect what is likely to happen if we do X.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Surely the simplest explanation is that cause and effect simply do exist.
Is everything we will ever think or do pre–determined? Were all of the great works of creation in art
music and architecture pre–determined at the point of creation? Again this argument seems both
unsatisfactory and false.
So how do we resolve this contradiction? One answer lies in the way in which we perceive the
world. There are essentially two worlds in nature. The world that we see: the macro world, the world
of Newtonian physics, and the world of the very, very small: the world of quantum physics.
Quantum physics essentially shows us that far from being totally predictable, the paths of particles
are unknowable, because the act of observing a particle will alter it or its path in some way. Thus,
rather than dealing with absolute positions, directions and speeds quantum physics uses statistics to
predict the position of particles. This means that for a given particle we only have a probability of
where it will be.
Now the behaviour of large numbers of particles is much easier because lots of these elusive
particles acting together and in relation to each other (as in matter) become more predictable. Why?
Imagine a box with a divider such that we can close the box into two identical halves at any time.
Suppose the box is totally empty – a perfect vacuum. We then introduce

The Physics Of The Atomic Theory
"What is the world made of?" That question has puzzled scientists and philosophers for centuries.
The atomic theory was first proposed in ancient Greece around 400 BC and has continued to evolve
through the centuries to finally evolve into the current theory we have today. We now know that the
subatomic particles that make up the atom are no longer the fundamental particles of the universe
because even they are made of smaller particles called "quarks." The continuous study of atoms will
allow us to truly understand the universe and harness it's knowledge to further science and
technology for the good of society.
In ancient Greece, the first philosophers searched for the fundamental building blocks of the world.
Originally, it was thought that the fundamental elements were earth, air, fire, and water. Empedocles
(c. 490–430 BC) was the first to classify the elements and propose that they made up everything in
our world in different combinations. Leucippus (c. 460–370 BC), and his student Democritus (c.
460–370 BC), were the first to propose a theory that the world was made up of "atoms." The word
"atom" is derived from the Greek word "atomon," which means "that which cannot be divided" (The
Particle Adventure). Leucippus's theory was very vague. He claimed the world was made of two
elements that he called, "the full" or the "solid" and "the empty" or "void" (Berryman). He believed
these particles were infinite and were what made up all things. Because Leucippus's

Biology Case Study Essay
Case Study 1 1. Johnny has seen the words Sodium Chloride before in his science class with the
periodic table. 2. Johnny couldn't find Sodium Chloride on the periodic table because Sodium
Chloride is a molecule made up of two atoms: Sodium and Chloride. 3. Sodium Chloride represents
two atoms that together form a molecule: NaCl.
Na: Sodium and Cl: Chloride 4. An ionic bond occurs when two or more ions (an atom whose
number of elections differs from its number of protons) bond together because of their opposite
charge. They are drawn to each other like magnets because of their opposite charge. 5. Sodium
Chloride came about because Sodium, a positively charged ion, has one electron in its outermost
shell and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is important to remember with a water molecule because the hydrogen bonds between
individual molecules and are constantly breaking and then reforming. This allows the molecules to
pack close together. 11. Acids are any substance that yields hydrogen ions when put in aqueous
solution. In other words, the concentration of hydrogen ions goes up the the further doe the pH scale
you go. Bases are any substance that accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. Again, the more
basic it is the lower the concentration of hydrogen ions. 12. The pH scale is a scale used to measure
the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The scale ranges from 0 to 14, and figures out the
concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The lower the pH number, the more acidic the solution
is. The higher the pH number, the more basic the solution. 13. At the chemical level, Johnny would
be able to tell if something was an acid or a base by the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
14. H+ refers to a hydrogen ion: a lone proton that has lost its electron making it a positively
charged ion. 15. Acids are H+ donators: Acids release hydrogen ions in a solution, meaning the
hydrogen ions concentration goes up, thus lowering the pH.
Bases are H+ acceptors: Bases accepts hydrogen ions in a solution, meaning the hydrogen ion
concentration goes down and the pH

Investigating The Hardness Of River Tank And Tap Water
Water Hardness EEI
The aim of this investigation is to use a quantitative method to determine the hardness of river, tank
and tap water. Using chemicals including pH 10 buffer solution, Eriochrome Black T Indicator,
0.01M magnesium chloride and 0.01M EDTA solution the milligrams of calcium carbonate per litre
of the three water samples (river, tank and tap) was tested. Using this method, it was discovered that
river water had the highest concentration of calcium carbonate of the samples, therefore was the
hardest water sample tested, whilst the tank water had the lowest concentration of calcium
carbonate, therefore it was the softest of the water samples. This investigation proved the hypothesis
and the quantitative method used worked ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The bonding within the water molecule and the interaction between the water molecules causes the
molecules to organise themselves in a bent shape. Both a space model and electron dot diagram of a
water molecule have been supplied in the appendix – Image 1. Water has many unique properties,
which has allowed life to exist: for example, if ice didn't have a lower density than water, the oceans
would have frozen from the bottom up, killing all forms of life. Water is denser than ice because the
molecules in ice are further from each other than they are in water. Another property of water is that
it is a good solvent and is often called the 'universal solvent' because of the number and variety of
substances that dissolve in it, including inorganic salts like sodium chloride separate. This is because
the cations are attracted to the negative end of the water molecule (the oxygen atom) while anions
are attracted to the positive end of the water molecule (the hydrogen atoms). The separated ions are
then surrounded by water molecules and are said to be 'hydrated' ions. However, the presence of
different solutes, such as sodium chloride, can change some of the properties of water. One thing
solutes often do is decrease the freezing point and increase the boiling point. This adjustment can
then be used as an advantage, for example, when 76g of ethylene glycol, or antifreeze, is added to
1000g

