In this learning resource of Growth, Development, and Personality which taught in the Webinar by Dr. Srinithi, conducted by the Department of Education, Manonmniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

5. Dr S.S. Srinithi
Consultant Psychologist
Sanmira Centre for Psychological Interventions
Tirunelveli

6. Objectives
 To know the dynamics of growth in human life
 To explore the cognitive process and its
development
 To understand Personality
Outcomes
 Knowledge on human growth especially in early
developmental years
 Comprehend human cognitive process and the
stages of its development
 Recognize the personality of ourselves and
others

7.  Cephalocaudal versus Proximodistal trends of
physical growth
 Pubertal changes sensitive to the gender
 Gross versus Fine motor skills
 Hormone managed physical growth
 Role of heredity and environment
 Brain Growth and Plasticity

8.  Cognition is a general term used to denote
thinking and many other aspects of higher
mental Process
 Thinking
 Decision making
 Problem Solving
 Reasoning

9. According
To
Piaget

10. Constructivist approach : Children construct
knowledge of their world by acting on the
environment, moving through four invariant,
universal stages.
1. The Sensory Motor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
2. The Pre Operational Stage (2 to 7 years)
3. The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older)

11.  New born infants have little built-in structures
 Specific psychological structures called Schemas
(organized ways of making sense of experience)
change with age.
 In the end of second year of life, Children are
capable of cognitive approach to the world through
mental representations(internal depiction of
information that mind can manipulate)

12.  Adaptation: Building schemes through direct
interaction with environment
Assimilation: using current schemes to interpret the
external world
Accommodation: creating new schemes or adjust old ones
after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the
environment completely.
Balance between assimilation and accommodation varies over time :
engaging more in accommodation than assimilation leading to a state of
cognitive equilibrium
Equilibration : disequilibrium to equilibrium
 Organization: newly formed gets linked with other schemes
to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.

13.  Infants “think” with their sensorimotor equipments while
they are yet to develop the process of carrying out activities
mentally.
 New born reflexes are building blocks of sensory motor
intelligence
 Circular reaction
Repeating
chance behaviour
Intentional
behaviour
Mental
Representaion

14.  Intentional behavior: Object Permanence (objects continue to
exist even when they are out of sight).
 Mental representation: Deferred imitation
(ability to remember and copy
the behavior of models who
are not present creating the
possibility for make-believe play
(children act out everyday and
imaginary activities).

15. Mental representation of actions that obey logical rules
 Make-believe play
(children act out everyday
and imaginary activities).
Development of make –believe play
• Play increasingly detaches from real life conditions associated with it.
• Play becomes less self –centered
• Play includes complex combination of schemes (Socio dramatic play)

16.  Drawing
 Symbol-Real world relation : each
symbol corresponds to specific
state of affairs in everyday life .
Dual representation
(viewing a symbolic object
as both an object in its
own right and a symbol).
Scribbles
First representational forms
More realistic drawings

17.  Ego centric thinking : failure to distinguish other’s view
points from one’s own.
 Animistic thinking: Inanimate objects have life-like
qualities such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and
intentions.
 Inability to Conserve: cognizes that certain physical
characteristics of objects do not remain the same even
when their outward appearance changes.
 Irreversibility: mentally reverse direction returning to
the starting point (related to inability to conserve)
 Lack of hierarchical classification: difficulty in
organization of objects into sub classes on the basis of
some similarities and differences.

18. Thought becomes more logical,
Flexible and organized marking
a major turning point in
cognitive development.
 Conservation: Capacity to cognize that certain physical characteristics of
objects do remain the same even when their outward appearance
changes.
 Classification: More aware of classification hierarchy as child focus on
similarity and differences.
 Seriation: Ability to order items in quantitative dimension (such as length
and width)- transitive inference.
 Spatial Reasoning: Understanding of space becomes more accurate –
maps and directions – Cognitive map (mental representation of familiar
large scale spaces such as schools and neighborhood)

