Research design involves decisions about how to collect and analyze data to answer research questions or solve problems. There are two main types of research design: observational studies and experimental studies. Observational studies observe naturally occurring events without intervention, while experimental studies involve deliberate human intervention to change the course of events. Common research designs include descriptive studies, analytical studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, and randomized controlled trials. Research design aims to ensure valid, unbiased conclusions through careful planning of study type, variables, data collection, and statistical analysis.
The document discusses research design and provides details on different types of research designs. It begins by defining research design and outlines the key decisions that must be made, including what, where, when, how much, and how data will be collected and analyzed. It then discusses different types of research designs for exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing studies. Specific methods for qualitative and quantitative research designs are also outlined.
The document discusses research design and its key principles. It defines research design as a plan or blueprint for conducting a study that maximizes control over interfering factors and validity of findings. Some key points made:
- Research design refers to how a study will be conducted, the type of data collected, and means used to obtain the data.
- Reliability refers to consistency of data, while validity refers to accuracy and truth of measurements.
- Threats to validity include history, selection, testing, instrumentation, maturation, and mortality.
- Descriptive, experimental, and qualitative designs are three basic types of research design.
Research design and types of research design final pptPrahlada G
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the conceptual framework for a research study that includes plans for data collection, measurement, and analysis. The main components of a research design are outlined, including the problem statement, literature review, objectives, methodology, and data analysis plan. Four common types of research designs are explored in more detail: exploratory, descriptive, experimental, and quasi-experimental. Key principles of experimental design like replication, randomization, and local control are also summarized.
This document discusses research design and its importance. It defines research design as the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedures. The key parts of research design discussed are sampling design, observational design, statistical design, and operational design. A good research design considers features like means of obtaining information, researcher skills and resources, research objectives, and time and funding available. The document also covers important concepts in research design like variables, hypotheses, experimental and control groups, and treatments.
Ethical standards are important in research for several reasons. They promote truthful and accurate research by prohibiting falsification of data. They also promote collaboration through values like trust and accountability. Ethical standards ensure researchers are accountable to the public since they are often publicly funded. Following ethics helps build public support and trust in research. Areas of unethical conduct include plagiarism, fabrication, failing to publish results, faulty methods, and improper authorship. Researchers have a duty to protect subjects' rights, obtain informed consent, and conduct legal and responsible research.
The document provides an overview of research design concepts and types. It discusses the importance of research design in establishing the framework and methodology for a study. Some key points covered include:
- Research design determines the methods and techniques used to conduct a study, including the type of research (e.g. experimental, survey) and elements like the purpose statement, data collection/analysis methods, and timeline.
- There are qualitative and quantitative research designs. Common quantitative designs are experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, and descriptive. Common qualitative designs include case studies, ethnographies, grounded theory, and phenomenology.
- An effective research design considers factors like defining the target population, choosing appropriate sampling and data collection
A pilot study is a small preliminary study conducted prior to a larger research study to test and refine aspects of the proposed research such as research instruments, sampling methods, recruitment strategies and data analysis techniques. It allows researchers to identify potential problems in their research design or methodology and make necessary revisions before embarking on the full-scale research project. Pilot studies help improve the quality, efficiency and validity of the final research study.
The document provides an overview of reviewing literature for research. It discusses that a literature review summarizes previous research related to the topic of study. The review helps identify what is already known, research gaps, and informs the research design. It also describes the various types of literature reviews, sources of literature, characteristics of a good review, and the steps involved in conducting a review. These include developing an annotated bibliography, organizing sources thematically, integrating new findings, writing individual sections, and tying the sections together with an introduction and conclusion.
The document discusses research design and provides details on different types of research designs. It begins by defining research design and outlines the key decisions that must be made, including what, where, when, how much, and how data will be collected and analyzed. It then discusses different types of research designs for exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing studies. Specific methods for qualitative and quantitative research designs are also outlined.
The document discusses research design and its key principles. It defines research design as a plan or blueprint for conducting a study that maximizes control over interfering factors and validity of findings. Some key points made:
- Research design refers to how a study will be conducted, the type of data collected, and means used to obtain the data.
- Reliability refers to consistency of data, while validity refers to accuracy and truth of measurements.
- Threats to validity include history, selection, testing, instrumentation, maturation, and mortality.
- Descriptive, experimental, and qualitative designs are three basic types of research design.
Research design and types of research design final pptPrahlada G
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the conceptual framework for a research study that includes plans for data collection, measurement, and analysis. The main components of a research design are outlined, including the problem statement, literature review, objectives, methodology, and data analysis plan. Four common types of research designs are explored in more detail: exploratory, descriptive, experimental, and quasi-experimental. Key principles of experimental design like replication, randomization, and local control are also summarized.
This document discusses research design and its importance. It defines research design as the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedures. The key parts of research design discussed are sampling design, observational design, statistical design, and operational design. A good research design considers features like means of obtaining information, researcher skills and resources, research objectives, and time and funding available. The document also covers important concepts in research design like variables, hypotheses, experimental and control groups, and treatments.
Ethical standards are important in research for several reasons. They promote truthful and accurate research by prohibiting falsification of data. They also promote collaboration through values like trust and accountability. Ethical standards ensure researchers are accountable to the public since they are often publicly funded. Following ethics helps build public support and trust in research. Areas of unethical conduct include plagiarism, fabrication, failing to publish results, faulty methods, and improper authorship. Researchers have a duty to protect subjects' rights, obtain informed consent, and conduct legal and responsible research.
The document provides an overview of research design concepts and types. It discusses the importance of research design in establishing the framework and methodology for a study. Some key points covered include:
- Research design determines the methods and techniques used to conduct a study, including the type of research (e.g. experimental, survey) and elements like the purpose statement, data collection/analysis methods, and timeline.