How the Properties of Water are Related to Its Roles in...
How the Properties of Water are Related to Its Roles in Living Organisms and as a Living
Environment for Living Organisms
Over 70% of the world's surface is covered by water, 95% of which consists of salty oceans; water is
essential to all life forms. A molecule of water consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bound to
one atom of oxygen which gives a formula of H2O. When water molecules are close together their
positive and negative regions are attracted to the oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules.
The force of attraction, shown in the diagram below as a dotted line, is called a hydrogen bond.
Each water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four others. It is these hydrogen bonds and the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This also means that, compared with air, water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it
to cool. Water's high specific heat helps organisms to regulate their body temperatures more
effectively. Water vapour is a greenhouse gas, and both the capability to keep heat in and to transfer
heat from the tropics serves to buffer temperatures on Earth. For example, as one–half of the Earth
rotates away from the sun the fall in temperature is much more gradual than it would have been if
there was no water vapour in the atmosphere.
As water expands when it freezes it allows ice to float on the surface which creates an insulating
layer on lakes and rivers. This prevents the entire body of water and all the organisms living in it
from freezing. The weak hydrogen bonding means that ice has a lot of empty space. When ice melts
the "frozen" geometry is removed, but not all the hydrogen bonds are broken. The molecules begin
to pack more closely together to fill some of the empty space. Thus, liquid water is denser than ice.
Water has its greatest density at 4°C and this is why the top of a lake freezes first. The cooler part
freezes and the more dense water at slightly higher temperature sinks to the bottom. This helps to
protect fresh water organisms which live in the bottom. The empty space also means that ice does
not conduct heat very well

Analyzing A Blood Sample Containing Drugs
When analyzing a blood sample containing drugs, often a normal scale or balance cannot detect the
mass of the drugs in the sample due to the small size of the sample. In that case, in order to properly
determine the mass of a drug in a sample, it becomes necessary to utilize a mass spectrometer. A
mass spectrometer can measure the mass of atomic–sized particles with great accuracy (Jeol, 2006).
In forensic toxicology, mass spectrometry can provide scientists with the identity and quantity of a
drug in a sample (Christopher Tilson, personal communication, March 19, 21016). Mass
spectrometry serves as an exceptionally useful method in the field of forensic drug analysis, as its
ability to determine the mass of exceedingly small particles assists in the classification and
quantification of drugs in a sample.
Before analyzation of a blood sample using mass spectrometry can occur, separation of the drugs
from the blood must take place. If sent directly into the mass spectrometer, the blood would create
too many peaks in the results. Not to mention, the blood would make the mass spectrometer too
dirty to provide accurate results (Christopher Tilson, personal communications, March 19, 2016).
Due to these facts, forensic scientists always spate the drugs from the blood sample using one of two
methods. The first method, called liquid extraction, works by adding liquids of different polarities to
the blood sample. By choosing the right solvents, the drugs will separate from the blood.

Experiment 36: Determination of the Structure of a Natural...
Name CHE 173 Sec # January 25, 2005 Experiment 36: Determination of the Structure of a Natural
Product in Anise Oil
Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to isolate the major component of anise oil and
determine its identity and structure using melting point determination and IR spectroscopy.
Introduction: The major component of anise oil has the chemical formula C10H12O. This
compound is said to be hydrogen deficient, meaning that it contains less hydrogen atoms than would
be needed for each of the carbon atoms to have the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms attached.
The IHD, or index of hydrogen deficiency for this molecule is 10. This indicates that there must be
five rings or double bonds in the structure. Each of these would ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
After adding the anise oil, the mixture was allowed to heat for 20 minutes rather than 15 minutes as
stated. Lastly, the IR spectrum analysis was previously prepared so no actual IR spectrum analysis
was carried out during the course of the experiment.
Results: No substantial qualitative data was collected, except that the original reaction mixture
turned a purple color. Upon the addition of anise oil and heat, the reaction mixture turned a brown
color. And with the addition of NaHSO3 the mixture turned a white color. The mass of the final
product sample was measured to be 0.08g (see Calculation 1). The melting point range for this
sample was 172.8–185.4ºC in Trial 1 and 171.6–185.2ºC in Trial 2 (see Table 1). The IR spectrum of
anise oil can be found attached. Peaks appear to exist at 3022.86, 3002.41, 2957.58, 2933.88,
2912.63, 2834.94, and 2723.19 (cm–1). Another set of peaks appear to exist at 1608.06, 1510.55,
1464.73, 1441.16, 1306.3, 1283.06, 1247.18, 1174.78, 1036.26, 964.58, 839.29, and 787.03 (cm–1).
No other significant quantitative results were collected.
Discussion: As seen in the melting point determination, the average melting point range of the
product was 172.2–185.3ºC. The melting points of the possible products are listed as 101ºC for o–
methoxybenzoic acid, 110ºC for m– methoxybenzoic acid, and 185ºC for p– methoxybenzoic acid.
As the melting point of the sample

