Ch 2 GW 2 - Food Trends & Challenges

Gateway 2: What are the trends and challenges
in the production of food crops?
Figure 2.43a) Projection of global food production to meet the needs of a rising population.

Gateway 2: What are the trends and challenges
in the production of food crops?
Figure 2.43b) Innovations that can help farmers.

How has the production of crops changed since
1960s?
• Food production: the process of transforming crops or
livestock into marketable food products.
• Involves producers, distributors and consumers of food
• Example: Rice
– Crops grown by farmers in Thailand
– Farmers sell their harvests to industries
– Packaged in India
– Sold at supermarkets in London

Figure 2.44 Stages in food production.

Presentation Title runs here l 00/00/005
Gateway 2: What are the trends and
challenges in the production of food crops?
1. Trends in the production of food crops
(rice & wheat) from the 1960s
2. What factors affect the intensity of food
production and supply?
3. What are the effects of continuing
intensification of food production?
4. Why do food shortages still occur?

1. Trends in the production of food crops (rice
& wheat) from the 1960s
– Increased intensity of production of food crops
– Increased production of genetically modified food crops

Increased intensity of production of food crops
•Intensification: Increase in the productivity of a farm
•The productivity of a farm is measured by the amount of food
produced compared with the amount of resources (e.g. land,
labour) used to produce the food
•Productivity: Measured by calculating the ratio of outputs
per unit area of land to inputs per unit area of land
Productivity = Output
Input

•Two ways to measure productivity:
– First, labour per unit of area:
The number of people working on a unit area of land
o Farm productivity increases when less labour is used to
produce the same amount of crops
– Second, crop yield:
The amount of crops produced on a unit area of farmland
o Crop yield increases when more crops are produced with
the same amount of land and labour
Labour per unit area = Number of workers
Land area (hectares)
Crop yield = Amount of food produced (tonnes)
Land area (hectares)

• Amount of wheat
harvested increased
worldwide, even
though the area of
farmland used
remained relatively
constant over the
years
• Increase in crop
yield from 1.2
tonnes per hectares
in 1960 to 2.9
tonnes per hectare
in 2010 Figure 2.45 Increase in worldwide wheat production
from 1960 to 2010. Adapted from: United States
Department of Agriculture (2013).

•Food production intensified to meet demand from rapid
population growth and increase in demand for food
–World production of rice rose steadily from 525.5 million tonnes
in 1970 to 1,119.2 million tonnes in 2010
–Global average crop yield of rice increased to 4.3 tonnes per
hectare in 2010 from 2.4 tonnes per ha in 1970
World production of rice
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Land area (hectares) 132.7 144.4 147 152.4 157.5
Crop yield (tonnes/hectare) 2.4 2.8 3.5 3.9 4.3
Production (million tonnes) 525.5 666.9 870.8 993.4 1119.2
Figure 2.46 Increase in worldwide rice yield from 1970 to 2010. Adapted from: United States
Department of Agriculture (2012).

Increased production of genetically modified (GM) food crops
•GM crops: Crops with genes that have been altered to
make them more resistant to diseases and to make them grow
faster, thereby increasing crop yield, e.g. rice, corn, soya
bean, canola and cotton
Figure 2.49 Genetically modified corn.

• Total land area used to grow
GM crops increased from 1.7
million ha (in 1996) to 160
million ha (in 2011)
• 10% of world’s crops were
genetically modified by 2011
• Most GM crops are grown in
North America, but some
LDCs are rapidly increasing
their production of GM crops
Figure 2.50 Proportion of GM crops among selected food
types worldwide. Adapted from: International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, Clive James (2011).

Cultivated area of genetically modified food crops by country
(million hectares)
USA Argentina Brazil Canada China India South
Africa
Uruguay Australia
2000 30.3 10.0 3.6 3.0 0.5 - 0.2 0.1 0.2
2001 35.7 11.8 5.7 3.2 1.5 - 0.2 0.1 0.2
2002 39.0 13.5 6.3 3.5 2.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1
2003 42.8 13.9 3.0 4.4 2.8 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1
2004 47.6 16.2 5.0 5.4 3.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2
2005 49.8 17.1 9.0 5.8 3.3 1.3 0.5 0.3 0.3
2006 54.6 18.0 11.5 6.1 3.5 3.8 1.4 0.4 0.2
Figure 2.51 The land area used for cultivation of GM crops. Adapted from: International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, Clive James (2011)

The intensity of food production and supply is affected by
a combination of factors:
X
Social
factors
Economic
factors
Political
factors
Physical
factors
Technological
factors
Climate
Soils &
drainage
Relief
X Land tenure
X Land
fragmentation
Purpose of
farming
- Subsistence
farming
- Demand &
capital
- X Trade
Agribusiness
Government
policy
- Agricultural
policy
- Food policy
ASEAN
X
CAP of the EU
Green
Revolution
- High-yielding
varieties (HYVs)
-Fertilisers
-Pesticides
-Irrigation
-Mechanisation
-X Genetically
modified food
TB pg. 124-136