- There are qualitative and quantitative research designs. Common quantitative designs are experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, and descriptive. Common qualitative designs include case studies, ethnographies, grounded theory, and phenomenology.
- An effective research design considers factors like defining the target population, choosing appropriate sampling and data collection
A pilot study is a small preliminary study conducted prior to a larger research study to test and refine aspects of the proposed research such as research instruments, sampling methods, recruitment strategies and data analysis techniques. It allows researchers to identify potential problems in their research design or methodology and make necessary revisions before embarking on the full-scale research project. Pilot studies help improve the quality, efficiency and validity of the final research study.
The document provides an overview of reviewing literature for research. It discusses that a literature review summarizes previous research related to the topic of study. The review helps identify what is already known, research gaps, and informs the research design. It also describes the various types of literature reviews, sources of literature, characteristics of a good review, and the steps involved in conducting a review. These include developing an annotated bibliography, organizing sources thematically, integrating new findings, writing individual sections, and tying the sections together with an introduction and conclusion.
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ? EXPLAIN IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN Sachin Somanna M P
Research design is defined as the master plan for how to conduct research, including the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing information. It is important as it reduces inaccuracy, maximizes efficiency and reliability, eliminates bias and errors, minimizes wasted time, guides resource requirements and collection of materials, and guides the research in the right direction.
This document discusses research, including its meaning, objectives, characteristics, significance, and approaches. It defines research as a systematic, organized process of asking questions and gathering evidence to answer them. The objectives of research are to gain new insights and knowledge, accurately portray characteristics of individuals or groups, and test hypotheses. Characteristics include reliability, validity, accuracy, credibility, and generalizability. Research is significant as it encourages scientific thinking, aids in economic and business decision-making, and helps solve social problems. Different approaches to research include quantitative, inferential, experimental, simulation, and qualitative methods. Research methods refer to specific techniques for gathering data while research methodology explains the overall process.
This document discusses research hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis helps translate research problems into clear predictions about expected outcomes. Hypotheses are derived from literature reviews and conceptual frameworks. The main types discussed are research hypotheses, null hypotheses, and testable hypotheses. Research hypotheses make predictions, while null hypotheses predict no relationship. Testable hypotheses involve measurable variables. Variables are also discussed, including independent, dependent, extraneous, and demographic variables. Assumptions and limitations of research are briefly covered.
This document outlines a pilot study prepared by Mrs. Deva Pon Pushpam.I on the topic of pilot studies. It defines a pilot study as a small preliminary version of a larger study used to test feasibility and refine methods and procedures. The purposes of a pilot study are to determine feasibility, identify weaknesses, test instruments and data collection, obtain preliminary outcome data to calculate sample size, and refine the methodology. A pilot study uses similar design and methods to the main study, including control groups, blinding, and outcome measures. Data collection and analysis in a pilot study aim to test instruments and address study objectives through descriptive statistics. The conclusion is that pilot studies avoid costly failures in main studies by testing procedures beforehand.
A pilot study is a small preliminary study conducted before a larger research study to test feasibility, reliability, and validity. It helps identify potential problems in design or methodology. Key reasons for conducting a pilot study include assessing the feasibility of processes, resources, human/data management, and scientific aspects like response and variance. Pilot studies allow researchers to test hypotheses, gain insights, and reduce risks of problems in the full study.
The document outlines the 10 key steps in the research process:
1. Selecting a research topic and defining the problem.
2. Specifying the research objectives.
3. Developing a research design and determining what information is required.
4. Designing methods to collect primary and secondary data, such as through surveys.
5. Analyzing and interpreting the results to draw conclusions.
6. Preparing a final research report to communicate the findings to clients.
The document discusses and compares cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study collects data from a population at a single point in time to examine relationships between variables. It allows comparison of different samples at one time but cannot determine cause-and-effect. A longitudinal study collects data from the same sample repeatedly over an extended period, allowing observation of changes over time. This enables longitudinal studies to better establish cause-and-effect relationships where a cross-sectional provides only a snapshot.
The document provides guidance on formulating a research question. It discusses identifying a research problem or opportunity and determining the unit of analysis. It also covers translating the research problem into a research question and formulating a hypothesis to be tested. Well-formulated research questions are answerable, specific, measurable, and linked to a theoretical framework. The goal is to develop a question that will focus the research and facilitate subsequent steps in the research process.
This document discusses different types of research design: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory design is used to investigate a new area and form hypotheses. Descriptive design aims to describe a problem and its solutions. Methods include surveys, observations, and case studies. Explanatory design identifies causal links between variables through methods like literature reviews, in-depth interviews, and case analysis. The document emphasizes that research design provides a logical plan for conducting a study to maximize valid answers to research questions through the appropriate use of exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory approaches.
The document discusses various aspects of research methodology including defining the research problem, reviewing literature, and formulating hypotheses. It provides details on:
1) Defining the research problem involves identifying and selecting a problem and then precisely formulating it.
2) Reviewing literature helps gain background knowledge and identify relationships between concepts to form hypotheses. Literature is recorded systematically.
3) A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between variables. It predicts the influence of independent variables on dependent variables.
Longitudinal research involves studying the same sample of individuals over multiple points in time. There are three main types of longitudinal studies: trend studies sample different groups over time from the same population; cohort analyses measure characteristics of groups that experience the same life events; and panel studies measure the same sample at different points to reveal changes. Combining qualitative and quantitative data in longitudinal research allows qualitative data to aid interpretation and suggest new hypotheses. Conducting longitudinal research online through internet surveys panels has advantages like easier recruitment but also disadvantages like lack of representation.