19. Capacity for abstract, systematic , scientific thinking
 Hypothetico-Deductive reasoning : When faced with the
problem, predict the variables that affect the problem
(hypotheses) and then deduce logical , testable inferences.
 Propositional thought: evaluate the logic of statements
without referring to real world circumstance.
 Self consciousness and Self- focusing thoughts: reflect on
one’s own thoughts combined with physical and
psychological changes they are undergoing; they tend to
think more about themselves.
Distorted images of relationship between Self and others
imaginary audience and personal fable

20.  Idealism and Criticism: Real to possible,
world of ideal and notion of perfection
 Decision making: Inspite of a better cognitive
capabilities ; decision making in everyday life
is not done rationally.

21.  Socio Cultural theory
 Knowledgeable others
 Private speech: self direction (inner dialogues while
thinking and acting in everyday situation)
Social origins of cognitive development
 Zone of Proximal Development
 Inter subjectivity
 Scaffolding
 Guided participation
 Reciprocal learning
 Cooperative learning

22. Perspectives on

23.  Derived from the Latin word Persona - refers
to mask used by actors in a play
 External visibleCharacteristics?
 Impressions formed by others?
 Psychologically- personality is beyond a mere
mask or impressions formed in others.
 Enduring characteristic that are relatively
stable and reasonably predictable.

24.  Not rigid – change with situation
 Interactionist’s approach: Personality is a
product of personal variables (such as traits
and needs) and the situation while regarding
to the fact that it is unique to a given
individual.
 Definition: Personality is an unique, relatively
enduring internal and external aspects of the
person’s character that influence behavior in
different situations (Schultz & Schultz, 1993)

25.  Idiographic theorists: stress the uniqueness of
individual personalities, suggesting to the fact
that no two people are exactly alike.
 Nomothetic theorists: stress that uniqueness
would exist only as a combination of
quantifiable traits meaning that all people
possess a number of traits in common but would
differ only in the amount of each trait each of
them would posses.

26. Propositions
 proposed that both thought and motivation
can take place outside of conscious
awareness
 psychoanalysis proposed a comprehensive
explanation of virtually all aspects of human
behavior and its development thereby
contributing the first formal theory of
personality
 Adoption of defenses to protect self-image

27.  Propelling forces of personality, the instincts are mental
representations of internal stimuli, such as hunger, that drive
a person to take certain actions.
 Instincts are grouped into two main categories: life and
death instinct.
Life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and
species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air and sex
and are thus oriented towards growth and development.
Death instincts are unconscious drive towards decay, destruction
and aggression.
The form of psychic energy manifested by life instincts, that derives a
person towards pleasurable behaviors and thoughts is libido while
thanatos is a form psychic energy manifested by death instinct
that drives the person towards negative risk prone behaviors.

28.  Three levels :the conscious, the preconscious, and the
unconscious
 Conscious: includes all the sensations and experiences
that a person would be aware of at any given moment.
Only a small portion of an individual’s thoughts,
sensations and memories that remain in it at any given
time.
 Unconscious: invisible portion of personality, serves as
repository for instincts, wishes and desires that direct
behavior.
 Preconscious: stores memories, perception and
thoughts that be readily available to the conscious at a
given moment but could do so easily

29. Three levels :the conscious, the preconscious, and the
unconscious
 Conscious: includes all the sensations and experiences
that a person would be aware of at any given moment.
Only a small portion of an individual’s thoughts,
sensations and memories that remain in it at any given
time.
 Unconscious: invisible portion of personality, serves as
repository for instincts, wishes and desires that direct
behavior.
 Preconscious: stores memories, perception and
thoughts that be readily available to the conscious at a
given moment but could do so easily.

31. Freud distinguished
 Reality/objective anxiety (fear of tangible
dangers),
 Neurotic anxiety (involving conflicts between
id and ego) and
 Moral anxiety (involving conflicts between id
and super ego).
To protect the ego from the impending anxiety,
defenses are formed.