Climate
•Climate: Average condition of the atmosphere of a specific
place over a long period of time, usually over 30 years
•Climatic factors affect the growth of plants, e.g. temperature
and rainfall
•Climate affects the types of crops that can be grown
Physical
factors

Climate
–Temperature
o Affects rates of photosynthesis and seed germination
o Difficult for crops to grow in temperatures that
regularly fall below 5°C
o Temperature needed for growth varies among crops
o E.g. pea, broccoli, strawberry require
cooler climates
o E.g. soya bean, tomato require warmer
climates (25-28O
C)
Physical
factors

Climate
–Rainfall
o Amount required for growth varies among different
types of crops
o e.g. corn requires more water than soya
bean
Types of crop Optimal
temperature (C)
Optimal rainfall
(mm/year)
Corn 18–20 500–800
Potato 18–20 500–700
Soya bean 25–28 450–700
Tomato 18–25 400–600
Wheat 15–20 450–650
Rice 20–30 1500–2500
Figure 2.53 The optimal temperature and rainfall requirements of different crops.
Physical
factors

Climate
•High temperatures and high rainfall are more conducive
for plant growth
•Example: Tropics
–Daily temperature range is between 22–32°C
–Average annual rainfall is greater than 2,000 mm
–Long growing season enables farmers to have two or three
harvests in a year
•Winter is unsuitable for plant growth
–In places with long winters, food production can only occur
during the warm season
Physical
factors

Climate
•Example: Kosovo crop calendar (country in SE Europe)
–In September, precipitation falls as rain
–It snows in winter until May of the following year
–Land is prepared and sowed from April to June
–Harvest takes place from June to August (drier months)
Figure 2.54 Kosovo crop calendar. Adapted from: Food and Agriculture Organization (2000).
Physical
factors

Climate
•Greenhouses
– May be used to create optimal conditions for plant growth
– Overcome the short growing season in some countries
(e.g. Canada) because the key factors in growing crops
(e.g. temperatures, light, irrigation) can be controlled
– Enable certain crops to
be grown throughout
the year
Figure 2.55 Lettuce being grown at a
greenhouse in the Netherlands.
Physical
factors

Climate
•Cattle and poultry
– May be stressed by extreme hot or cold temperatures,
which may result in:
o Infections (e.g. fungal disease or parasites),
especially when conditions are wet or moist
for a long time
o Less milk or eggs
o Death
Physical
factors

Climate
•Cattle and poultry
– May be placed in shelters for protection from harsh
weather
Figure 2.56 Dairy cows in a sheltered farm.
Physical
factors

Soils and drainage
•Soil: Top layer of the earth’s surface, made up of rocks,
mineral particles and organic matter
•Soil fertility depends on the availability of air, water and
nutrients from minerals in the soil
•Amount and type of nutrients found in soil varies across
locations
Physical
factors

Soils and drainage
•Fertile soil
– Rich in minerals, e.g. nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium
– Found in floodplains along the
river, in deltas at the river mouth
and in areas near volcanoes
– Example: Highly fertile soils, a
flat terrain and a large water
supply results in a very high
production of rice in the Mekong
Delta of Vietnam
Figure 2.57a) Rice paddy field at An
Giang, Vietnam.
Physical
factors

Soils and drainage
•Soil drainage: Ability of the soil to retain or drain off water
•Improper soil drainage may hinder the growth of crops
•Example: Oats require more sandy soils that are well-drained,
while soils with more clay and which retain large amounts of
water are best for growing rice
Physical
factors

Relief
•Relief: Slope and
altitude of a land
surface
•Previously unsuitable
slopes can be modified
to create flat land for
farming
•Terracing: Cutting of
steps into a hillside to
create flat
land for cultivation
Figure 2.57b) Longji Rice Terraces in Guangxi, China.
Physical
factors

Relief
•The slope of a land’s surface:
–When the relief is steep, rain is more likely to remove the
topsoil, which is rich in nutrients
–The topsoil becomes less stable when it is saturated with
water and gets washed down the slope
–Sloping land is suitable for some crops which grow best in
well-drained soil, e.g. grapes, tea, coffee
–Thus, slopes are modified to create flat land for farming. This
is done through terracing.
Physical
factors

Relief
•The altitude of a land’s surface:
–Temperature changes with altitude
–The higher the altitude of a place, the lower its temperature
–Cooler temperatures of mountainous areas may be suitable for
growing certain cool climate crops, e.g. strawberry
Physical
factors
The United States is the world's
largest producer of strawberries.
The next highest producing countries
are Turkey, Spain, Egypt, Korea,
Mexico, and Poland

Land tenure
•System by which agricultural land is allocated and occupied
•In LDCs, most farmers are too poor to afford their own
farmland
•Poor farmers resort to renting their land by paying rent or a
portion of their harvest to the landowners
•Due to the lack of security of tenure, farmers:
– Lack incentives to make improvements to their land
– Prefer to maximise short-term profits
X
Social
factors