In many different types of researches we are interested in learning about large groups of people who all have something in common that is called 'target population' Researchers commonly study traits or characteristics (parameters) of populations in their studies. It is more or less impossible to study the whole population therefore researches need to select a sample or sub-group of the population that is likely to be representative of the target population. Therefore, the researcher would select individuals from which to collect the data which is called sample. Sampling is the method of selecting individuals from the population. The method of sampling is a key factor for generalizing the results of sample into a population. There are two main methods of sampling including probable and non-probable sampling techniques. In probable sampling method the sample, should be as representative as possible of the population which leads to more confident to generalize the results to the target population.
Another important question that must be answered in all sample surveys is "How many participants should be chosen for a survey"? An under-sized study can be a waste of resources since it may not produce useful results while an over-sized study uses more resources than necessary. Determining the sample size should be based on type of research and its objectives as well as required statistical methods. There are different methods for determining the sample size applying various formulas to calculate a sample size.
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the planned sequence of the entire research process, including the framework of methods chosen. A good research design includes accurate purpose and methodology statements, appropriate settings and techniques for data collection and analysis, and consideration of timeline and measurements. Key aspects of research design include type of data needed, participants, variables or research questions, and data analysis methods. Choosing a research design requires considering priorities, practicalities, and the type of primary or secondary, qualitative or quantitative data required, as well as how that data will be collected and analyzed.
The document discusses observation as a research method for collecting data in behavioral science studies. It defines observation as systematically recording behaviors, objects, or occurrences without communicating with what is being observed. There are different types of observation including participant and non-participant, as well as direct and indirect observation. The advantages of observation are that it allows researchers to study natural behaviors without influencing participants. However, it also risks selective perception bias. Proper planning is needed when using observation which includes determining what to observe and how to record the data, such as with observation guides, checklists, or recording devices.
This document discusses research design and different types of research designs. It defines research design as the conceptual structure and plan for conducting research to answer research questions. The main types of research designs covered are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and experimental. Exploratory design is used when little is known about a topic to discover variables and relationships. Descriptive design aims to describe phenomena by observing behaviors. Diagnostic design involves problem identification and finding causes. Experimental design tests hypotheses by manipulating variables and measuring outcomes. The document provides details on each design type, including their purposes and methodologies.
This document outlines the steps for formulating a research problem:
1. Select a broad research area from literature and personal experience.
2. Review literature and theories to understand what has been done and how the research could expand knowledge or test theories.
3. Delimit the topic to a more specific research problem.
4. Evaluate the problem for significance, researchability, and feasibility considering factors like time, cost, and ethics.
5. Formulate a final statement of the research problem that is clear, concise, and measurable.
A research report is a condensed form of a brief description of research work done by the researcher. It involves several steps to present the report in the form of a thesis or dissertation. The purpose of a research report is to present at conferences, publish in journals or articles, and obtain grants or financial aid. It can also have implications or recommendations for clinical practice, education, and administration. A research report should be concise, clear, honest, and complete while maintaining accuracy. It must also show originality and provide ready availability of findings.
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the specific plan for conducting a study to translate a conceptual hypothesis into an operational one. Research design helps make decisions about how to complete the entire research process validly, objectively, accurately, and economically. The document then discusses classifications of study designs based on number of contacts with participants, reference period, and nature of investigation. It provides examples and advantages and disadvantages of descriptive studies like case reports, case series, and ecological studies as well as analytical studies like case-control and cohort studies. It also discusses experimental design, blind studies, and double-blind studies.
This document discusses different types of research studies, including observational studies like case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. It provides details on the design, strengths, and limitations of each type of study. Case-control studies look back in time to compare exposures between cases and controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Cross-sectional studies measure exposure and outcome at the same time point. Clinical trials experimentally assign interventions to evaluate effects on outcomes. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses statistically synthesize evidence from multiple studies.
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ? EXPLAIN IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN Sachin Somanna M P
Research design is defined as the master plan for how to conduct research, including the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing information. It is important as it reduces inaccuracy, maximizes efficiency and reliability, eliminates bias and errors, minimizes wasted time, guides resource requirements and collection of materials, and guides the research in the right direction.
This document discusses research, including its meaning, objectives, characteristics, significance, and approaches. It defines research as a systematic, organized process of asking questions and gathering evidence to answer them. The objectives of research are to gain new insights and knowledge, accurately portray characteristics of individuals or groups, and test hypotheses. Characteristics include reliability, validity, accuracy, credibility, and generalizability. Research is significant as it encourages scientific thinking, aids in economic and business decision-making, and helps solve social problems. Different approaches to research include quantitative, inferential, experimental, simulation, and qualitative methods. Research methods refer to specific techniques for gathering data while research methodology explains the overall process.
This document discusses research hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis helps translate research problems into clear predictions about expected outcomes. Hypotheses are derived from literature reviews and conceptual frameworks. The main types discussed are research hypotheses, null hypotheses, and testable hypotheses. Research hypotheses make predictions, while null hypotheses predict no relationship. Testable hypotheses involve measurable variables. Variables are also discussed, including independent, dependent, extraneous, and demographic variables. Assumptions and limitations of research are briefly covered.
This document outlines a pilot study prepared by Mrs. Deva Pon Pushpam.I on the topic of pilot studies. It defines a pilot study as a small preliminary version of a larger study used to test feasibility and refine methods and procedures. The purposes of a pilot study are to determine feasibility, identify weaknesses, test instruments and data collection, obtain preliminary outcome data to calculate sample size, and refine the methodology. A pilot study uses similar design and methods to the main study, including control groups, blinding, and outcome measures. Data collection and analysis in a pilot study aim to test instruments and address study objectives through descriptive statistics. The conclusion is that pilot studies avoid costly failures in main studies by testing procedures beforehand.
A pilot study is a small preliminary study conducted before a larger research study to test feasibility, reliability, and validity. It helps identify potential problems in design or methodology. Key reasons for conducting a pilot study include assessing the feasibility of processes, resources, human/data management, and scientific aspects like response and variance. Pilot studies allow researchers to test hypotheses, gain insights, and reduce risks of problems in the full study.
