A Statistical Physics Model ( Or Soal )

A Statistical Physics Model ( Or Soal )
A Statistical Physics Model ( or SOAL Stochastically Oriented Asymmetric Localization) for Axon Outgrowth Patterning Normally, at the leading edge,
the molecular mechanism produces axon outgrowth activity and moves plasma membrane extension of HSN cell body in the ventral direction (Adler
et al., 2006). However, in mutants, the different directions of axon outgrowth from the HSN cell body scored to create a probability distribution for axon
outgrowth activity directions, diffusion and displacement (Tang and Wadsworth, 2014). Therefore, the axon outgrowth pattering is altering. Previous
study reported that the extracellular guidance cues, including UNC–6/Netrin and its receptor have role in determining the axon outgrowth ... Show more
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Using the probability distribution, we compared the probabilities in wild type and mutants. For example, UNC–6/Netrin extracellular guidance cues
can decreases or increase the probability of UNC–40 activity at each side of the neuron. Thus, this probability is directed as a stochastic process. In
more evidence, the probability of axon outgrowth activity in ventral direction is decreased, whereas the probability of axon outgrowth in other
directions is increased in mutants (Xu et al., 2009; Kulkarni et al, 2013; Yang et al., 2014; Tang and Wadsworth, 2014). Therefore, the guidance cues
control the direction of movement fluctuates over time. We report that this probabilities can cause different regions of the neurons plasma membrane to
move in different directions. Thus the axon outgrowth extension morphology is abnormal and cause new axon outgrowth patterning. Genetic evidence
indicates that UNC–40/DCC, a central regulator of polarization in multicellular animals (Ziel and Sherwood, 2010), mediates several signals that
regulates the polarization and orientation in response to UNC–6/Netrin. UNC–40::GFP clusters randomly along the cell surface in response to
polarization signal whereas the orientation signal causes the UNC–40::GFP cluster toward specific direction (Xu et al., 2009; Kulkarni et al., 2013;
Tang and Wadsworth, 2014). Consisting with a random walk, we hypothesize that random walk used to
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The Embryonic Stem Cell Conflict Essay
Many of the criticisms directed towards the advent of stem cell research have centered on the source of the most scientifically useful types of stem
cells–pre–implantation human embryos. Unfortunately, harvesting embryonic stem cells typically results in the destruction of the embryo from which
they are harvested, which gives rise to a moral dilemma: is it ethically acceptable to destroy an embryo's potential to life? Those who are against
human embryonic stem cell research will answer you with an emphatic "no"; they usually argue much like pro–lifers–"...human embryos have an equal
standing to all living persons... and destroying them is akin to murder" (Hyuu 71). However, to halt stem cell research solely because an embryo has the
potential ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Alenzi, "Stem cells are immature, unspecialized cells that their developmental direction has not yet been determined" (19929), and
because they do not yet serve any meaningful purpose, stem cells are capable of becoming virtually any specialized cell in the body; they can become
nerve cells, blood cells, skin cells, and just about any other cell you can think of.
There is a variety of sources from which stem cells may be obtained. These sources include (but are not limited to): human embryos, the blood from
the umbilical cord, and even various organs from full grown adults. However, as I have mentioned before, the controversy emanates from the fact
that human embryos are the preferred source for stem cells, due to their vast regenerative capabilities. While it is possible to safely harvest stem cells
from full grown adults (adult stem cells), the stem cells harvested would lack the pluripotency (ability to become any specialized cell) of embryonic
stem cells; whereas embryonic stem cells can differentiate into any cell, adult stem cells can only become specialized cells from the tissue in which
they reside (multipotency). For example, hematopoietic stem cells– found in the bone marrow of adults– can become all mature blood cell types, but
cannot become muscle cells or any other type of cell found in the body. Similar to adult stem cells, most of the other sources

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Nmps
Introduction Every year, thousands of individuals worldwide are affected by Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), a devastating neurological disorder that,
unfortunately, remains without an effective therapy, since the current approved approaches are essentially palliative1. Several types of new therapeutic
strategies, including cellular, molecular and combinatorial approaches, have been studied in the recent years. Cell therapies, aiming particularly at
replacing lost neurons and recovering the neuronal circuitry, are typically seen as holding a great potential for changing the paradigm towards more
curative interventions. Numerous approaches are being developed, each one having its own advantages and disadvantages as it has been reviewed
elsewhere1,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This would represent a major technical advancement and gives a new hope for the development of the desired effective spinal cord regeneration
therapies. Notwithstanding, it is still necessary to refine the methods for differentiation of NMPs into spinal cord motor neurons and to guarantee that
the specific neuronal subtypes are generated with precision. In turn, this refinement will require a more complete understanding of NMPs and their
differentiation, and also of the molecular mechanisms involved in the DV patterning of the spinal