Land fragmentation
•Division of land into many smaller plots over many successive
generations of farmers
•Farmers often practise dividing land amongst many children
•Over many generations, the resultant pieces of land:
– Become very small
– Have lower crop yield
– Become unprofitable
for machinery
Figure 2.59 A plot of farmland is
divided up into smaller farms over
many generations.
X
Social
factors

Land fragmentation
•Example: Tivland, Nigeria
– Large amounts of arable land
– Agriculture dominated by small holder farmers who
operate several small and scattered farms due to
inheritance practices
– Insufficient crop are produced either for the farmers’ own
consumption or for sale
X
Social
factors

Purpose of farming – Subsistence vs commercial farming
Economic
factors

Purpose of farming – Subsistence vs commercial farming
Figure 2.61a) Family members tilling the soil
to prepare the land for farming in Madagascar.
Figure 2.61b) Combine harvester
harvesting on a wheat farm in Spain.
Economic
factors

Demand
•People’s willingness and ability to obtain a particular food
crop/product.
•Demand for certain types of food:
–Affects the intensity of production
–Changes according to the tastes and preferences of
consumers  Affects the amount and type of crops produced
Economic
factors

Demand
•Example: China
– Used to be a producer & exporter of corn
– But in recent years:
o More corn needed to feed livestock to meet the
demand for meat by a larger and wealthier population
o Local production of corn was not able to meet this
increased demand
o Started to import corn from other countries (e.g. USA)
o USA increase its production of corn for export to China
o Caused global production of meat to increase
Economic
factors

X Trade
•Done through the import and export of goods and services
•International trade of food is growing due to countries’
reliance on one another
•Countries may choose to engage in free trade (i.e. form of
international trade where trade barriers are removed)
•Example: By not imposing taxes on imports
Economic
factors

X Trade
•Free trade
–Allows imported food products to be more competitively
priced
– Wealthier countries may benefit more than developing
countries
– Free trade may cause developing countries to become
dependent on cheaper imported food
– Discourages local food industry from developing as they
find it difficult to compete
Economic
factors

X Trade
•Expansion of trade led to the development of large companies
which produce crops for export
•Affects food production: Land that could be used to grow
staple food are instead used to grow crops for exports (e.g.
soya bean, coffee)
•Example: Sudan
– Land being farmed for production of animal feed
– Production of animal feed replaces staple grain crops
(e.g. sorghum)
Economic
factors

Agribusiness
•Large farming company which is involved in food production.
•Involved in:
Economic
factors

Agribusiness
•Places importance on scientific and business principles in
farming, e.g. research and development of food crops
Economic
factors
Figure 2.64 An agribusiness chain.

Agribusiness
•Larger companies
–Have greater financial capacity
–Able to withstand the impact of changes in the environment
(e.g. damage to crops caused by pests or flooding)
–Can absorb losses & continue farming
•Small-scale farmers
–Have limited financial capacity
–May not be able to continue farming after facing setbacks.
Economic
factors

Agribusiness
Figure 2.65 Dole’s worldwide operations. Adapted from: Dole (2012).
Economic
factors

Government policy
•Government policy: Plan of action by the government in
order to change a specific situation
•Two types of policies affect food production and supply, as
well as help achieve food security for a country:
–Agricultural policy
–Food policy
•Food security: Exists when all people in an area are able to
obtain sufficient quantities of safe and nutritious food to
maintain a healthy and active lifestyle
– Depends on the stability of food supply and whether
people have sufficient resources to gain access to it
Politica
l
factors

Government policy
Figure 2.66a) Government policy includes agricultural policy and food policy.
Politica
l
factors

Government policy – Agricultural policy
•Policies pertaining to domestic agriculture
•Used by governments to decide how limited resources (e.g.
money, land) may best be used
•Influences intensity of food production
•Example: Governments may channel resources to educate
farmers on more efficient ways of farming
Politica
l
factors

Government policy – Agricultural policy
•Example: Punjab Agriculture Department in India
– Tried to ensure greater productivity from its farmland
– Started an education programme for its wheat farmers
– Farmers taught about the best available seed varieties,
pesticide treatment and irrigation methods
Politica
l
factors

Government policy – Food policy
•Decision made by a government that affects how food is
produced, processed, distributed, purchased and
packaged
•Helps to ensure food security, e.g. via food stockpiling, via
diversifying source of food supply
Politica
l
factors

•Government can ensure that
food is readily available by
stockpiling imported food or
food from local farms
•Stockpiling: Setting aside and
storage of food to ensure food
security during emergencies
–Ensures that governments
can provide food despite
food shortages or price
increase of food items
Figure 2.66b) Stockpiling of rice.
Politica
l
factors

•Importing food from different countries:
–Diversifies the source of the food supply
–Provides a buffer against food shortages and price
fluctuations
Politica
l
factors