The document outlines the 10 key steps in the research process:
1. Selecting a research topic and defining the problem.
2. Specifying the research objectives.
3. Developing a research design and determining what information is required.
4. Designing methods to collect primary and secondary data, such as through surveys.
5. Analyzing and interpreting the results to draw conclusions.
6. Preparing a final research report to communicate the findings to clients.
The document discusses and compares cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study collects data from a population at a single point in time to examine relationships between variables. It allows comparison of different samples at one time but cannot determine cause-and-effect. A longitudinal study collects data from the same sample repeatedly over an extended period, allowing observation of changes over time. This enables longitudinal studies to better establish cause-and-effect relationships where a cross-sectional provides only a snapshot.
The document provides guidance on formulating a research question. It discusses identifying a research problem or opportunity and determining the unit of analysis. It also covers translating the research problem into a research question and formulating a hypothesis to be tested. Well-formulated research questions are answerable, specific, measurable, and linked to a theoretical framework. The goal is to develop a question that will focus the research and facilitate subsequent steps in the research process.
This document discusses different types of research design: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory design is used to investigate a new area and form hypotheses. Descriptive design aims to describe a problem and its solutions. Methods include surveys, observations, and case studies. Explanatory design identifies causal links between variables through methods like literature reviews, in-depth interviews, and case analysis. The document emphasizes that research design provides a logical plan for conducting a study to maximize valid answers to research questions through the appropriate use of exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory approaches.
The document discusses various aspects of research methodology including defining the research problem, reviewing literature, and formulating hypotheses. It provides details on:
1) Defining the research problem involves identifying and selecting a problem and then precisely formulating it.
2) Reviewing literature helps gain background knowledge and identify relationships between concepts to form hypotheses. Literature is recorded systematically.
3) A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between variables. It predicts the influence of independent variables on dependent variables.
Longitudinal research involves studying the same sample of individuals over multiple points in time. There are three main types of longitudinal studies: trend studies sample different groups over time from the same population; cohort analyses measure characteristics of groups that experience the same life events; and panel studies measure the same sample at different points to reveal changes. Combining qualitative and quantitative data in longitudinal research allows qualitative data to aid interpretation and suggest new hypotheses. Conducting longitudinal research online through internet surveys panels has advantages like easier recruitment but also disadvantages like lack of representation.
In many different types of researches we are interested in learning about large groups of people who all have something in common that is called 'target population' Researchers commonly study traits or characteristics (parameters) of populations in their studies. It is more or less impossible to study the whole population therefore researches need to select a sample or sub-group of the population that is likely to be representative of the target population. Therefore, the researcher would select individuals from which to collect the data which is called sample. Sampling is the method of selecting individuals from the population. The method of sampling is a key factor for generalizing the results of sample into a population. There are two main methods of sampling including probable and non-probable sampling techniques. In probable sampling method the sample, should be as representative as possible of the population which leads to more confident to generalize the results to the target population.
Another important question that must be answered in all sample surveys is "How many participants should be chosen for a survey"? An under-sized study can be a waste of resources since it may not produce useful results while an over-sized study uses more resources than necessary. Determining the sample size should be based on type of research and its objectives as well as required statistical methods. There are different methods for determining the sample size applying various formulas to calculate a sample size.
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the planned sequence of the entire research process, including the framework of methods chosen. A good research design includes accurate purpose and methodology statements, appropriate settings and techniques for data collection and analysis, and consideration of timeline and measurements. Key aspects of research design include type of data needed, participants, variables or research questions, and data analysis methods. Choosing a research design requires considering priorities, practicalities, and the type of primary or secondary, qualitative or quantitative data required, as well as how that data will be collected and analyzed.
The document discusses observation as a research method for collecting data in behavioral science studies. It defines observation as systematically recording behaviors, objects, or occurrences without communicating with what is being observed. There are different types of observation including participant and non-participant, as well as direct and indirect observation. The advantages of observation are that it allows researchers to study natural behaviors without influencing participants. However, it also risks selective perception bias. Proper planning is needed when using observation which includes determining what to observe and how to record the data, such as with observation guides, checklists, or recording devices.
This document discusses research design and different types of research designs. It defines research design as the conceptual structure and plan for conducting research to answer research questions. The main types of research designs covered are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and experimental. Exploratory design is used when little is known about a topic to discover variables and relationships. Descriptive design aims to describe phenomena by observing behaviors. Diagnostic design involves problem identification and finding causes. Experimental design tests hypotheses by manipulating variables and measuring outcomes. The document provides details on each design type, including their purposes and methodologies.
This document outlines the steps for formulating a research problem:
1. Select a broad research area from literature and personal experience.
2. Review literature and theories to understand what has been done and how the research could expand knowledge or test theories.
3. Delimit the topic to a more specific research problem.
4. Evaluate the problem for significance, researchability, and feasibility considering factors like time, cost, and ethics.
5. Formulate a final statement of the research problem that is clear, concise, and measurable.
A research report is a condensed form of a brief description of research work done by the researcher. It involves several steps to present the report in the form of a thesis or dissertation. The purpose of a research report is to present at conferences, publish in journals or articles, and obtain grants or financial aid. It can also have implications or recommendations for clinical practice, education, and administration. A research report should be concise, clear, honest, and complete while maintaining accuracy. It must also show originality and provide ready availability of findings.
This document discusses research design. It defines research design as the specific plan for conducting a study to translate a conceptual hypothesis into an operational one. Research design helps make decisions about how to complete the entire research process validly, objectively, accurately, and economically. The document then discusses classifications of study designs based on number of contacts with participants, reference period, and nature of investigation. It provides examples and advantages and disadvantages of descriptive studies like case reports, case series, and ecological studies as well as analytical studies like case-control and cohort studies. It also discusses experimental design, blind studies, and double-blind studies.