Mechanisms Involved Into Wound Healing And Heart Function
Project Summary
Mechanisms involved in wound healing and heart function are essential for the survival of mammalian species. The treatment of ischaemic heart
disease and myocardial tissue regeneration remains poorly understood. Mesenchymal stem cells possess the ability to differentiate into various tissue
types, including hematopoiesis, cardiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and neuronal development, as well as endothelial progenitor cells. In addition to its
multipotent capability, the mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) can secrete and supply a large amount of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Tang J
et al., 2009). This response can be overexpressed, resulting in tumor formation. The stromal–derived factor–1 alpha (SDF–1О±) plays an important ...
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Primary research for this proposal suggests SDF–1О± and VEGF play a key role in stem cell recruitment and myocardial regeneration. Increased
expression of of SDF–1О± through Ad–SDF–1alpha (adenoviral vector containing human SDF–1alpha gene under the control of the rous sarcoma
virus (RSV) promoter) through injection into myocardial tissue promotes angiogenesis in damaged tissue. It is suggested that SDF–1 gene expression
is regulated by the transcription factor hypoxia–inducible factor–1 (HIF–1) in endothelial cells, resulting in selective in vivo expression of SDF–1 in
ischemic tissue in direct proportion to reduced oxygen tension (Ceradini DJ, 2004). VEGF secreted by MSC's is thought to enhance expression of
SDF–1О±. Increased expression of SDF–1О± in the presence of transplanted MSC's could potentially promote differentiation of MSC's into myocytes,
leading to regeneration of myocardial tissue leading to improved heart function.
Specific Aims
The aim of this research is to investigate if and how co–transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells, varying in quantity transplanted, in combination
with overexpression of VEGF, SDF–1О±, enhance differentiation and recruitment leading to cardiac repair in LAD occluded rats.
The hypothesis of the following paper proposes that

Therapeutic Cloning And Its Controversy
Therapeutic Cloning and its Controversy The idea of finding a way to cure people of diseases with their own cells is one that scientists, physicians,
and those who are afflicted by such diseases find very enticing. Therapeutic cloning is a process that scientists believe has the potential to achieve such
goals in the future. While therapeutic cloning brings with it a variety of potential benefits and innovations, it also carries with it a polarizing ethical
conflict that poses a strong impediment to furthering such research and development. By realizing therapeutic cloning for its great potential benefits
and world changing implications and disregarding any ethical considerations that may deter such advancement, the proper focus and open–mindedness
necessary to achieve success in the field would be achieved. Therapeutic cloning, like all medical endeavors, includes a multitude of challenges and
flaws, but no very important medical achievements come about without extensive research and continual attempts at success. Therapeutic cloning is a
process in which the cells of one person are manipulated into becoming the stem cells for another person through Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
(SCNT). This process involves taking oocytes, or immature female egg cells that are generated during ovulation, incubating them in in vivo culture, and
extracting the nucleus of such cells and replacing them with the the nucleus of another cell. This produces a stem cell with a genetic make–up

Embryonic Stem Cell Research Essay
Advancements in medical technology has allowed for a new understanding of stem cells and further developments in research. The use of stem cells
in regenerative medicine may hold significant benefits for those suffering from degenerative diseases. To avail such advancements in stem cell
research could see the alleviation or complete cure of afflictions that take the lives of millions worldwide each year. (McLaren, 2001) Astem cell 1 is
able differentiate into any somatic cell found in the human body, including those identical to itself.
Differentiation is a cellular process whereby a stem cell will divide into a specialised cell, for example a neuron2. To harness the unique cellular
function of a stem cell could mean the cultivation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Pera et al, 2004) The bodies specialised cells, a product of stem cell differentiation, cannot be replaced through natural regeneration. The further
exploration of ES cell research will allow scientists to harness stem cell differentiation and compensate for the bodies inability to regenerate
specialised cells. (Fuchs, 2008) For example, ES cells hold the potential to regenerate the spinal cord. Common and debilitating injuries to the
spinal cord result in paralysis, more accurately known as paraplegia and quadriplegia. ES cells may be used to repair an impaired spinal cord, restoring
movement and quality of life to those suffering from paralysis. (Rosenfeld et al, 2004) The prospects for regenerative spinal cord repair is one of the
many positive outcomes of ES cell research if exploration is allowed to continue.
Ethicists often advocate for the use of human embryos in ES cell research due to their fate after successful IVF treatment. With the successful
fertilisation of an IVF patient, remaining embryos that would have been used in further fertilisation attempts are kept in storage indefinitely. (Morgan,
2006) Many couples opt to donate their spare embryos to ES cell research, as they do not believe that their fertilised zygote is in fact human life. A
human embryo remaining from IVF treatment is only used in ES cell research one to five days after