32.  Repression (unconscious denial of existence of
something that causes anxiety)
 Regression (retreating to earlier period of life and
exhibiting behaviors of that relatively more secure
time)
 Reaction formation (expressing an impulse that is
the opposite of the one that is truly driving the
person)
 Rationalization (reinterpreting one’s own behavior
to make it more accepting and less threatening to
one self)
 Isolation (there is an unconscious separation of an
unacceptable act or idea from memory)

33.  Undoing (process of trying to undo negative self-
concept ratings of oneself by performing behaviors
designed to offset those behaviors that the negative
evaluations were based on)
 Projection (attributing a disturbing impulse to someone
else),
 Introjections (taking into oneself the characteristics of
another, usually a more powerful individual)
 Displacement (shifting id impulses from a threatening
or unavailable object to an available object)
 Sublimation (altering the id impulses by diverting
instinctual energy into socially acceptable behaviors)

34.  Oral (o to 2 year old)
 Anal (2-4 years old)
 Phallic (4 to 5 years)
 Latency (6 years to puberty)
 Genital (puberty to adult) through which all
children pass.
Each of these stages is defined by an
erogenous zone of body: oral (mouth), anal
(anus), phallic (genitals), latency
(developing skills), genital (sex).

35.  Conflicts arising in each and every stage; has to be
resolved before the child can progress to the next
stage, failing which the individual would remain
reluctant to move to the next stage of development
indicating a condition called fixation.
 Fixation is a condition in which a portion of libido
remains invested in one of the psychosexual stages
because of excessive frustration or gratification

36. Oral Personality: Regards mouth as the greatest source of
pleasure so that eating and drinking will often be taken to
excess reasoning out the cause for obesity, alcoholism and
smoking.
Freud distinguishes
Two oral personality types: the oral passive type (otherwise
referred as oral receptive or oral dependent) and oral
aggressive type.
While the former type reduces tension through oral activity
such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails and generally
passive, needy and sensitive to rejection the latter type will
be distrustful, demanding and manipulative.

37. Anal Personality: Excessive amount of libido remains fixated on the
pleasures during the period of toilet training leading to which a person
seeks order, control and precision (nearly obsessions). Because the anal
personality arise during the same time super ego is formed, a fixation at
this stage can lead to a highly moralistic and overly controlled
personality style.
Two types of anal personalities can be found: anal-retentive and anal-
expulsive
Anal retentive children hoard their feces in miserly fashion, releasing
wastes only when strongly encouraged or rewarded. These
characteristics are supposedly present in anally fixated adults who
demand that others offer them devotion and sacrifice. Anal retentive
adults hoard love and affection while commonly withholding their own
affection from others. Another type of anal-retentive individuals seek to
obsessively control his/her environment people in his/her life, often by
being stingy or miserly.
Anal-expulsive type tends to be sloppy, profligate, careless, emotionally
disorganized and defiant although some of them display some artistic
talent as well.

38. Phallic personality: A phallic fixation can lead to an individual with a
narcissistic, egoistic or overly sexualized personality that might
include serial marriage, polygamy or polyandry. The phallic
personality would tend to use sex as means of discharge
emotional tension and will often have sexual relationships that are
superficial and are lacking in love or affection.
Fixations happening in a male child may sometimes turn out to be
attracted to countercultural movements supportive of radical
causes or to advocate social change.
Similarly fixation happening in female child might result in the
individual becoming more assertive.
Phallic fixation explains lesbianism and homosexual practices among
women.

39. Genital Personality: According to Freud, if there were any people
free of neurosis (people who have successfully resolved conflicts at
each and every earlier stages), they would be adults with fully
developed adult personality.
Capable of gratification, engage in monogamy without compulsion
or repression, with reasonable motivation can change without
suffering any injury; remains faithful to healthy desire pleasure
that gratifies him or her, conflicts if any would be solved in a
realistic manner with hardly any neurotic feeling.
The genital personality can be exemplified by those people who pass
through all prior stages of psychosexual development with a
sufficient supply of libido to perform productive work, love others
in a mature fashion and reproduce.