The Visual Representation of a Body Part in Imaging...
Imaging technology is the visual representation of a body part, such as an organ, for the purpose of a
medical diagnosis. Nowadays, technologies such as X–Rays, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
and ultrasound are used everyday for medical analysis. X–Rays are very useful because they can
penetrate through different materials to give an image of the interior of the body. MRI use strong
magnets to create an image of a body part, while ultrasound imaging uses sound waves.
Bone, muscle and fat absorb x–rays at different levels, so the screen lets see different structures of
the body because the different levels of exposure are in different shades of gray. The main
component of an x–ray machine is a vacuum tube with a cathode or filaments and an anode, which
is usually made of tungsten, a hard–steel gray metal used to make electric light filaments. Electric
current passes through the filament, raising its temperature. Once it reaches a certain level of energy,
the filament starts emitting negatively charged electrons. These electrons are attracted with great
force from the positively tungsten anode, taking them through the vacuum tube at very high speed.
In one of the atom's lower orbital an electron gets knocked away when the anode collides with
electrons. An electron from the higher orbital takes place of the removed electron, releasing energy
as an X–ray photon. (HowStuffWorks–X–Rays) Called 'bremsstrahlung', the reaction contains x–
rays of varying wavelengths. The X–ray

Essay on Stanislao Cannizzaro Quest for Knowledge
Throughout history, the curiosities of obtaining knowledge of facts that show the operation of
general laws have resulted into the improvements of today's society. Such curiosity of chemical
reactions coiled in the minds of John Dalton in the atomic theory, Rosalind Franklin with genetics,
and most importantly Antoine Lavoisier the father of modern chemistry. All who, worked
extensively to acquire the understanding that fascinated them most, chemistry. Another chemist who
sought after the same knowledge was Stanislao Cannizzaro. Studying organic chemistry Cannizzaro
explained how certain elements lacked the hydrogen atom in what is know n as the Cannizzaro
Reaction.
Being the youngest of ten children, Cannizzaro was born in Palermo, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This reaction proved that it is possible for is a chemical reaction that involves the base–induced
disproportionation of an aldehyde lacking a hydrogen atom in the alpha position. Leaving
Alessandria Cannizzaro became a professor of chemistry at the University of Genoa. While there he
wrote letters outlining the differences between atoms and molecules. Sending this letter to
Sebabastino de Luca, the chair at Pisa, the letter was published in the Pisa journal as, "Sunto", in
which would be republished and translated into other languages.
Ideas based on Avogadro's law, Cannizzaro clarified the distinctions of molecules and atoms giving
a solid foundation for the formulation of the periodic law. Presenting the information in such a clear
way during a time where Avogadro's theory seemed unnecessary Cannizzaro made it easy for
scientists to grasp it and Avogadro's law became the standard. At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress,
scientist became more aware of the "Sunto" and the convention was held in order to develop a more
precise definition of the atom and molecule. Explaining once again, the terms of "atom", "physical
molecule," and "chemical molecule" the third day of the congress his presentation failed and it was
decided that scientist could choose to use either Berzelius's or Avogadro's system. However,
Cannizzaro's explanation and "Sunto" was not finished, Angelo Pavesi, a professor at pavia, handed
out the "Sunto" and it

The History Of Atomic Structure
Eliza Abrams
Mrs. Baldwin
Honors Chem ⅘
24 November 2015
The History of Atomic Structure For many years Greek philosophers were intrigued by the question
of what matter consists of(Lucretius 31). In the fifth century BC, Democritus was the first
philosopher to come up with a coherent atom theory. Based upon the reasoning that a stone can be
split in half an infinite number of times, he hypothesized that at some point the stone would be too
small for the eye to see. Democritus categorized such miniscule fragments of matter as "atomos" .
Without experimental evidence, Democritus guessed that atoms of all shapes are in continual
motion. Such motion affords the possibility of collisions in which atoms could attract or repel.
Alterations in matter could be counted for by these collisions. Democritus's original atomic theory
had little impact on the world for many years, due to its lack of evidence, and was rejected by
another renowned philosopher, Aristotle ("Ancient Atomic Theory"). Following Democritus,
Aristotle brought an opposing view on matter. Aristotle correctly claimed that there are three states
of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Additionally, he made the proposition that all matter springs from
the four elements, earth, air, fire and water. Similarly to Democritus, Aristotle had no experimental
evidence. Democritus's and Aristotle's theories differ in that Democritus stated that matter exists in
atoms in a void, while Aristotle stated that all matter stems from the

Inorganic Ions Include Those of Sodium, Phosphorus and...
Inorganic ions include those of sodium, phosphorus and hydrogen. Describe how these and other
inorganic ions are used in living organisms.
Inorganic ions in animals and plants are necessary for vital cellular activity. In body tissue they can
also be called electrolytes, which are essential for electrical activity needed to support muscle
contractions and neuron activation. Ions also effect how pH changes in the blood and other bodily
functions. Ions are also incorporated into the structure of biological molecules.
Resting potentials require ions as they play a vital role in the process. In the surface membrane of a
cell there are protein carriers. These actively pump Na+ ions out of the cytoplasm to the outside of
the cell. At the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This stage is called repolarisation. The K+ channels then close, the sodium–potassium pump
restarts, restoring the normal distribution of ions either side of the cell surface membrane and thus
restoring the resting potential. In response to this the Na+ channels in that area would open up,
allowing Na+ ions to flood into the cell and thus reducing the resting potential of the cells. If the
resting potential of the cell drops to the threshold level, then an action potential has been generated
and an impulse will be fired.
In photosynthesis H+ ions are vital in the production of the energy source that is ATP, which is used
in several metabolic processes, such as respiration. The photolysis of water produces H+ ions,
electrons and O2. The excited electrons lose energy as they move along the electron transport chain,
this energy is used to transport the H+ ions (protons) in to the thylakoid, which causes a higher
concentration of H+ than there is in the stroma, thus causing a proton gradient across the membrane.
The H+ then proceed to move down the concentration gradient into the stroma via the enzyme ATP
synthase. The energy from this process is called chemiosmosis and combines ADP with inorganic
phosphate (Pi) to form ATP. Light energy is then absorbed by photosystem I (PS I) which excites the
electrons to a higher energy level. These electrons are transferred to NADP with H+ ions from the
stroma to form reduced NADP. The whole of this process is