•Example: Singapore
– Mainly bought its vegetables from Malaysia in the past
– Larger proportion of its vegetables are now bought from
other countries, e.g. China, USA
– Local companies are encouraged to place contracts
directly with farmers for an agreed amount and price of
food products, e.g. NTUC Fairprice Co-operative Ltd’s
purchases vegetables through contracts with Indonesian
farmers
Politica
l
factors

ASEAN
•Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): An
organisation of ten Southeast Asian countries
•Aims to accelerate region’s economic growth, increase social
progress, foster cultural development and protect regional
peace and stability
Politica
l
factors

ASEAN
•ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve (APTERR)
Agreement
–Agreement by ASEAN with China, Japan and South Korea to
ensure food security for its members
–During times of disaster, reserve will be used to provide rice
to countries that have signed the agreement
–China agreed to contribute 300,000 tonnes of rice; Thailand
agreed to contribute 15,000 tonnes
–Countries contribute financially to fund operation
– E.g. Singapore contributed US$107,500
Politica
l
factors

ASEAN
•Example: Thailand in 2012
–The leading rice producer in the region
–Started a programme for other ASEAN nations to intensify
rice production in the region
–Agreed to work with neighbouring countries, (e.g. Cambodia)
to increase their efficiency in rice production
Politica
l
factors

X CAP of the EU
•A series of plans of action designed to:
– Encourage better agricultural productivity
– Ensure that consumers have stable and affordable supply
of food
– Encourage sustainable farming practices
Politica
l
factors

X CAP of the EU
•Helped farmers in the EU to increase productivity through:
– Assistance in restructuring their farms to make them
more productive
– Subsidies provided for agricultural produce
– Import taxes imposed on food products that are brought
in from outside the region
•Helped improve farm efficiency and increase food production,
moving EU towards self-sufficiency
–Example: Wheat yields have increased in the original six
member states from 3 tonnes per hectare in 1962 to 7 tonnes
per hectare in 2008
Politica
l
factors

X CAP of the EU
•Use of trade barriers (e.g. import taxes) by CAP protects
farmers from cheaper imported food
–Helps sustain demand for local produce
–Ensures farmers are not forced to stop farming due to lack of
demand
•However, the cost of providing subsidies to farmers makes
food more expensive in the EU
•The subsidies are a heavy financial burden for countries in the
EU that do not have large agricultural industries
Politica
l
factors

Technological advances
•Technological advances refer to
improvements in technology,
especially improvement in farming
technology
Technological
factors

Technological advances – Green Revolution
•Rapid increase in the productivity of agriculture through the
use of science and technology
•Spread worldwide in 1960s
•It is called a revolution due to speed at which changes have
occurred
•Important because of its success in LDCs. For example:
– Improved corn varieties were grown on the continent of
Africa where corn is not indigenous
– Corn is now the most important staple grain in Eastern
and Southern Africa
Technological
factors

•Corn production in DCs (e.g. England) increased as well
Figure 2.67 Green Revolution is reflected in the total production of corn over the
years in England. Adapted from: United States Department of Agriculture (2013).
Technological
factors

The Green Revolution: Waging A War Against Hunger

•The Green Revolution is
characterised by the following:
Technological
factors

•High-yielding varieties (HYVs):
Improved strains of crops (e.g. rice, wheat, other cereals) that
have an increased growth rate
•Developed by cross-breeding selected varieties found to
exhibit favourable characteristics. For example:
–Increased resistance to pests and diseases
–Ability to grow within a shorter growing season
•Require more water and nutrients to sustain growth
•Have shorter growing season, resulting in more harvests
Technological
factors

–E.g. ‘Wonder Rice’ has a growing season of 100 days as
compared to the growth duration of 120 days for the non-HYV
varieties
–E.g. IR36 has a maturation period of 105 days instead of 130
days for previous HYVs and 150 days for traditional varieties of
rice
–E.g. IR8 enabled farmers to produce twice as much grain
as traditional varieties
oSuccessfully used in India in the 1980s
oBy 1990, 70% of rice and wheat grown in India were HYVs
Technological
factors

○ Rice production multiplied by more than 2X
○ Wheat production multiplied by more than 4X
Green Revolution in India
Year Production of rice (tonnes) Production of wheat (tonnes)
1970 63,337,800 20,093,300
1980 80,312,000 31,830,000
1990 111,511,700 49,849,500
2000 127,465,000 76,368,900
2010 143,963,000 80,803,600
Figure 2.68 Rice and wheat production in India in selected years. Adapted from: Food and
Agriculture Organization (2013)
Technological
factors

•Fertilisers:
Substances added to the soil to provide nutrients for healthy
plant growth
•Fertilisers bring nutrients back to the soil & increase crop yield
–Fertilisers are applied because
nutrients in the soil deplete
gradually, especially after
continuous use
–Farmland is often not given
the chance to fallow (i.e.
left without being sown
for a period of time to
restore its fertility)
•HYVs require more fertilisers
than non-HYVs crops
Figure 2.69 An agricultural aircraft
spraying chemical pesticides on a farm in
the Palouse region in Washington DC, USA.
Technological
factors