The Human Embryonic Stem Cells
Since the discovery of human embryonic stem cells, scientists have had high hopes for their use in treating a wider variety of diseases because they
are "pluripotent," which means they are capable of differentiating into one of many cell types in the body.
However, the acquisition of human embryonic stem cells from an embryo can cause the destruction of the embryo, thus raising ethical concerns. In
2006, researchers introduced an alternative to harvesting embryonic stem cells called induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. They provided evidence that
it was possible to send a normal adult cell back to an undifferentiated, pluripotent stem cell state by introducing genetic material ("outside" DNA) into
the cell, a process that alters the original state of the cell.
To avoid the use of embryonic stem cells, other researchers have focused more on the use of adult stem cells, but the use of these cells is limited
because, unlike embryonic stem cells that grow into any type of mature cell, adult stem cells can only grow into certain cell types.
Now, researchers from Harvard–affiliated Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH), in collaboration with the RIKEN Center forDevelopmental Biology
in Japan, have demonstrated that any mature adult cell (a "somatic" cell) has the potential to turn into the equivalent of an embryonic stem cell. In an
article to be published in the Jan. 30 issue of Nature, researchers demonstrate, in a preclinical model, a novel and unique way that cells can be

The Death Of A Helmet
It all happened in a matter of seconds. He had decided to ride his motorcycle that day to work, unaware that it was going to rain later than evening.
The roads were slick with rain and various other fluids, making the ride home a challenge. He was careful. At least, he thought he was. Turning his
head to look at the billboard on the side of the road, his front tire hit a pothole. Beyond the face shield of his helmet, the terror on his face was
evident as he lost control of bike and began to slide across the pavement. Though he wore a helmet, it was ill fitting and it came off as the out of
control bike dragged him across the pavement. The friction from the bike sliding across the asphalt caused sparks. Unfortunately, a car with an oil leak
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Unfortunately, nothing would have been done to make his appearance more appealing to the eye. That is, until we entered the age of bioengineering.
By definition, biomedical engineering, or more affectionately known as bioengineering, is the use of engineering philosophies in correlation with the
fields of biology and health care. It can range from from electrical and mechanics to the chemistry side of the equation. Examples of this include, but
are not limited to, prosthetic limbs, lab grown organs, and implanted devices such as pace makers and insulin pumps. Though the actual foundation of
bioengineering is unclear, the earliest example "is a wood and leather prosthetic toe found on a three thousand year old Egyptian mummy" (Lucas,
2004). Some noteworthy individuals include John Charnley 's artificial hip replacement(1961), Wilson Greatbatch 's internal cardiac pacemaker(1970),
and Charles Hufnagel 's artificial heart valve(1960). Being a branch of bioengineering, regenerative medicine is the process of recreating human cells,
tissues, or organ in order to restore normal function. Regrowing organs to replaced damaged or unhealthy ones, regenerating healthy tissue as a
replacement to their diseased counterparts, and speeding up the process of organ 's healing themselves are all examples of regenerative medicine. To
do this, medical personnel must use stem cells. Stem cells, according to Stewart Sell, are

