Climate change adaptation and mitigation can be achieved through mangrove conservation and rehabilitation. Mangroves provide important ecosystem services like coastal protection, wildlife habitat, and fisheries. They also store large amounts of carbon that helps mitigate climate change. Efforts are needed to restore degraded mangrove areas to adapt to sea level rise and protect remaining forests to reduce carbon emissions. Integrating mangroves with aquaculture can provide environmental and economic benefits over the conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds.

1. CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION THROUGH
MANGROVE CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION
J.H. Primavera
ZSL Community-based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project
Iloilo City, Philippines

2. MARINE HABITATS
corals
mangroves
(13+-15 million ha)
seagrasses
W. Licuanan

3. MANGROVE SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES
(Primavera et al, 2004)
Family Species FamilyCommon name Species
Acanthaceae 1. Acanthus ebracteatus Plumbaginaceae
-- 20. Aegialitis annulata
2. A. ilicifolius --
Rhizophoraceae 21. Bruguiera cylindrica
Avicenniaceae 3. Avicennia alba Api-api 22. B. exaristata
4. A. officinalis Api-api 23. B. hainesii
5. A. marina Bungalon 24. B. gymnorrhiza
6. A. rumphiana Api-api 25. B. parviflora
Bombacaceae 7. Camptostemon philippinensis Gapas gapas 26. B. sexangula
8. C. schultzii -- 27. Ceriops decandra
28. C. tagal
Combretaceae 9. Lumnitzera littorea Faban 29. Kandelia candel
10. L. racemosa -- 30. Rhizophora apiculata
11. L. roseac -- 31. R. lamarckiic
Euphorbiaceae 12. Excoecaria agallocha Alipata 32. R. mucronata
Lythraceae 13. Pemphis acidula Bantigi 33. R. stylosa Indo-Malay
Rubiaceae Tabigi Philippine
34. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Meliaceae 14. Xylocarpus granatum Archipelago
15. X. moluccensis Sonneratiaceae
Tabigi 35. Sonneratia alba
Myrsinaceae 16. Aegiceras corniculatum Saging-saging S. caseolaris
36.
c
17. A. floridum Tinduktindukan S. gulngai c
37.
38. S. lanceolata
Myrtaceae 18. Osbornia octodonta -- 39. S. ovata
Palmae 19. Nypa fruticans Nipa
Sources: Brown & Fischer, 1920; Arroyo, 1979; Fernando & Pancho, 1980; Tomlinson, 1986; Anon,
1996; Spalding et al., 1997; Yao, 1999; Norman Duke, AIMS, pers. comm.
Mangrove Species Diversity (Polidoro et al 2010)

4. USES OF
MANGROVES
Coastal
protection
Habitat for
wildlife
Fisheries
products
Forestry
products
Artwork by Ta Luu

5. (Latief & Hadi,
2006)

6. NATURAL BUFFERS
Coastal Planning for Disaster Management Seminar – June 30, 2006

8. PHILIPPINE MANGROVE GREENBELT/OTHER LAWS
(J.H. Primavera)
P.D. 705 (1975) Revised Forestry Code: mangrove strips in islands providing protection from high
winds, typhoons shall not be alienated
P.D. 953 (1976) Fishpond/mangrove lease holders required to retain or replant 20-m mangrove
strip along rivers, creeks
BFD A.O. 2 (1979) Min. 25% of total mangrove forest in given area completely protected as Mangrove
Wilderness Areas
P.P. 2151 & 2152 Declaration of 4,326 ha mangroves as wilderness areas, 74,767 ha as forest reserves
(1981)
MNR A.O. 42 (1986) Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas: 100 m along
shorelines, 50 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76 Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas/oceans and 20 m along riverbanks;
(1987) lessees of FLA ponds required to plant 20-50 m-mangrove strip
DENR A.O. 77 Integrated Social Forestry Program (provision of legal tenure incentives for co-
(1988) management of forest resources)
DENR A.O. 123 Award of 25-yr Community Forestry Management Agreement for small scale
(1990) mangrove use, Rhizophora and Nypa plantations, aquasilviculture
DENR A.O. 15 Policies on communal forests, plantations, tenure through Mangrove Stewardship
(1990) Contracts; revert abandoned ponds to forest; ban cutting of trees in FLA areas;
prohibit conversion of thickly vegetated areas
DENR A.O. 3 (1991) Policies and guidelines for Mangrove Stewardship Agreement
DENR A.O. 23 Combined 3-yr Mangrove Reforestation Contract and 25-yr Forest Land Management
(1993) Agreement into 25-yr FLMA for families (1-10 ha) and communities (10-1,000 ha)