40.  Emphasizing personal responsibility and innate
tendencies toward personal growth
 Human striving for growth, dignity and self
determination are important for the
development of personality.
 Persuade focusing on the present. Stressing the
importance of personal growth.
 Humans are not contented with satisfying their
current needs rather they wish to progress
towards the best of what they could be.

41.  Making sense of oneself opens a new entity called
the Self
 Self remains central to humanistic theorists focuses
upon an individual’s subjective perception of self,
the world and the self within the world.
 Humanism provides a description of what it means
to be alive as a human being

42.  Carl Rogers’s ‘self’ theory emphasizes individual
ability as rational beings to change or improve
personality governed by conscious perceptions of
oneself and experiential world.
 Personality can be understood by only individual
subjective experiences.
 Humans are born with innate tendency to actualize.

43.  Childhood experiences affect the way an individual
perceives self and external environment.
 Attitude towards self is more important in
predicting behavior than external factors.
 Humans in general are motivated to enhance and
maintain self.This tendency is a fundamental
human need that encompasses all physical and
psychological needs.

44. Evaluating experiences for its value in fostering or hindering
actualization and growth is called organismic valuing process
which aids in making decisions pertaining to the choice of
behavior leading to desirable experiences (high organismic
value) against undesirable experiences (low organismic
value).
Individual’s perception of an external environment forms the
reality of his/her own environment which may or may not
coincide with the objective reality. This explains individual
difference in the unique way of responding to the
environment. It is crucial to note that such individual
perceptions on external environment; is bound to change
with time and circumstance.

45. Amalgamation of such subjective experiences since birth; form
an individual’s personal view of the world. Higher levels of
development sharpen the experiential world of a person
leading to the formation of self.
Social encounters of a child create a complex experiential
world.This complex experiential field differentiates itself
from the rest of the field.This evolves into a new, unique,
separate part of self.This emerged self develop a need for
positive regard (acceptance, love and approval from others).
Infants find it satisfying to receive positive regard and
frustrating not to receive it ensuring approval and
disapproval respectively for developing self-concept. Self
concept is one’ own image of what one is; should be and
would like to be.

46.  Unconditional positive regard refers to the approval
granted freely by significant others regardless of a
person’s behavior.
 Positive self regard: satisfying someone’s need for
positive regard satisfies the need for regard of the self
(reciprocal nature).
 It grants acceptance, approval of oneself by themselves
 Developmental sequence from positive regard to
positive self regard leads to the emergence of
conditions of worth (equivalent to Freud’s version of
Super ego).

47. Conditions of worth is a belief that one is worthy of
approval and acceptance only when he/she express
desirable behaviors and attitudes and refrain from
expressing behaviors and attitudes that bring
disapproval from others.
Individuals who received unconditional positive regard in
their childhood did not have to learn any conditions of
worth.
Every experience they encounter; enable them to develop
all facets of self and fulfill their actualizing tendency.
They proceed towards the goal of becoming a fully
functioning person.

48. The personality that has been allowed to develop with
unconditional positive regard and that possesses a high degree
positive self-regard, can reach the state that Rogers defined as
fully functioning person.
Characteristics of Fully Functioning Person
 Openness to experience (reality is accepted without defenses
even when it is negative)
 Existential living (fully experience the moment at hand rather
than dwelling in the past or future);
 Organismic trusting (trusting oneself and one’s own
experiences);
 Experiential freedom (actions are taken with sense of personal
responsibility while feeling a sense of freedom in most
situations) and
 Creativity (creative in professional and social realms )

49.  Incongruence might result from discrepancy between a
person’s self- concept and aspects of his/her experience.
Those experiences incongruent to self concept become
source of threat and are manifested as anxiety.
 Psychological adjustment and health is a function of
congruence or compatibility of self-concept with one’s own
experiences.
 Psychologically healthy people perceive themselves, other
people and events in their environment objectively (much as
they really are).
 Remain open to experiences as nothing threatens their self-
concept and that no experience needs to defeated against by
distortion or denial.