Hydrogen Atoms And Hydrogen Molecules
Water is a molecule which is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Water can
appear in forms like gasses (steam/water vapor from a kettle), liquids (drinking water or mineral
water), and a solid form (ice is the only example of solidified water). The human body has more
than a half of total water content. Water has specialised properties as the hydrogen (2 atoms) and
oxygen (1 atom) connect to each other to make a water molecule. The hydrogen atoms join the top
of the water molecule when the hydrogen atoms connect with oxygen. This structure means that the
water has polarity. Polarity is an electric charge which has the power to get the attention of other
atoms. The last part of the water molecule contains two hydrogen bonds which are positively
charged however, the hydrogen bond which connects the oxygen to the hydrogen's is negatively
charged that is why they have each other's attention as opposites attract. Water has a high specific
heat capacity of 4181 J/Kg degrees which is higher than oxygen which has 918 J/Kg degrees. If
water is clean then the pH will be 7.Water has a neutral pH in its uncontaminated form (pH 7).The
intermolecular forces which are found in water are hydrogen bonding. Due to hydrogen bonding the
boiling point of water is high because hydrogen bonding is very powerful. The hydrogen bonds are
sticky this is what makes the hydrogen molecules join to the oxygen molecule. It is not as powerful
as covalent bonds but it is more powerful

Chem 222 Lab 5 Report Essay
IMF: Evaporative Cooling and Molecular Modeling ChemInquiry 5 Experiment Completed on
Tuesday, October 21, 2014 Report turned in on Tuesday, November 3, 2014 Author: Katyna
Omidfar–Tran Partner: Jesus Palomo Data Analysis Questions 1. Molecular Series I, II, and III all
have London Dispersion forces, Dipole–Dipole moment forces, and Hydrogen Bonding forces. 2.
Molecular Series IV all have London Dispersion forces only 3. In Molecular Series I (Straight–
Chain Alcohols): As you go through the group from methanol  ethanol  1–propanol  1–butanol:
A. The IMFs that are changing in Molecular Series I are London Dispersion forces. B. Claim: As we
go from methanol  ethanol  1–propanol  1–butanol the dispersion forces increase. ... Show
The more molecules that are able to escape into the vapor, the greater the decrease in temperature
due to evaporative cooling. Thus, a larger negative ΔT corresponds to a substance in which the IMFs
are weak. A greater number of electrons correspond to a great polarizability of a molecule. Greater
polarizability leads to greater dispersion forces. Thus, as molar mass increases, the number of
electrons increase, which increases the polarizability of the molecule and hence the strength of the
dispersion forces of the substance. 4. In Molecular Series II (Branched–Chain Alcohols): As you go
through the group from 1–butanol  sec–butanol  1–ter–butanol: A. The dipole moments, surface
area (shape), steric hindrances, and change in temperature (degree of evaporative cooling) affect
IMF strength and are changing from one molecule to the next. B. Claim: As we go from 1–butanol
 sec–butanol  1–ter–butanol the dipole moments and the surface areas decrease. As we go from
1–butanol  sec–butanol  1–ter–butanol the steric hindrance increases. As we go from 1–butanol
 sec–butanol  1–ter–butanol the ΔT (degree of evaporative cooling) decreases. As we go from 1–
butanol  sec–butanol  1–ter–butanol the strength of the IMFs decrease. C. Evidence: As can be
seen in Table 2 on page 2A of the attached Appendix, the Spartan molecular modeling data shows
surface area decreases in the

The Development of Maraging Steels Essay
Maraging steels of different compositions have been prepared by means of induction furnace electro
slag remelting technique using titanium and chromium instead of cobalt which is a high expensive
strategic element, also nickel content was reduced to 10–13%. Mass attenuation coefficients, half
value layers and effective atomic numbers have been determined for the prepared samples at photon
energies 238, 583, 661, 911, 1173, 1332 and 2614keV. The results are compared with the
corresponding theoretical calculations. In addition, the hardness has been determined for the
investigated steels. High nitrogen free nickel steel and carbon steel samples have been also
investigated for the sake of comparison. The achieved results reveal the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They are formed during ageing in the temperature range between 400 and 600oC after the steels had
been solution annealed in the austenitic phase and air cooled which results in a martensitic
microstructure. Over the past half–century, two major types of maraging steels have been developed,
the 18Ni maraging steels and the cobalt–free maraging steels. The Standard maraging steels contain
18% Ni, 8% Co, 5% Mo and 0.4% Ti. But Ni, Co and Mo are very expensive strategic alloying
elements as cobalt reaches to levels as high as 8 to 13%. This keeps the steels rather expensive,
preventing wider selection and application, but with maximum strength levels reaching 2400 MPa,
accompanied by good toughness and ductility. Therefore, developing cobalt–free maraging steel
with reduced quantities of expensive alloying elements to lower the production cost has been an
important direction of maraging steels research. Over the past two decades, enormous advances
have been achieved in the development of cobalt–free maraging steels to high strength levels with
Ni and Ti as the major precipitation hardening phase in cobalt–free maraging steels.
To overcome this problem, titanium was used as one of the primary strengthening element replacing
Co in steels, and to overcome the problem of retained