This document discusses different types of research studies, including observational studies like case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. It provides details on the design, strengths, and limitations of each type of study. Case-control studies look back in time to compare exposures between cases and controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Cross-sectional studies measure exposure and outcome at the same time point. Clinical trials experimentally assign interventions to evaluate effects on outcomes. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses statistically synthesize evidence from multiple studies.
This document discusses various study designs and sampling methods used in research. It describes observational studies like cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies. Experimental studies including randomized controlled trials are also covered. Different sampling techniques like simple random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling are explained. The key advantages and disadvantages of different study designs are highlighted. The document emphasizes that choosing an appropriate study design and sampling method is important to obtain valid results.
This document outlines the steps for evaluating clinical studies and different study designs. There are two main types of studies - descriptive studies that simply record patient information, and explanatory studies that use group comparisons to determine if a treatment affects an outcome. The best study designs are controlled experimental studies, followed by prospective cohort studies, then case-control and retrospective cohort studies. Key steps in evaluating studies include assessing the journal/authors, study purpose and methods, results and conclusions. Bias and conflicts of interest must also be considered.
This document discusses various epidemiological study designs used to assess health outcomes and answer clinical questions. It begins by outlining the 6 D's of health outcomes - death, disease, discomfort, disability, dissatisfaction, and destitution. It then describes key clinical questions and types of epidemiological studies including descriptive studies, analytical observational studies, and experimental/interventional studies. Descriptive studies involve systematically collecting and presenting data to describe a situation, while analytical studies aim to establish causes or risk factors by comparing groups. Specific analytical study designs covered include case-control studies, cohort studies, and randomized controlled trials.
This document discusses different types of observational studies and experimental trials used in research methodology. It defines observational studies as those that involve collecting data without intervening or altering the course of events. The main types of observational studies covered are case-control studies, cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies. Experimental trials involve manipulating a variable and measuring the effects. Randomized controlled trials are described as the gold standard for determining causation. Key aspects of randomized controlled trial design and methodology are outlined.
The document discusses key aspects of writing a study protocol, including:
- Developing the introduction, research question, objectives and hypothesis.
- Detailing the methodology, including study type, sample size calculation, inclusion/exclusion criteria, randomization process, and statistical analysis plan.
- Common statistical tests for normal and non-normal data distribution are described.
- Key concepts in research design are explained, such as the null hypothesis, randomized clinical trials, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, and calculating appropriate sample sizes.
The publications describes various study designs in epidemiology. These study design are tools that researchers use in order to conduct an effective research
Epidemiological statistics and study designs were discussed. The key points are:
1. Epidemiology deals with disease patterns in populations and epidemiological statistics uses sampling and statistical methods for research.
2. The stages of epidemiological investigations are diagnostic, descriptive, investigative, experimental, analytical, intervention, decision-making, and monitoring phases.
3. Major types of epidemiological studies include descriptive epidemiology, observational studies like cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies, and experimental randomized controlled trials. Each type has advantages and disadvantages for investigating different research questions.
Study Designs in Epidemiology Prof Dr Sanjev Dave.pptxSanjeevDavey1
This document discusses various study designs used in epidemiology. It begins by outlining the fundamental assumptions and components of epidemiology. It then describes the basic types of primary studies as descriptive or analytic. Within analytic epidemiology, it discusses the basic questions asked and approach taken. The remainder of the document details and compares various qualitative and quantitative research designs including case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, randomized controlled trials, and observational designs. Strengths and limitations of each design are provided. Both experimental and observational designs are covered at length.
Writing the research protocol part 2- Methodology-Dr. Yasser Mohammed Hassana...YasserMohammedHassan1
The document provides an overview of different study designs used in epidemiology and public health research. It defines observational studies like cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies as well as experimental studies. It also includes examples to classify different study scenarios and provides definitions for key terminology related to research methodology and study design.
This is an easiest power-point slide you will get on topic Epidemiology. It’s basic of Epidemiology. This ppt includes difference between observational study & experimental study. Classification of Epidemiological study. You can read this & have an overview of Epidemiological study design in short. This power point will help you regarding understanding Epidemiological study. Including cohort study, case control study, descriptive study. This includes advantage & disadvantage of many studies of Epidemiological study design such ase cohort study, case control study, analytical study. It was our group presentation so we made with all our affords. I was the leader of our team I can assure you, you won’t get disappointment after studying this slides.
1. Different study designs are used for different research purposes, with randomized controlled trials being strongest for evaluating new therapies but also most difficult to conduct.
2. Observational studies like cohort and case-control studies can be used when randomization is not possible or ethical, and allow studying rare diseases or past exposures, but are more prone to biases.
3. Qualitative research uses methods like interviews and observations to understand complex social phenomena and issues that are difficult to study quantitatively. The appropriate study design depends on the research question and objectives.
This document discusses various epidemiological study designs. It begins by defining descriptive studies, which involve systematically collecting and presenting data to describe a situation, and analytical studies, which attempt to establish causes or risk factors by comparing exposed and unexposed groups. The main types of descriptive studies covered are cross-sectional (examining a population at a single point in time), longitudinal (following a population over time), and ecological (examining population-level associations between exposures and outcomes). Advantages and disadvantages of each design are provided.
Observational research designs are those in which the researcher/investigator merely observes and does not carry out any interventions/actions.
to change the result. The three most common types of observational studies are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort (or longitudinal) studies.