•Pesticides:
Chemical substances used to kill insects and small animals that
destroy crops
•Use of pesticides:
–Fights high level of pest damage that frequently occurs when
only a single crop covers a wide area
–Protects crops from pests and increases crop yield
–Example: Malathion was used widely in 1980s to address a
fruit fly problem in fruit orchards in California
•Herbicides:
Chemical substances used to kill weed and other undesirable
plants that compete with crops for resources
Technological
factors

•Improved Irrigation:
Method of supplying water to the land other than by natural
means, such as rain, to help crops grow
•By supplying water to areas that used to be too dry for
farming, irrigation increases the amount of arable land
worldwide
Technological
factors

•Example: Great Man-made River, Libya, North African country
– One of the most extensive irrigation projects in the world
– Made it possible to grow crops in the Sahara Desert
– A network of underground pipes, canals, wells, reservoirs
and tunnels that draws water from underground aquifers
deep in the Sahara Desert
– Water is channelled to coastal cities of Libya for agriculture,
domestic and industrial use
– Completed in several phases
– Has started to supply water in 1991
Technological
factors

•Example: Great Man-made River, Libya, North African country
Figure 2.70 The Great Man-made River in
Libya.
Figure 2.71 Trench-digging for the waterpipe of the
Great Man-made River in Libya.
Technological
factors

– Flood irrigation: Water is delivered to a whole surface,
such as rice fields
Technological
factors

– Centre-pivot irrigation: A form of overhead sprinkler
irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe joined
together and supported by trusses, and mounted on
wheeled towers
with sprinklers
positioned along
its length
Figure 2.94d) A close-up of the sprinklers on
the centre-pivot irrigation equipment.
Technological
factors

•Mechanisation:
•Farmers use more advanced
machinery to perform tasks
which they would otherwise
have to do manually
•Mechanisation speeds up
processes involved in
preparing the land, tending
to crops and harvesting
•E.g.: The combine harvester,
a machine that harvests grain
crops, has reduced reliance
on human labour
Figure 2.72 A combine harvester collecting wheat.
Technological
factors

•X Genetically modified food (GM food):
Food derived from crops that have
had their genetic make-up modified
•Done by transplanting a gene from
another organism into genetic
material of the crop
•Example: Golden Rice has been
infused with Vitamin A to prevent
blindness
Figure 2.73 A comparison of
white rice grains and golden rice
grains.
Technological
factors

•Example: Bt-cotton
– Has a gene from a naturally occurring soil bacterium
known as Bacillus thuringinensis (Bt)
– A natural pesticide that makes cotton resistant to the
heliothis caterpillar, a major threat to the cotton industry
– It protects crop and reduces its risk of damage by pests
Technological
factors

•GM crops are now grown on about 130 million acres in 13
countries, e.g. Argentina, Canada, USA
•In Africa, GM crops are produced only in South Africa, Burkina
Faso and Egypt
•Other countries (e.g. Uganda and Tanzania) have had trials,
but no commercial farmlands have been established
Technological
factors

HYV crops (1960s–
present)
GM crops (1990s–
present)
Method of development • Cross breeding • Alteration of genes
Benefits • Shorter growing
season
• Resistant to pests
and diseases
• Shorter growing
season
• Resistant to pests and
diseases
• Resistant to extreme
weather conditions
• Health benefits
Examples • Super Rice
• Wonder Rice
• FlavrSavr Tomato
• Golden Rice
• Bt-cotton
• Bt-corn
Figure 2.71 A comparison of HYV crops and GM crops.
Technological
factors

• Challenges associated with intensification of production of
crops from the 1960s
– Effect of irrigation on water and soil quality
– Effect of chemicals on water and soil quality
TB pg. 137-139

Effect of irrigation on water and soil quality
Excessive
irrigation
(i.e. too
much
irrigation)
What is it?
What causes it to happen?
What are the consequences?
What is it?
What causes
it to happen?
Cause 1
Cause 2
Effect on
WATER quality:
_______
Effect on SOIL
quality:
_______

•Extensive irrigation may cause ground to be waterlogged
•Waterlogging:
○ Occurs when too much water seeps into the soil and
causes the soil to be over-saturated
○ Waterlogging deprives roots of air and nutrients that crops
need, eventually causing them to die

Excessive
irrigation
(i.e. too
much
irrigation)
What is it?
What causes it to happen?
What is it?
What causes
it to happen?
Cause 1
Cause 2
Effect on
WATER quality:
Waterlogging
Effect on SOIL
quality:
_______

• Salinisation:
• Due to high evaporation rates:
• When water added to the soil during
irrigation evaporates directly from
the moist soil, causing salt to be left
behind on the soil after evaporation
• Due to no proper drainage of
excess water:
• Groundwater may reach the upper
soil layers, bringing up dissolved
salts from the ground
• Saline soils contain concentration
of salts that is too high for crops
to grow well
Figure 2.76 Due to salinisation, the
soil surface may appear hard and
cracked, with little or no plant growth.