Spectroscopy Lab Report
cName: Nicholas Cassel Gen Chem 1210 23 March 2013
Blinded By the Light
Abstract: In this experiment we were provided a cereal box spectrometer to observe the emission
lines of noble gases and hydrogen. Based on the scale readings on the spectrometer and the Balmer–
Rydberg formula, their wavelengths and percent error were able to be extrapolated. Based on the
literature values, the cereal box spectrometer proved its value as a decently accurate spectrometer.
Introduction: Every element and subsequent atom associated emits light; also know as
electromagnetic radiation, when in an excited state. Analyzing this emitted light can give insight to
the makeup and characteristics of them. The light given off by an energetically excited ... Show
2012). With the spectroscope, the helium in the discharge tube was observed. The emission line
scale reading and colors were then recorded on table 1.1 which can be found below. These values
where then put into an excel spreadsheet and graph was formed (table 1.2). An equation was then
extrapolated from the data that would give the experimental wavelength (expt λ) values that will be
used for later values. The trend line for table 1.2 was established to see the relationship between
wavelength and scale readings.
Expt λ=a λ+b
Expt λ=7.1541 λ+ 343.12
TABLE 1.1 Helium Calibration λ (nm) | Scale Reading | Color | 667.8 | 45 | Red | 587.6 | 35 | Yellow
| 501.6 | 22 | Green | 492.2 | 20 | Blue–green | 471.3 | 18 | Blue | 447.1 | 15 | Violet |
TABLE 1.2 Helium Calibration Graph
Then, by measuring and calculating the emission lines in the hydrogen line spectrum, the data on
table 1.3 was collected. The calculated wavelength (Calc λ) was determined by the Balmer–Rydberg
formula.
1λ=R(1m2–1n2)
R=Rydberg Constant=1.0968x107m–1
The percent error was then calculated by the following equation. error %=(calc λ–expt λ)calc λ
The experimental wavelength (expt λ) was determined with,

Expt λ=7.1541 λ+ 343.12
TABLE 1.3 Hydrogen Emission Scale Reading | Color | Expt λ | m | n | Calc λ | λ % error | | | | 1 | 2 | |
| | | | 1 | 3 | | | | | | 1 | 4 | | | 45 | Red

History And Science Of The Atom
History of the Atom
By
Karina Vazquez
Period: 4
May 11, 2016
Mr.Sanchez
Chemistry B
The atom is an important thing in the world of science and chemistry. The atom might have started
on a different point of view on how the atom works. There were many different people who had
many good and different ideas on how to use the atom and what it was used for. Democritus was one
of many other philosopher and scientists that wanted to start the discovery of the atom. He got the
name atom from a Greek word, atomos which means that everything is uncut table. The atom was
discovered by Ernest Rutherford while he was doing an experiment in 1911–1919. Ernest
Rutherford suggested at first that the atoms orbited around atomic the nucleus, just like the planets.
Atoms are basic units of matter that are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and
neutrons are particles that are found in the center of the atom, and the electrons are particles that are
found in shells that orbit around the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus was discovered in 1911, by
Ernest Rutherford and it is known for holding the protons and neutrons, and it 's also in the middle
of the proton. Atoms have many other things that are special and important to use, but one of the
most useful thing is the Periodic Table, a table of the chemical elements arranged in order of the
atomic order. The most important things for the history of the atom are the basic units of matter
which make the atom

Ib Physics Past Paper May 2012
M12/4/PHYSI/HPM/ENG/TZ1/XX
22126507
Physics
Higher level
Paper 1
Thursday 10 May 2012 (afternoon)
1 hour
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
Do not open this examination paper until instructed to do so.
Answer all the questions.
For each question, choose the answer you consider to be the best and indicate your choice
on the answer sheet provided.
A clean copy of the Physics Data Booklet is required for this paper.
The maximum mark for this examination paper is [40 marks].
2212–6507
16 pages
© International Baccalaureate Organization 2012
–2–
1.
The diagram below shows the forces acting on a block of weight it slides down a slope.
W as
The angle between the slope ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
v c C.
sin c sin v

D.
sin v sin c
2212–6507
–7–
12. A transverse standing wave is established on a string. Consider the following phase differences.
0
I. 
90
II. 
180
III. 
Which of the following gives all the possible phase differences between the oscillations of any two
particles in the standing wave?
A.
I only
B.
I and III only
C.
II and III only
D.
I, II and III
13. Which of the following would be diffracted the most when incident on a slit of width 1 cm? A.
microwaves
B.
red light
C.

ultraviolet
D.
X–rays
14. Two point sources of light have an angular separation of as measured by a distant observer. θ,
The light passes through a circular aperture of radius r just before reaching the observer. Which of
the following conditions must be true for the two sources to be resolved?
A.
θ < 0.61
B.
θ < 1.22
C.
θ ≥ 0.61
D.
θ ≥ 1.22
2212–6507
λ r λ r λ r λ r Turn over
–8–
15. A beam of unpolarized light is incident on the surface of a liquid and is partially reflected and
partially refracted as shown below. reflected ray
incident ray
40

50 air liquid
surface

refracted ray
The reflected light is completely horizontally polarized. Which of the following is the refractive
index of the liquid?