In cross-sectional studies, exposure/risk factors and outcomes are determined at a single point in time. You can bid
information on disease prevalence and an overview of likely relationships that can be used to form a hypothesis. Control cases In
studies, participants are selected based on the presence/absence of an outcome and risk factors are identified during the study.
after enrollment of study participants.The relationship between exposure and outcome is reported as an odds ratio. This research; However,
carries a high risk of bias, which should be taken into account when designing the study. Cohort studies are prospective and include participants
were selected based on presence/absence of exposure and results were obtained at the end of the study. This research can deliver The incidence/impact of the disease and the relationship between exposure and outcome are presented as relative risks. They are useful
establish causality.A problem that arises in these studies could be the high fluctuation and dropout of study participants.
Descriptive studies generally describe the magnitude of a problem and characteristics of the population/individuals.
The various types of such studies include
case reports
case series or surveys.
A case report generally describes a patient presenting with an unusual disease, or simultaneous occurrence of more than one condition, or uncommon clinical features in a known disease.
A case series is a collection of similar cases. Such studies, other than providing some advancement to knowledge of a disease, are of limited value. Another method often used in epidemiological health care research is conducting surveys.
Surveys are done during a defined time-period and information on several variables of interest is collected from the target population. They provide estimates of prevalence of the various variables of interest, and their distribution. Such studies could also provide insight into individual opinions and practices. Advantages include ease of conduct and cost efficiency. The disadvantages include low response rates and a variety of biases.
An analytical study tests a hypothesis to determine an association between two or more variables, like causation, risk, or effect. Such studies have two or more study groups for comparison.
The primary focus of this article will be the three most common types of analytical observational studies –
cross-sectional,
case control (also known as retrospective) and
cohort (or longitudinal, also known as prospective) studies.
It may be pertinent to note that the primary objective of most clinical studies is to determine one of the following - burden of disease (prevalence
This document discusses research methodology and how it can be applied to homeopathy. It defines different types of study designs including observational studies, treatment studies, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses. It explains how to apply these research methodologies to homeopathy through drug provings, clinical research studies, and disease-related studies while respecting homeopathic principles. Randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses are important for providing evidence but must be designed carefully to fit within homeopathic individualization and philosophy.
This document discusses research methodology and how it can be applied to homeopathy. It defines different types of study designs including observational studies, treatment studies, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses. It explains how to apply research methodologies like randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses to homeopathic drug provings and clinical research while respecting homeopathic principles. Clinical research in homeopathy should involve screening and confirming diagnoses, individualized case taking and prescribing for all patients regardless of group allocation in a blinded manner.
This document provides an overview of observational study designs, including definition, types, and examples. It discusses cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies. Cohort studies measure events over time to determine causes and prognosis. Case-control studies identify associations by comparing exposures in cases versus controls. Cross-sectional studies analyze a population at a single time point to determine prevalence. Observational studies are useful when randomization is not possible or ethical and can provide faster results than cohort studies.
This document provides an overview of observational study designs, including definition, types, and examples. It discusses cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies. Cohort studies measure events over time to determine causes and prognosis. Case-control studies identify risk factors by comparing exposed and unexposed groups. Cross-sectional studies analyze a population at a single time point to determine prevalence. Observational studies are useful when randomized controlled trials are unethical or for studying rare conditions and adverse events.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
2. Research?
Research is the systemic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data to
answer a certain question or solve a
problem.
3. Research design
Decisions regarding what, where, when,
how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a
research design
pattern, scheme, or plan to collect evidence
Depends on the objective of the proposed
study
4. Function – To permit valid conclusion which
should be justified and unbaised
Blue print of study
6. Research design have following
parts
Sampling design
Observational design
Statistical design
Operational design
7. Samplingdesigns
Which deals with the methods of selecting items
to be observed for the study
Observational design
Which relates to the condition under which the
observation are to be create
8. Statistical design
Which concern the question of the of How
the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed ?
Operational design
Which deals with techniques by which
the procedures satisfied in sampling .
9.
10. Study design
Descriptive
Case study
Case Series
Surveys
Analytical
Prospective
Cross
sectional
Retrospectiv
e
Controlled
Randomized
Non
randomized
Non
controlled
Observational Experimental
11. Observational studies
Based on naturally occurring events
Observes and measures the
characteristics of interest to the study
Record based studies
12. Does not intervene or control the
factors related to exposure or outcome
Descriptive studies
Analytical studies
13. Descriptive study
Study is designed primarily to describe
what is going on or what exists
Involves describing the characteristics of a
particular situation, event and case in term
of time, place and person
14. Does not seek explanation or causes nor
tries to find which group is better relative to
other
Can also generate hypothesis regarding
aetiology of health condition
Can be designed to test a hypothesis
15. Helps to assess the type of diseases
prevalent in various groups and their load in
a community
Provide baseline data to launch a
programme and can measure achievements
made
16. Also good to study relationships ( systolic
and diastolic blood pressure)
Can be carried out on a large or small scale
Eg: Estimating prevalence of blindness in
cataract cases
18. Case study
A case study is defined as the use of a single
person in a research study.
Generally describes features of a new
disease entity
In clinical medicine the characteristics of so
far unrecognized illness may be documented
as a case study
19. First step toward building up a clinical
picture of that illness
Can lead to a hypothesis
20. It allows to gain a lot of in-depth, detailed
information due to the close examination of
single case
Disadvantage - might not be true for other
21. Case series
Series of case study form case-series
Objective and brief report of a clinical
characteristics or outcome from a group of
clinical subjects
lead to the generation of hypotheses
22. Advantages:
1. Easy to write.
2. The observations can be extremely useful to
other investigators.
23. Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to many biases.
2. They are not able for conclusive decisions
3. Unrepresentativeness of subjects
4. Lack of control group
25. Disadvantage:
1. It's difficult to truly test the impact of
certain variables when all people are doing
is filling out a survey
2. Some people might not be honest in their
survey responses.