•Example: Waterlogging and salinisation
in the Murray-Darling Basin
Southeastern Australia

•Example: Waterlogging and salinisation
in the Murray-Darling Basin (in Southeastern Australia)
– The Murray-Darling Basin is characterised by low terrain,
low rainfall, high evaporation rate
– Salt is commonly found in the Murray-Darling Basin
landscapes and rivers
– Naturally occurring salts became concentrated in some
parts due to human activities, e.g. irrigation
development, land clearing
– These activities cause salinisation to occur in the Basin

Figure 2.75a) Normal conditions in the Murray-Darling Basin in Victoria, Australia.

Figure 2.75b) A lack of proper drainage resulting in soil salinisation in the Murray-Darling Basin.

Figure 2.121 The cross-section of a field affected by salinisation.

Effect of chemicals on water and soil quality
Too much
chemicals
used
What is it?
What causes
it to happen?
What are the
consequences?
Effect on
WATER
quality:
___________

•Overuse of fertilisers and pesticides causes chemicals to
become concentrated in the soil
–Over time, they seep into and contaminate groundwater
–They get washed into streams and rivers by surface runoff
–When they reach streams and rivers, they become nutrients
for algae to grow on the surface of the water

• Eutrophication:
Presence of excess nutrients in
water, leading to algae bloom
– Depletes oxygen in the
water and blocks sunlight
from reaching aquatic plants
– Results in death of aquatic
plants and other organisms
– Decomposition of these
aquatic plants and animals
further depletes oxygen in
the water
Figure 2.77 A boat docked on a river filled with algae.

(1) Excessive use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides
(2) Chemicals become
concentrated in soil.
(3) Chemicals may seep
into soil and contaminate
groundwater.
Chemicals may be washed
into streams/ rivers by
surface runoff.
(4) Algae blooms
due to nutrients
(5) Algae blooms deplete oxygen
in the water and block sunlight
from reaching aquatic plants.
(6) Aquatic plants and animals
die and further deplete oxygen
in the water when they rot.

Figure 2.78 Causes of eutrophication.

•Common problem in many countries, such as the USA:
– Pesticides from farmland had contaminated groundwater
– Serious concern since about 23% of freshwater used in
the country comes from groundwater sources
•Measures have to be taken to reverse the trends of
eutrophication:
– Implementing control measures aimed at preventing
nutrients from reaching water bodies
– Raising awareness

• Challenges associated with intensification of production of
crops from the 1960s
– Effect of irrigation on water and soil quality
– Effect of chemicals on water and soil quality
• X Consequences of development of genetically modified food
crops

X Consequences of development of genetically modified
food crops
•Use or consumption of GM crops is controversial because their
impacts on human health are still unclear
–In many countries, cultivation of GM crops is banned
–In 2011, Peru passed a law banning GM ingredients for the
next 10 years
–Russia suspended the use of GM corn following a study in
which rats fed with GM corn suffered harmful effects
–GM products have been banned in some countries,
e.g. Austria, France, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary, Algeria,
Greece, Poland

X Consequences of development of genetically modified
food crops
•Benefits and threats associated with the development of GM
crops:
Benefits Threats
Farmers’ income Increased income for
farmers
Dominance of
agribusinesses
Health
considerations
Nutritional benefits for
consumers
Potential health risks
Environmental
considerations
Decreased
environmental pollution
Genetic pollution resulting
in loss of biodiversity
(i.e. the variety of life
forms found in a particular
ecosystem)
Figure 2.79 Benefits and threats of genetically modified crops.

Reasons why food shortages still occur
despite improvements in food production
Social factorsEconomic factors
Political
factors
Physical
factors
Climate
change
Extreme
weather
events
Pests
Lack of accessibility
Inadequate logistics
of food distribution
and storage
Rising demand for meat
& diary products from
emerging economies
Soaring cost of
fertilisers & transport
Civil strife
Poor
governance
TB pg. 140-148
Conversion of farmland
to industrial crop
production to produce
biofuel
Rapid population
growth

Climate change
•Variation in the global climate or climate patterns in the long
term
•Affects food supply in different ways:
–It may cause existing farmland to become unsuitable for
farming ()
–It may lengthen the growing season in other areas ()
–It may allow crops to be farmed in certain areas that were not
suitable for farming in the past ()
Physical
factors

Climate change
•When global temperatures increase, some countries’ and
regions’ current food production will decrease () by up to
50%
○ e.g. Brazil, India, Pakistan, Turkey, parts of the USA, most
of Southeast Asia and most of Australia
•Whereas some regions’ and countries’ current production
will increase () by up to 35% due to a rise in temperature
○ e.g. Canada, China, Argentina, France, Russia and northern
parts of the USA
Physical
factors

Figure 2.81 Projected changes in agricultural productivity in 2080 due to climate change. Adapted from:
United Nations Environment Programme/GRID-Arendal, Hugo Ahlenius (2009).
Physical
factors