How Cold Can Something Get?
How Cold can something get?
A deep look into absolute zero
Porpous statement:
As for all mass, the "minimum" is absolute zero. However due to the uncertainty principle it 's
implausible (with our current knowledge) to get anything to this state, fluid or otherwise. This is due
to heat being caused by the vibrations of particles in quantum space, thus to reach absolute zero
would mean to bring a particle (a proton of one of the liquids atoms for example) would mean to
halt the particle entirely. As no particle can be directly measured in space, bringing it to a halt would
therefore imply that it is stagnant in a single, measurable location; Directly breaking the known laws
of physics, that of which being The Uncertainty Principle. The closest we have gotten to Absolute
zero is down to an estimated 1K (Kelvin) Through the laser cooling of Hydrogen atoms.
While scientists have discovered a handful of exceptions to the rule; and, that at least theoretically, it
should be possible for a system to produce conditions in which temperatures are capable to be
quantized at a state lower than absolute zero. This is possible, they say, because the temperature of a
system can be generally described as the average energy of the particles within it. Most hover
around a certain point, with a few outliers found resting at higher levels. However, when the system
is turned upside down, most of the particles will begin to exhibit higher energy levels, with only a
few maintaining a lower energy

The Sweet Hereafter Film Analysis
The Sweet Hereafter, directed by Atom Egoyan, is a film about the devastation caused by a bus
crash in a small Canadian community that killed many of the town's children. Like many of
Egoyan's works, this film indicates his directorial style by using film techniques that place the
audience in the characters shoes. Egoyan uses nonlinear timelines, motifs and music, along with his
great use of camera work, mise en scene, and voice over, to present the plot in a way that engages
the audience and leaves an impression long after the film has finished. A scene in the film that
shows these techniques is the "Deposition Hearing Scene." This scene is critical to the rest of the
film because it helps the viewers understand Nicole's character and how she feels towards her father.
By having Nicole lie about the bus crash, Nicole is released from the abusive power of her father,
Sam. In this scene, at first, Nicole seems vulnerable, but as the scene continues, the audience and
character's views of her change.
During the deposition hearing, film techniques help in revealing that Nicole is lying about what
happened during the bus crash. The camera pans slowly to show the interview. This makes the
atmosphere seem tense and as there is also no background noise in this part of the scene, it seems
like a very serious moment of the film. As the scene progresses the smooth panning camera–shots
changes to quick, choppy cuts between Nicole, Sam, and Mitchell. This indicates to the audience
that

States of matter Essay
Name: Vasile T. Garbulet States of Matter Lab 1
Procedure:
Go to: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/states–of–matter and click on Run Now
States of Matter
Review:
1) Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of motion.
2) Potential energy (PE) is the energy of position.
3) What property of a substance corresponds to the average KE of its particles?
Temperature
4) What property of a substance corresponds to the average PE of its particles?
Phase
5) List the three common states of matter in order of highest potential to lowest.
Gas, liquid, solid
e–Lab:
1) Open PhET simulation States of Matter.
2) The beginning ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
b) Are the atoms still in their crystalline pattern even though they're moving? Yes
4) Heat the solid Neon to 20 K. What is this temperature in Celsius? –253°C
a) What happens to the motion of the atoms? Getting faster
b) Are the atoms still in the crystalline pattern? Yes
5) Heat the Neon to 30 K. What is this temperature in Celsius? –243°C
a) The atoms are sliding past each other

a.A) not moving.
a.B) vibrating about a fixed position.
a.C) sliding past each other.
a.D) moving independently around the container.
b) What state does this represent? Liquid
Every now and then one atom gains enough energy to break free from the group. This is called a
vapor.
6) Heat the Neon to 60 K. What is this temperature in Celsius? –213°C
a) The atoms are moving independently around the container.
a.A) not moving.
a.B) vibrating about a fixed position.
a.C) sliding past each other.
a.D) moving independently around the container.
b) What state is this? Gas
c) Are all of the atoms moving at the same speed? No
d) Does one individual atom always go the same speed? No
e) Temperature corresponds to the average KE (or speed) of the atoms.
7) Heat the Neon to 120 K.
a) On average, the speed of the atoms is twice the speed of the atoms at 60 K.
a.A) half
a.B) twice
a.C) sixty times
a.D) the same as
8) Look at water as a gas. The molecules now have two types of motion. Linear and rotational.
9) Look at water as a solid. Notice the

Biology: Key Questions Essay
Biology Key Questions – Lesson #1
1. How many electrons does Mg2+ have?
Answer: Mg2+ has 10 electrons. A Magnesium atom has 12 electrons, 2 of which are valence
electrons. The atom will lose the 2 outermost electrons in order to stabilize its electron shell. The
nucleus maintains its 12 protons and becomes a Mg2+ ion.
2. Given that the half–life of the radioisotope carbon–14 is 5730 years, how useful do you think this
isotope would be for dating bones that are over a million years old?
Answer:
Carbon–14 is incorporated in the tissues of plants and animals through their environment. When
they die the incorporation of carbon–14 ends, and what remains in the specimen decays at a constant
rate, with a half–life of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When the two smaller reactants join together, water is produced and removed during the synthesis of
the larger molecule. This is also called Dehydration Synthesis.
For example, molecules with projecting Hydrogen atoms bond with molecules with projecting
Hydroxyl groups (–OH), forming water. The water molecule then leaves the reactants, allowing
them to bond to form a larger, more complex molecule.
This type of reaction occurs continuously throughout the body in the joining of amino acids to form
protein.
Amino acid + Amino acid  Protein + Water
Oxidation and Reduction (Redox)
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons rather than molecules is classified as a Redox
reaction. A reaction involving the loss of electrons is called Oxidation, and a reaction involving the
gain of electrons is called Reduction. Oxidation and Reduction always occur together, as one
reactant loses electrons, and the other gains them. This exchange often effects the physical states of
molecules, as their solubility is changed with their charge. *Zn(s) + Cu2+  Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
Cellular respiration is a redox reaction that combines glucose & oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,

water, and energy.
Neutralization:
Neutralization reactions are those that involve the reaction of an acid and a base to form water and
salt. A solution with a high hydrogen ion concentration is acidic, and a solution with a high
concentration of hydroxide ions is