26. Analytical study
Study designed to look at the relationships
or associations between two or more
variables
EXPLANATORY STUDY
To test hypothesis
27. Antecedent
An antecedent is a precursor such as an
exposure or a risk factor suspected to affect
the disease
Other terms - Cause , predisposing factor
and determinant
28. Outcome
Outcome could be a health state, recovery,
side effect, death or any other event of
interest
This is a consequence and must necessarily
occur after the antecedent
Other terms - Effect and result
29. Prospective study
Antecedents are assessed prior to the
outcome
Since outcome occurs after the antecedent,
follow up is essential
Umbrella term includes cohort, longitudinal
and follow up study
32. Cohort study
Word cohort has its origin in the Latin
cohors
Refers to a group of warriors and gives
notion of a group of persons proceeding
together in time( same statistical
characteristic )
33. A cohort is a group of people who have
something in common and who remain
part of a group over an extended time
Incidence study
“ What will happen?”.
34. Cohort study (Follow-up Studies)
Groups of people having similar attribute (cohort)
with & without a particular exposure, or an entire
community, or a random sample of a community
are selected for the study, enrolled & followed up
over time to determine their disease rates
Disease rates of exposed subjects are compared
with rates of an unexposed group or a group with
low exposure or with registry rates
35. Advantages:
1. Opportunity to measure risk factors before
disease occurs: evidence of causality
2. Can study multiple diseases outcomes
3. Can yield incidence rate as well as relative
risk estimates.
4. Good when exposure is rare
5. Minimizes selection and information bias
36. Disadvantages:
1. Expensive and inefficient for studying rare
outcomes
2. Often need long follow-up period and/or a
very large population
3. Losses to follow-up can affect validity of
findings
4. Ineffective for rare diseases
5. Expensive
6. Ethical issues
37. Longitudinal study
Another version of prospective study
When observation or measurements are
repeatedly made at several points of time
Repeated measures study
38. Longitudinal Study
Multiple points of data collection from the same
population
Initial point of
Data collection
(Present) Follow ups (Future)
39. Cross sectional
May be descriptive or analytic
Prevalence study/ Instantaneous study/
Simultaneous study
Examine the relationship between a disease and
an exposure among individuals in a defined
population at a point in time.
“What is happening?”
40. Antecedent and outcome are observed at the
same time
Also appropiate to generate hypothesis
regarding aetiology
Subsequently tested by a case control or a
prospective study
42. Advantages:
1. Useful to know the burden of a disease in a
group – prevalence rate can be obtained
2. Cheap and fast
3. Useful to evaluate diagnostic procedure
4. To study common risk factors and
outcomes
43. Disadvantages:
1. Population little willing to collaborate
2. Doesn’t tell the flow of events
3. Only shows association between factor and
disease studied
4. It is not useful to search causes of the
outcome
44. 5. It measure at a point of time therefore
mostly it is useful to study chronic diseases
6. Confounders may be unequally distributed
7. Group sizes may be unequal
8. Recall bias
45. Retrospective study
First assessed outcome and antecedents are
subsequently assessed
Outcome is already known and antecedent is
obtained either from records or enquiry
46. Cases and control are assembled
Information about their past exposure or risk
factors is collected
48. Case control design
Dominant format of retrospective study
Subjects with or without disease are
investigated for past exposure
49. Case- suffering from disease or have
interested health condition
Control – without particular health condition
“ What happened?”
50. Advantages:
1. Allows examination of several risk factors
2. Can study long-term effects of an exposure
in short period of time
3. Use fewer subjects,
4. Relatively quick and relatively less
expensive
5. Suitable for rare diseases
51. Disadvantages:
1. Selection of an appropriate control group
can be difficult
2. Recall bias: retrospective nature
3. Cannot tell about incidence or prevalence
4. Difficult to establish time relationship
between exposure and outcome
52. Choice of the wrong control group ~ selection
bias
Cases may over-report past exposures ~
information bias
53. Case control study
53
Comparative study done by involving two
population, i.e., case and control
This permits estimation of odds ratios (but
not of attributable risks)
Allowance is made for potential
confounding factors by measuring them and
making appropriate adjustments in the
analysis.
55. Case selection
Clinic/hospital records or staff
Death records
Special clinical exams or symptom/disease
questionnaire surveys
Special disease registries
56. Control selection
Other hospital/clinic patients (well or will)
General population registers (lists of
residents in a region)
People living in the same neighborhood as
cases
People with “other diseases” in disease
registries
57. Matching
57
Defined as the process by which we select
controls in such a way that they are similar
to cases with regards to certain pertinent
selected variables which are known to
influence the outcome of disease and
which, if not adequately matched for
comparability, could confound the results.
58. 58
A confounding factor is one which is
associated with exposure and disease, and
is distributed unequally in study and control
groups
It also independent risk factor to produce
the disease. e.g smoking works as
confounding in study of the role of alcohol
in duodenal cancer.
59. Measurement of exposure
59
Obtain data related to the exposure with risk
factors of the disease under study. The data
can be obtaining by:
Interviews
Using questionnaire
Studying past records of cases form
hospital, other health institutions and
employment records.
60. Analysis
60
Odds Ratio: The ratio of probability of
getting disease with that of not getting
disease is Odds ratio.
Ratio of the odds of developing disease in
the exposed and the unexposed = a/b c/d
= ad/bc
Odds ratio is an approximation of Risk
Ratio in rare diseases.