9. Greenbelt: Kung
Krabaen, Thailand
Photo Vic Mancebo
Photo Siri Tookwinas
No greenbelt:
Philippines

10. MANILA BAY
J.H. Primavera

11. June 2011: Roxas Blvd-Manila Bay

12. Roxas Blvd. – September 2011
(J.H. Primavera)

13. HARD STRUCTURES (ENGG) vs
SOFT STRUCTURES
(GREENBELT)

14. GREENBELT/BUFFER ZONE
P.D. 705 (1975) Revised Forestry Code: retention (exclusion from pond
development) of 20 m wide mangrove strip along shorelines facing
oceans, lakes etc.
P.D. 953 (1976) Fishpond/mangrove leaseholders to retain/replant
20 m mangrove strip along rivers, creeks
MNR A.O. 42 (1986) Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas:
50-100 m along shorelines, 20-50 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas, oceans
and 20 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Pond leases required to plant 50 m mangrove strip
DENR A.O. 16 (1993) Guidelines for buffer zones in protected areas
J.H. Primavera

15. What changes
climate?
Changes in:
– Sun’s output
– Earth’s orbit
– Drifting continents
– Volcanic eruptions
– Greenhouse gases

16. Sea-level rise over coming centuries
Sea-Level Rise, over the coming millennium
following 70 years of excess greenhouse gas
emissions
1.5
Total sea level rise
Sea-level rise (m)
1.0
Ocean Expansion
Ice-melt
0.5
Greenhouse gas emissions -
Global warming
0.0
200 400 600 800
Peaking in 2050 Time from start (years)
IPCC, 2001
IPCC 2001

17. Sea-level trends
Vulnerability to flooding
(Nicholls & Canezave, 2010)

18. Most Vulnerable
Mangroves
• low relief islands
• lack of rivers
• carbonate settings
• subsiding areas
• microtidal <2 meters,
sediment-starved
• blocked by coastal
development/ steep
topography
J.H. Primavera

19. Semeniuk,
1994
move
landward
Mangroves can keep up with sea level rise if:
- sedimentation rate keeps up with the rate of sea level rise
- substrates for retreat available in landward margins
mangroves
lost
(Gilman et al, 2006)

20. MANGROVES TO PONDS
(J.H. Primavera)

21. (Duke 1992 )
MANGROVE AREA
Spalding et al, 2010 - 152,360 sq km (=15.2 million ha)
- 123 countries, territories
Giri et al, 2010 - 137,760 sq km (=13.8 million ha)
- 118 countries, territories, <7% protected

22. MANGROVE THREATS (J.H. Primavera)
Natural: sealevel change, erosion
Anthropogenic: Oil spills, War
- Small-scale harvest: fuelwood, fishing poles,
- Large-scale conversion: salt beds, rice paddies, aquaculture
aquaculture ponds salt beds agriculture
• RECOMMENDATIONS
• Restore/rehabilitate degraded areas (planned retreat:
• CC adaptation)
• Protect remaining forests (C sinks: CC mitigation)
Oil spills harbors Vietnam War