Hydrogen Concentration And Radioactive Isotopes
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; BUT they have the same
number of protons.
In nuclear chemistry, isotopes are shown in the following form:
Chlorine–35 is written as 35Cl and Rubidium–85 is written as 85Rb
Isotopes can be divided in two categories, radioactive and stable.
Stable Isotopes are isotopes that are not radioactive. They have stable nuclei and pose no known
physiological skills
Radioactive Isotopes is when the atom is unstable, it will attempt to gain stability by emitting
radiation in one of the three main forms. A substance is radioactive when it emits this radiation.
There are three types of radiation: α (alpha), β (beta) and γ (gamma) radiation:
Alpha Decay: is made of 'helium nucleus' (2 protons and 2 neutrons) that are ejected from unstable
large nuclei. Alpha radiation usually results when there are too many protons and neutrons in the
nucleus for it to be stable. For example, the decay of uranium–238: Beta Decay: is made up of
electrons ejected from an unstable nucleus (too may neutrons); but nuclei do not contain electrons.
Hence, the underlying reaction is the decomposition of a neutron: When neutron decomposes, it
forms an electron, which is immediately ejected as beta radiation, and a proton ('hydrogen nucleus'),
which is captured by the nucleus. Thus, the beta decay results in an

The String Theory
Sub–atomic particles, known as quarks, electrons, photons, and neutrinos were strewn across
expanding space. Equal amounts of matter and antimatter particles began to collide and annihilate
each other. Gravity, strong and weak nuclear forces, and electromagnetic forces soon came into play.
As the universe started to cool, fundamental particles called quarks began to smash together forming
protons and neutrons. They, in turn, merged to create the nuclei of simple elements, beginning with
hydrogen, helium, and lithium. This primordial soup contained the building blocks for everything in
the universe. Voilà, the universe was born.
Matter and energy continued to expand. Static electricity and gravity brought the expanding matter
together. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Strings would also give rise to the forces of nature: gravity, strong and weak nuclear forces, and
electromagnetism. Atoms contain protons that produce a positive charge, neutrons that produce a
neutral charge, and electrons that produce a negative charge. According to the theory, electrons and
quarks, which make up protons and neutrons, were produced by minuscule, one–dimensional,
randomly behaving, vibrating strings of energy. A property of matter or force of nature would be the
result when the strings vibrate and interact with each other.
Not so fast, physicists filled blackboard after blackboard with mathematical equations to prove that
the theory was consistent with the force of gravity. Did not happen. A theory had to be established
that was compatible with the gravitational forces in the enormous universe and the microscopic
world. The modified theory had to include quantum gravity, a high–frequency, string vibration that
would produce a graviton. A graviton is responsible for curving surrounding space. The Super String
Theory soon replaced the Not–so–super String Theory. Particle/wave duality of matter and energy
on the quantum level joined the mix, boson/fermion partnerships known as supersymmetry brought
the wine, quantum gravity served the hors d'oeuvres, and the Mother of all parties got underway.
The M Theory, aka Mother, Master, or

Chemical Reaction On Energy And Carbon
Preliminary Chemistry–Assessment Task 3
Research – Energy and Carbon
Energy:
Photosynthesis can be considered the most important chemical reaction on Earth. Most life on Earth
is maintained using energy stored in the carbohydrate glucose produced by photosynthesis. Green
plants contain chlorophylls, pigments, which have the ability to trap light energy. The trapped light
energy is changed into chemical energy, which is stored in carbohydrates such as glucose
(C6H12O6). Photosynthesis means building up, synthesis, and using light, photo. The raw materials
for this process are carbon dioxide (CO2) gas from the atmosphere, and liquid water (H2O) obtained
through the roots of land plants. A by–product of this process is oxygen (O2) gas, which ... Show
All animals (including us humans) ultimately depend on plant material either directly or indirectly
through their herbivore prey. On top of that, all animals require the oxygen released by plants.
Without continual photosynthesis, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere would slowly diminish.
How fossil fuels were formed:
Contrary to what many people believe, fossil fuels are not the remains of dead dinosaurs. In fact,
most of the fossil fuels we find today were formed millions of years before the first dinosaurs. Fossil
fuels, however, were once alive. They were formed from prehistoric plants and animals that lived
hundreds of millions of years ago.
Think about what the Earth must have looked like 300 million years or so ago. The land masses we
live on today were just forming. There were swamps and bogs everywhere. The climate was
warmer. Ancient trees and plants grew everywhere. Strange looking animals walked on the land, and
just as weird looking fish swam in the rivers and seas. Tiny one–celled organisms called
protoplankton floated in the ocean.
When these ancient living things died, they decomposed and became buried under layers and layers
of mud, rock, and sand. Eventually, hundreds and sometimes thousands of feet of earth covered
them. In some areas, the decomposing materials were covered by ancient seas, then the seas dried up
and receded.
During the millions of years that passed, the