51.  The time of the Greek physician Hippocrates
 Work of Allport and Cattell represent the beginning
of trait approach : observing emotionally healthy
persons in academic laboratory settings.
 Agreed to the importance of genetic factors in the
formation of traits.
 Trait is a distinguishing characteristic or quality of a
person. Grouping people by traits seems easy and
has a common sense appeal.

52. A trait therefore is an element of personality that
causes individuals to act in a similar fashion
across different social settings.
If humans beings differ in terms of personality,
traits are one way to measure those differences.
Following elements hold true for traits:
 Traits are stable within a given individual.
 Traits vary among individuals.
 Traits can be measured.
 Traits are responsible for closely related
behavior

53. Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine the characteristic behavior and thought.
Dynamic organization: Personality is constantly
growing and changing, it is an organized growth.
Psychosocial: Personality is composed of mind and
body functioning together as a unit.
Personality is a combination of mental and biological
aspects.
Facets of personality direct specific behavior and
thoughts. Everything a person does is unique to the
individual.

54.  An individual personality is a product of heredity and
environment.
 Nature of personality is such that it is discrete or discontinuous.
 Each person is distinct from all others; and each individual is
independent of his/her past.
 Allport mentioned that there is no continuum of personality
between childhood and adulthood.
 An individual carries two distinct personalities: one for childhood
that is driven by primitive biological impulses and the other for
adulthood that is driven by more mature psychological aspects.
 An adult personality is not contrived by past experiences.

55. Distinguishing characteristics or qualities those are consistent and enduring
define the way an individual reacts to stimulus aspects of his/her
environment .These are called traits by Allport.
Two categories of traits are described by Allport: Individual traits (later re-
termed as personal dispositions) and common traits (later re-termed as
traits)
 Personal dispositions of differing intensities are categorized
hierarchically as cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits.
 Cardinal traits are more pervasive and influencing almost all aspects of
life that it dominates behavior (e.g.) a ruling passion.
 Nearly five to ten themes that describe the outstanding behavior of an
individual is referred as central traits (e.g.) aggressiveness, self-pity).
 Relatively less conspicuous and least influential are the secondary traits
that are very rarely displayed that only close acquaintants such as a close
friend or relative could only notice (e.g.) preference for a particular type
of food or music.

56.  Habits and Attitudes that are also capable of imitating and
guiding behavior. But habits have a more limited impact than
traits and personal dispositions as they are confined to a
specific response to specific stimulus and remain rigid.
 Integration of several habits that have a adaptive function
gives rise to traits and personal dispositions.Thus several
habits combine to form a single trait.
 Traits and attitudes are hardly distinguishable. Attitudes
have specific objectives of reference and involve either
positive or negative evaluations.Traits have broader scope
when compared with attitudes

57. An individual ‘s present is more important than his/her past and an
individual’s cognitive process (conscious plans and intentions) form an
essential part of personality because intentions define and determine an
individual’s current behavior .
The functional autonomy of motives: Motives of mature, emotionally
healthy adults are not functionally connected to the past experiences in
which they really appeared.
Two levels of functional autonomy were proposed by Allport: Perseverative
functional autonomy and Propriate functional autonomy.
 Perseverative functional autonomy refers to elementary level every day
routine behaviors (i.e.) behaviors that persevere on their own without
any external reward.
 Propriate functional autonomy is unique to a given individual and are
essential to the understanding of his/her motivation. Individuals tend to
maintain or retain motives that enhance their self-esteem or self-image.

58. There exists a direct relationship between an individual’s interests and his/
her abilities leading to a proposition that
‘Individuals would enjoy doing what they do well’.
Propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains an individual’s
sense of self. It determines how an individual perceives the world; what
he/she remembers from experience and how thoughts are directed.
Percepetual and cognitive processes are selective that they are chosen from
among the mass of stimuli based on its relevance to individual interest
and values.
This process is governed by three principles:
 Organizing the energy level
 Mastery and competence (highest level of satisfying motive)
 Propriate patterning (string for consistence and integration of
personality.