23. MANGROVES PONDS
1918: 450,000 ha 1940: 61,000 ha
2003: 240,000 ha 1994: 232,000 ha
PRESENT MANGROVE: POND RATIO - 1: 1
IDEAL RATIO (Saenger et al 1983) - 4: 1

24. MANGROVE-AQUACULTURE INTEGRATION
Mudcrab Culture in Mangrove Pens
J.H. Primavera

25. Darwin
Harbor,
Australia
Iriomote, Japan
(ISME, 1998)
Duke in Tomlinson,1986

26. Misguided planting of bakhaw Rhizophora –
WRONG SPECIES/ECOSYSTEM (J.H. Primavera)

27. Correct Species: Avicennia
marina (J.H. Primavera)
After 3 weeks
After 3 mo

28. 50 meters
50 meters
J.H. Primavera
WRONG SITE!!
Seafront planting –
below MSL
Machiwa &
Hallberg, 1995)

29. 50 meters
50 meters
J.H. Primavera
WRONG SITE!!
Seafront planting –
below MSL
Machiwa &
Hallberg, 1995)

30. MANGROVE REHABILITATION – SEAFRONT
PLANTING VS POND REVERSION
(J.H. Primavera)
Seafront Planting
(<50,000 ha planted)
Middle/Lower Intertidal/
Pond Reversion Subtidal (~10% survival)
(50,000-80,000 ha
abandoned ponds)
Supra/ Upper Intertidal
(>80% survival)
J.H. Primavera

31. Fisheries Code (Rep. Act 8550): Reversion of abandoned, unutilized
Tigbauan,
and underdeveloped ponds back to mangroves
Iloilo,
central
Philippines
1989 1993 2004
2006
J.H. Primavera

32. abandoned
big size: direct
Wildings
pond
planting
from
Abandoned
Pond
Nabitasan Natl H.S.,
Leganes, Iloilo
natural stand
NURSERY
small: bagging
relay
relay
relay
J.H. Primavera

33. 2009-2012: pond-to-
mangrove reversion
in collaboraton w/
local govt. officials
(Leganes, Iloilo)

34. bungalon
tabao
lipata dungon
Photos J.H. Primavera

35. Green Carbon
Blue Carbon
C SINKS
MANGROVES
Brown Carbon
•0% of global deforestation emissions
(Donato et al, 2010) • sequester up to 5x carbon in tropical
forest
• 0.7% area of tropical forests, but
destroyed 3-4x faster
•so key to mitigation of CC-GW
Black Carbon
• also key to CC-SLR adaptation

36. Mangrove Valuation
Total Goods and Services
Costanza et al. (1997) PhP495,000/ha/yr ($9,900/ha/yr)
Spurgeon & Roxburgh (2005) PhP520,000/ha/yr ($10,400/ha/yr)
American Samoa (=$104,000/sq km/yr)
Sathirathai & Barbier (2001) PhP1.8-17.5 million/ha/yr ($27,000-35,000/ha/yr)
Thailand ($2.7-3.5 million/sq km/yr)
Wells et al (2006) PhP20-45 million/ha/yr
($200,000-900,000/ha/yr)
Individual Goods and Services
Fisheries: Ronnback 1999, 2000 PhP45,000-620,000 ($900-12,400/ha/yr)
Wood products (Malaysia) ($11,561/ha/yr)
Erosion control: Ruitenbeek 1992 PhP3,000/household/yr ($600/household/yr)
Waste disposal: Lal 1990 (Fiji) PhP264,000/ha/yr ($5,280/ha/yr)
Cabrera etal, 1998 (Mexico) PhP59,500/ha/yr ($1,190/ha/yr)
Coastal protection & waste PhP420,750/ha/yr ($8,414/ha/yr)
disposal (Costanza et al 1997)

37. 14 years: from 1996 `discovery` by scientists to Jan. 2010 KII launching

40. AJUY, ILOILO

42. THE AGUSAN MARSH
Thank You