The Discovery Of The Atom
Nearly every aspect of modern life is affected by one of the largest (or technically smallest)
discoveries of all time: the atom. The long process of solving the mysteries of matter has involved
numerous scientists and their experiments, which have ushered in modern knowledge of the subject
and countless innovations in science using the knowledge of matter 's properties. The atom makes
up nearly everything humankind knows of; therefore, it has significant effect on everything people
make. The discovery of the atom by John Dalton and the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson
have changed the way people use science; by examining the mysteries of matter on a more
fundamental level, the discoveries made by these men have opened the path to new and useful
technologies, such as telephones and computers. For the majority of recorded history, little has been
known about the composition of the physical objects that make up the world. Various theories, both
incorrect and correct, have been accepted by science, later proven wrong, and finally rejected. One
of the earliest hypotheses for the structure of matter was proposed by the Greek philosopher
Democritus. He believed that matter was made of tiny, indestructible pieces called atoms. His
beliefs had no scientific base, however, and were not really accepted at that time. About a century
later, another philosopher named Aristotle suggested that all matter was composed of a combination
of four elements: fire, water, earth, and

Multilayered Structured Sun
2. The sun being a multilayered structure has 3 main layers. There is the Chromosphere, the
Photosphere and the Corona. The photosphere is mainly the thinnest layer of gas where Earth
receives the sunlight from and convection occurs right under the photosphere. The motion of hot
materials rising while the cooler materials sink and this causes granulation. Granulation also known
as the mottled appearance is the dark regions and that is how the energy inside the sun is transferred
out.
7. When looking at the sun you would imagine that the surface would be boiling. But since the
surface of the sun is actually pretty cool it causes very few hydrogen atoms to have electrons in the
excited states. With the hydrogen atom providing a limited amount of excited electrons it would
cause us not to see it on the spectral line. But unlike the hydrogen being abundant, calcium isn't.
Calcium has enough electrons to transfer from the ground state and make an appearance on the
spectral lines because it isn't abundant.
9. We don't have evidence that sunspots are magnetic but we do know that the sunspots are caused
by the magnetic activity amongst the sun. Also with the understanding of the Zeeman effect we can
conclude how strong the magnetic fields are that cause the sunspots. In conclusion we see that
sunspots are in fact apart of the magnetic field in the layers of the suns atmosphere.
10. To fully understand the sun cycle many scientists use the Babcock model. The Babcock model
shows

Taking a Look at Quantum Dots
To begin with in layman's language or maybe for a person who has limited or little knowledge about
physics, quantum dots are materials that are small but are sufficient to exhibit quantum mechanical
properties. Quantum dots were first discovered in 1980. They exhibit electronic properties which are
between semiconductors and discrete molecules. That is the very reason for the unusually high
surface to volume ratio. The most visible use of quantum dots is in fluorescence where the
nanocrystal is capable of producing different distinctive colors determined by their particle size.
For the more experienced and the more technical personals, Quantum dots are semiconductor
nanostructures confining the motion of the conduction band electrons, the valence band holes or the
excitons and are in all the three spatial directions. The excitons are confined to the three spatial
directions only. There would be a doubt about what excitons is thus the definition; an exciton is a
state or rather a bound state of an electron or a hole which are attracted to each other by the
coulombs force. They are neutral quasiparticles that are generally existent in semiconductors and
also in insulators. They may also be found in some liquids.
The reasons for confinement can be electrostatic potential which can be due to external electrodes,
strain, impurities and doping. According to a lot of research that has been going on in this field, a
quantum dot has a discrete quantized energy spectrum.

Biography of Niels Bohr, The Danish Physicist Essay
Harald became the first of the Bohr brothers to earn a master's degree. Niels earned his 9 months
later. The students in his class had to submit a thesis on a subject assigned by their supervisor. Bohr's
supervisor was Christiansen, and the topic he gave them was the electron theory of metals. Bohr
then elaborated his master's thesis in to his much larger theory "Doctor of Philosophy" thesis. He
questioned the literature on the subject ,settling on a model assumed by Paul Drude and elaborated
by Hendrik Lorentz ,which stated in which the electrons on a meta; are considered to behave like a
gas. Bohr enlarged Lorentz model, but still unable to account for singularities like the Hall Effect,
and decided that the electron theory could not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
His 3 papers, which later became famous as the "trilogy "were published in the Philosophical
magazine in July. Later in the year He revised Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's
quantum theory and created the Bohr model of the atom. He revolutionized the theory of electrons
traveling in orbits around the atoms nucleus. He also announced the idea that an electron could drop
from a higher energy orbit to a lower one, in the progress also emitting a quantum of discrete energy.
This theory became known as the old quantum theory. The trilogy's acceptance was dur to it s ability
to explain the phenomena which blocked other models ,and predicted the results that were then
verified by experiments. Today the Bohr model of the atom has been outdated but is still known as
the best model of atoms, and is still used in high school physics and chemistry.
Bohr soon realized that he did not enjoy teaching the medical students. He decided to return to
Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as a reader in Darwin's place, whose contract
had expired, Bohr accepted. In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an institute of
Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of Danish government and Carlsberg Foundation,
establishing the institution in November 1918 known as the Niels Bohr Institute, the doors were
opened by March 3,1921 with Bohr as the director. His family moved into an apartment on the first
floor. The Bohr Institute helped as a main point for

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