Climate change
•Shrinking of glaciers due to global warming is predicted to
reduce food supply over the coming decades
•Example: Glaciers in the Himalayas
–Seasonal melting of glaciers provides river basins of major
rivers in India and China with water to irrigate food crops
during the dry season
–The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reports that these glaciers are receding rapidly and could melt
entirely by 2035
–The loss of water from glaciers would decrease water supply
and lead to smaller harvests for farmers
Physical
factors

Climate change
Physical
factors
(1) May cause existing
farmland to become
unsuitable for farming
(2) Shrinking glaciers due
to global warming
Lower food production; Smaller harvests
(Supply of food )
Reduced food supply; Food shortage occurs
(e.g. food pdn  by up to 50%
in parts of USA, most of SEA,
most of Australia)
(e.g. shrinking glaciers in the
Himalayas leaves rives in
India and China with lesser
water to irrigate food crops)

Tibet glaciers, ‘root of the world’, melting rapidly

Extreme weather events
•Severe weather events which may cause loss of lives or
damage to property
–Droughts: reduce water supply available for crops
–Cold waves
–Heat waves
–Tropical cyclones: lead to flooding of farmland
•Extreme weather events may cause crop damage or make it
difficult to grow crops
•Extreme weather events are likely to become more frequent
as a result of climate change
Physical
factors

Figure 2.83 Effects of climate change on agriculture
Physical
factors

Extreme weather events
Physical
factors
(1) Cause crop damage (2) Make it difficult to grow crops
(e.g. increase in pests &
incidence of vector-borne
diseases)
(e.g. droughts reduce water
supply & tropical cyclones
flood farmland)
Slash crop yields (Supply of food )
Reduced food supply; Food shortage occurs
(e.g. rising sea levels cause
loss of fertile coastal lands)
(e.g. unpredictable farming
conditions in tropical areas)

Pests
•Pests are a major contributor to food shortage
as they damage food crops, e.g. wild rabbits,
moles, insects
•Example: Caterpillar invasion in Liberia
– A state of emergency was declared due to the
caterpillars
– Caterpillars devoured all crops in their path
– Invasion affected 46 villages in northern
Liberia
– Posed major threat to the already serious food
security situation
Figure 2.84 The armyworm, a
species of caterpillar that destroyed
crops in Liberia in 2009
Physical
factors
Food harvest  (Supply of food )
Food shortage occurs (in Liberia)

Dangerous Swarms - Locust swarm

Civil strife
•Situation in which a country faces major internal conflicts,
which may include riots, unrest or civil war
•Can lead to disputes over control of resources that affect food
production, such as land and water
•Resources may be destroyed, hindering food production
○ e.g. landmines planted on farmlands can reduce or
completely stop food production during and after a conflict
•Sometimes, the lack of food supply is the root cause of
conflict, which could start a vicious cycle of civil strife and
shortage of food
Political
factors

Civil strife
Figure 2.85a) The vicious cycle of civil strife and shortage of food.
Political
factors

Poor governance
•Poor governance (e.g. corruption, policy errors, inability to
implement policy) can cause food shortages
•Governments can threaten food security when they
prioritise other developmental needs over ensuring food
security
–Local farmers are left with smaller plots of land for farming
Political
factors

Poor governance
•Example: Madhya Pradesh
– In 2010, 40,000 villagers were deprived of land for
farming due to the development of mining, a steel plant
and port
– Villagers lost the means to produce their own food
and were left with extremely limited income to buy food
Political
factors

X Food policy
•Governments may stockpile food staples for times of
emergency
•Stockpiling may sometimes cause food shortages in other
countries
•Example: Algeria
– Bought 800,000 tonnes of wheat to add to its stockpile
– Caused several other LDCs, including Saudi Arabia and
Indonesia, to react and do the same
– Reduced supply of food staples worldwide
– Stockpiling caused global prices to rise, which worsened
the problem of food shortage in some LDCs
Political
factors

X Food policy
•Food subsidies: Money paid by a government or
organisation to make food more affordable to consumers
•Often paid to low-income families or individuals, including the
elderly, who may not have the means to obtain enough food
•May come in the form of cash, food vouchers or tax
deductions
Political
factors

X Food policy
•Example: Food subsidies in the USA
– US$74.6 billion worth of food subsidies were distributed
to 47.7 million Americans in 2012
– In the State of Massachusetts, food subsidies were given
to citizens whose total income do not reach a certain
amount
– Amount varies depending on one’s household size and
existing properties
– Countries that are unable to afford such subsidies may
continue to face the problem of food shortages
Political
factors

X Food policy
•Important to ensure that food subsidies are effective in raising
consumption for people that need them most
•Example: Rice rations in Sri Lanka
– Before 1979, Sri Lanka gave discounted rice rations to
half its population regardless of their income
– Resulted in the wealthy benefiting the most
– In 1979, Sri Lanka began distributing rations to
individuals based on their income
– Result: Increase in calorie consumption by 12% among
the poorest 20% of its population
Political
factors