59. The proprium develops from infancy to adolescence in seven stages: bodily self, self-
identity, self-esteem, extension of self, self –image, self as a rational coper and
propriate striving.
Stages 1 -3 emerge during the first three years of life . In this stage individuals
become aware of their own existence and distinguish their own bodies from
objects in the environment. Children realize that their identity remains intact
despite many changes that are taking place. Children learn to take pride in their
accomplishments.
Stage 4 and 5 emerge during the fourth through sixth year. In this stage children
come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world.
Children develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behavior
and become aware of satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations.
Stage 6 develops during ages 6-12. Children begin to apply logic and reason to solve
everyday problems.
Stage 7 develops during adolescence. Young people begin to formulate long-range
goals and plans.

60. Adulthood is being described by Allport as normal mature adults who are
functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives. They
function rationally in the present and consciously create their own
lifestyle.
Between infancy and adulthood an individual changes from a biologically
dominated organism to a psychological organism; our motivation become
divorced from childhood and oriented towards the future.
If the needs of childhood such as affection and security are met the
proprium will develop satisfactorily. The adult personality grows out of
childhood but it is no longer dictated or dominated by childhood drives.
If childhood needs are frustrated , the proprium will not mature properly
thus making a child to be insecure, aggressive, demanding, jealous and
self-centered.

61. Stunted psychological growth results in a neurotic adult who will function at
the level of childhood drives. Therefore the proprium does not develop,
nor do traits or personal dispositions and the personality remains
undifferentiated as it was in infancy.
Allport did not explain whether the neurotic adult could counteract or
overcome unfortunate childhood experiences. Instead he focused on
normal development and positive psychological growth leading to a
mature, emotionally healthy adult.

62. Allport portrays that following characteristics typical of a mature
personality:
 Realistic assessment of self, one’s skills, and one’s external reality
 Acceptance of self and others; ability to relate warmly to others in
appropriate situations
 Ability to plan and delay gratification
 Self insight and being able to laugh at oneself
 Participating in diverse activities and deriving gratification from diverse
sources, sometimes called capacity for self-extension.
 A unifying philosophy of life or spiritual orientation; it includes having a
conscience and ethical principles or guidelines.
Mature individuals can cope in a healthy fashion with the problems of life,
find ways to obtain pleasure and pursue realistic goals

64. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of “grouping”, i.e.,
characteristics of stimuli that lead to interpret it in a certain way.
The primary factors that determine grouping are:
(1) Proximity – elements tend to be grouped together according to
their nearness,
(2) Similarity – items similar in some respect tend to be grouped
together,
(3) Closure – items are grouped together if they tend to complete
some entity, and
(4) Simplicity – items will be organized into simple figures according
to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness.These factors were
called the laws of organization and were explained in the context
of perception and problem-solving.

65.  The word Gestalt itself is a German term that is translated as form
or shape. This derivation connotes that it is irreducible, that exists
only as whole and that cannot be fully understood or appreciated
when considered simply as the sum of its parts.
 The Gestalt approach is predicated to the notion that the human
mind is more than sum of its parts. Trying to understand it by
breaking it down into its components misses the unique function
of the mind as whole.
 Gestalt approach began after Wertheimer’s research into the Phi
phenomenon which refers to the illusion of movement created by
a rapid succession of still images.

66. Gestalt psychologists have different perspective on how people
view one another. Accordingly, other people are viewed not
as collections of traits, isolated behaviors, or remarks but as
integrated wholes.
This emphasis on integration has been the principal
contribution of Gestalt school of thought to personality
psychology. That is, because people apprehend others as
whole beings rather than viewing them as collections of
traits, attributes, and situational responses.

67.  Mental health is not absence Mental illness.
 Mental Health is Above Normal.
 Mental Health as Maturity.
 Mental Health as Positive or “Spiritual” Emotion
 Mental Health as Socio-emotional Intelligence.
 Mental Health as SubjectiveWell-Being.
 Mental Health as Resilience

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