61. Nested case control design
Combine cohort and case control features
Since case control setup is nested within a
cohort
Eg: cohort of persons of age 40-44 years
who are followed up for 15 years for
development of cataract
Case- develop cataract
Matched control – did not develop cataract
64. Basis Cohort Cross
sectional
Case
control
Main
antecedent
Outcome
Recruitment
of subject
Definition of
case
Known
Elicited
Basis of
antecedent
Subject with
specified
antecedent
Elicited
Elicited
Neither
outcome nor
antecedent
Any subject
in defined
population
Elicited
Known
Basis of
outcome
Subject with
specified
outcome
66. Basis Cohort Cross
sectional
Case
control
To determine
whether
exposure
preceded
disease
If all factors are
not known
Time and money
Best
Best
Most
expensiv
e
Not
appropiate
Less
appropiate
In between
Not
appropiate
Not
Appropiate
Least
expensive
67. Experimental study
Require deliberate human intervention to
change the course of events
Often infeasible because of difficulties
enrolling participants, high costs, and big
ethical issues,
To prove hypothesis
68. Objectives
To provide scientific proof of etiological
factors which may permit the modification
or control of those disease
To provide a method of measuring the
effectiveness and efficiency of health
services for the prevention, control and
treatment of disease and improve the health
of the community
69. Usually compared two groups
One group in which intervention takes place
Another group that remained untouched
70. Clinical Trials Studies (experimental
studies)
Involve humans are called clinical trials
studies because their purpose is to draw
conclusions about a particular procedure or
treatment
used for evaluating the effectiveness of an
intervention (therapy research questions).
75. Controlled trials are studies in which the
experimental drug or procedure is compared
with another drug or procedure as usually
previously accepted or placebo treatment.
Uncontrolled trials are studies in which the
experimental drug or procedure is described
being not compared with another treatment.
76. a) Randomized Controlled
Trials
Provides the strongest evidence for
concluding causation
It provides the best insurance that the result
was due to the intervention only
77. Provide that each individual has the same
chance of receiving each of the possible
interventions, so allocation of subjects in
experimental or control group is given by
chance.
Ensures that known and unknown
confounding factors are equal in both group,
(reduce bias)
78. b) Nonrandomized Controlled
Trials
Clinical trial or comparative studies with no
mention of randomization as well
Considered much weaker because they do
nothing to prevent bias in patient
assignment.
79. Field trials
In contrast to clinical trials, involve people who are
disease free but presumed to be at risk; data
collection take place ‘in the field’, usually among
non-institutionalized people in the general
population
Purpose is to prevent the occurrence of the
diseases that may occur with relatively low
frequency, field trials are often huge undertakings
involving major logistic and financial
considerations
80. Contd…
Field trial method can be used to
evaluate interventions aimed at
reducing exposure without
necessarily measuring the
occurrence of the health effects
E.g Blood lead levels in children
has shown the protection provided
by elimination of lead paint in home
81. Community trials
In this form of experiment the
treatment groups are communities
rather than individuals
Appropriate for diseases that have
their origins in social conditions,
which in turn can most easily be
influenced by intervention directed
at group behavior as well as at
82. True experimental research designs
where researchers have complete control over the
extraneous variables & can predict confidently that
the observed effect on the dependable variable is
only due to the manipulation of the independent
variable
Essentially consist of the following three
characteristics:
Manipulation
Control
Randomization
83. Quasi-experimental research design
involves the manipulation of independent variable
to observe to effect on dependant variable, but it
lacks at least one of the two characteristics of the
true experimental design;randomization or a
control group
84. PRE –EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
This research design is considered very
weak, because the researcher has very
little control over the experiment
Most suitable design for the beginners in
the field of experimental research
85. Type of study Ability to prove
causation
Randomised controlled
trials
Cohort studies
Case control studies
Cross sectional
studies
Strong
Moderate
Moderate
weak
86. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative Research
is based on the
measurement of
quantity or amount.
It is applicable to
phenomenon that can
be expressed in terms
of Quantity.
• Qualitative Research
is concerned with
Qualitative
phenomena related to
quality of kind,
human behaviour,
attitudes, motives,
etc.
87. Measurement in various study designs
Prevalence
Incidence
Odds ratio
Relative risk
Attributable risk
89. Prevalence rate
Measured by cross sectional study
Prevalence rate = No of all cases under
study at a specified time in specified
population/ No of persons in the
population at risk at a specified time X
1000
90. Incidence rate
No of new cases of a disease under study
during a specified period of time/ total
susceptible population or population at risk
of developing the disease under study during
a specified period of time X 1000
Cohort study
91. Odds ratio
A measure of effect size
Measured in case control studies
Ratio of the odds among exposed to the
odds among unexposed
OR of 1indicates that the condition or event
under study is equally likely in both groups
92. According to standard 2X2 contingency
table
Odd of disease among exposed = a/b
Odd of disease among unexposed = c/d
OR = (a/b) / (c/d) = ad/ bc
93. Geater than 1 indicates that the condition or
events is more likely in the first group
Less than 1 indicates that the condition or
event is less likely in the first group
OR increases strength of association also
increases
94. Relativerisk / Riskratio
Risk of an event ( developing disease ) relative to
exposure
A ratio of the probability of the event occuring in the
exposed group versus a non exposed group
According to standard 2X2 contingency table
Risk of disease among exposed = a/a+b
95. Risk of disease among unexposed = c/c+d
RR = risk among exposed / risk among
unexposed
For null hypothesis, risk ration will be equal
to 1
96. RR more than one shows an association
Weak association RR >1 and < 2
Moderate to strong RR = 2 – 4
Very strong RR > 4
97. Attribute risk / risk difference
Simply a rate of disease in the exposed
people minus the rate in the unexposed
people
According to standard 2X2 contingency
table
Risk among exposed – risk among non
exposed
98. Risk of disease among exposed = a/ a+b
Risk of disease among unexposed = c/c+d
AR = risk among exposed - risk among
unexposed
For null hypothesis, AR = 0
99. References
Basis methods of medical research
A. Indranarayan, 3rd edition
Previous presentation
Internet
Research methodology for
health professionals
RC Goyal
Park’s textbook of Preventive and social
medicine, 22nd edition