Demand from emerging economies
•Emerging economies:
LDCs with developing economies that grow at rates that allow
them to contribute significantly to the global economy, e.g.
Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRIC)
•These countries have demonstrated high increase in food
demand, especially for food products such as meat and dairy
products
Economic factors
Demand > Supply of food

Demand from emerging economies
•Sustained growth in demand for food from emerging
economies
–Believed to be depleting global food inventories
–Caused by a rapidly growing urban middle class with more
purchasing power and changing food preferences
–May result in food shortages in poorer countries
Economic factors

Soaring cost of fertilisers and transport
•There is a direct relationship between:
–Fertiliser prices and the cost of producing food
–Fertiliser prices and the food prices
–Food prices and transport costs
Economic factors

•Energy costs, especially oil, are partly responsible for the
increase in the price of fertilisers as well as transport
–Modern agriculture uses petroleum products to fuel farm
machinery and to transport farm produce
–Fuel costs increase leads to increase in transport costs,
machine operation costs and food prices
•Since increases in food prices are transferred to the
consumer, the poor are affected the most
 people in poorer regions cannot afford the increase
food prices
Economic factors

• Rise and fall in world food
prices follows that of oil
prices
• Example: Kazakhstan
– In March 2011, world
crude oil prices
increased by 10.3%
– Kazakhstan, a major
producer of wheat, had
to increase the price of
wheat exported to
neighbouring countries
(e.g. Tajikistan) due to
the rise in fuel cost
Figure 2.86b) Relationship between food prices
and oil prices from 2000 to 2010. Adapted from:
Food and Agriculture Organization (2010).
Economic factors

Conversion of farmland to industrial crop production
•Farmlands are converted to grow crops for biofuels because it
is more profitable than growing food crops
•Biofuels: Fuels that derive energy from biological carbons
instead of fossil fuels such as coal
•Example: Biofuel production in the USA
–About 25% of all food crops grown
in the USA become fuel for vehicles
–Amount would have been enough to
feed 330 million people for one year
•From 2006 to 2007, 30% of the
increase in food prices is related
to the production of biofuels
Economic factors

Figure 2.88 The amount of grain being used to produce ethanol for cars in the USA,
compared with the millions of people the same amount of grain can feed. Adapted from:
The Guardian (22 January 2010).
Economic factors

•Farmlands are converted to grow crops for biofuels because it
is more profitable than growing food crops
•Biofuels: Fuels that derive energy from biological carbons
instead of fossil fuels such as coal
Economic factors
More farmlands converted
to grow crops for biofuels
Lesser food crops are grown
Lower food production (supply )
Food shortages in certain areas

The Hidden Costs of Turning Food Into Fuel - National Geographic

Lack of accessibility
•Accessibility to food:
How easily residents can reach the food that is available
•Transport facilities (e.g. road, rail links) are needed so that
food can be reached even by people who live far away from
shops
•Even when food is available within a country, how accessible it
is depends on the number and location of food outlets
•Example: LDCs
– Food outlets may be few and far apart from one
another
– People may be unable to obtain fresh produce and
thus have a smaller food intake
Social factors

Inadequate logistics of food distribution and storage
•Food distribution:
The movement of food from farms to retail outlets
•Food distribution depends on the presence of a good transport
network
•Physical barriers (e.g. mountains) or events (e.g.
landslides) may affect accessibility to food
•Affects stability of food supply
Social factors

Figure 2.89a) Road blocked by a
mudslide in Costa Rica.
Figure 2.89b) Percentage of population in Timor-Leste at
risk of food shortages in 2007. Adapted from: United Nations
World Food Programme (2006).
Social factors

•Inadequate logistics become significant when local production
cannot meet local demand
•Example: Timor-Leste
– One-third of the population experiences food shortages in
between harvests
– Chronic food shortage is worsened by:
o Lack of storage facilities
o Difficulty of accessing numerous remote
communities
Social factors
Local demand for food > Supply of food available

Rapid population growth
•Food supply may be unable to meet growing demand for
food due to rapid population growth
–World’s population will reach 10 billion by 2050
–Matching the population growth rate with an increase in food
production is crucial
Social factors

•Example: Sub-Saharan Africa
– By 2025, 75% of Sub-
Saharan Africans have to
rely on food aid
– The small amount of land
suitable for farming is
declining due to rising
temperatures
– Rapid population growth
poses a threat to food
production and food
security in the region
Figure 2.90 The rural and urban population
growth for Sub-Saharan Africa from 1961 to 2009.
Adapted from: World Bank (2012).
Social factors

•Example: Sub-Saharan Africa
Social factors
(1) Rural and urban
population growth
(2) Climate change
Demand for food 
Small amount of land suitable
for farming is declining due to
rising temperatures
Supply of food 
>
Sub-Saharan Africans face food shortage
By 2025, 75% of Sub-Saharan Africans have to rely on food aid

Ch 2 GW 2 - Food Trends & Challenges

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