The Ethics And Morality Of Stem Cell Research
The Ethics and Morality Of Stem Cell Research
When does life begin? Does it occur at the time of fertilization? Does it begin at 12 weeks? 6? Or is there some other test determining whether or not a
life begins and along with it the rights, that reside to man. The natural rights that belong to every human being, most importantly of which, the right to
life. This is the discussion and debate that have been in the forefront of controversial issues for the past 40 years. In most cases the topic of abortion is
usually at the main focal point, but there are many topics of debate that come with the territory of the beginning of life, and whether or not it is moral
to follow through with certain medical procedures. The topic discussed in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Or in his own words, "I have always felt a nagging uneasiness at trying to rationalize the killing of something for which I claim to have a "profound
respect."" In this case the matter of the morality of the abortion issue of stem cell research is less of a matter, than if it is taken place it must be done
with common sense and the respect. Though in doing so in a way that coincides with the definition of whether the embryo is considered a human or
not can respect still be respected. This is because, respecting embryos for stem cell research and destroying them for research is not mutually exclusive.
Manninen article begins with former President George W. Bush. ON July 16, 2006 the former president vetoed for the first time in his presidency at
the time, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act. The act would have relaxed, federal restrictions on the federal funding for embryonic stem cell
research in the United States. In protecting his veto, the former president said: "These boys and girls are not spareparts ... they remind us of what is
lost when embryos are destroyed in the name of research". It is clear what the former president thought about the morality of the issue. The author
writes, the president and others with that premise give only two choices in stem cell research. Either the embryo

Stem Cells: Characterization and Biomedical Importance...
Over the past decade, stem cell biology has been an area that has caused much controversy. Stem cells have the ability to differentiate into many
different types of cells and therefore, advocates of stem cell research argue that the cells have various medical applications. On the other hand,
opponents of stem cell research denounce the use of human embryos for research purposes, claiming that the embryos represent human lives and that
experimentation with them and subsequent annihilation of them is the same as killing a living human being. Nevertheless, the potential uses for stem
cells are endless and stem cells have the ability to completely change modern medical practices.
Human embryonic stem cells (HESCs) are characterized by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Prior to 2001, the primary method used to isolate embryonic stem cell lines was to identify and segregate single colonies under a dissecting microscope.
However, this process was time–consuming and costly and served to inhibit stem cell research. A new method has been developed that involves
introducing a reporter gene into the embryonic stem cells and separating stem cell lines due to the gene's effects (Eiges et al. 2001).
The human embryonic stem cells were first transfected with enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP), under the control of the murine Rex–1
promoter. The cells with EGFP demonstrated high levels of GFP expression when in the undifferentiated state and therefore showed high levels of
fluorescence. As the cells differentiated, the levels of GFP expression decrease along with the degree of fluorescence. The undifferentiated cells were
then isolated from the culture using a Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter (FACS) (Eiges et al. 2001).
Furthermore, the pluripotent nature of the human embryonic stem cells was verified due to the results obtained using this new method. Since the
fluorescence of the stem cells changed in some cases, it was clear that the human embryonic stem cells had differentiated. In addition, the ability of the
stem cells to form embryoid bodies (EBs), Irregularly shaped clumps of cellular structures that contain tissue from all three of the

A Critique Of Ehrlich, David E, And Donald G Rainnie
InJae Chung
Bob Wyttenbach
Neuroscience Behavioral Biology
October 7, 2015
A critique of "Ehrlich, David E, and Donald G Rainnie. 'Prenatal Stress Alters The Development Of Socioemotional Behavior And Amygdala Neuron
Excitability In Rats '.
1.0Background
The research is discussing the effects of prenatal stress (PS) on the development of socioemotional symptoms as well as neurodevelopmental disorders.
The study arises from existing literatures where a significant relationship has been established between prenatal stress and social deficits such as autism
and attention–deficit hypersensitivity disorder among children and schizophrenia among adolescents. King et al. identifies exposures to environmental
hardships and stressful events as the underlying factor in the development of PS (274). The aspect has a negative impact on the immune and
endocrine system as well as neurological development (Charil et al. 56). Studies have revealed that PS affects several aspects of brain development in
the fetal stage. It increases rate of cell death and reduces rate of proliferation in the hypothalamus–pituitary axis (Schoenfeld and Gould 15).
The research argues that PS affects the amygdala, a socioemotional control center in the brain that plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of
neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders. The claim is backed by several studies. PS plays a major role in abnormal psychological, cognitive, and
behavioral outcomes in both human and animals. Charil

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Essays
Describe:– (i) how induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are isolated (ii) how iPSCs can be used to study human development (iii) how iPSCs can
be used to model human disease and to develop therapies for degenerative disease i)iPSCs are adult stem cells that have been genetically
reprogrammed to behave like the pluripotent stem cells found in embryos, i.e. can differentiate into any cell type in the human body. This was first
completed successfully in mice in 2006 by Shinya Yamanaka and his team (Takahashi et al., 2006), then in humans in 2007 both by Yamanaka
(Takahashi et al., 2007), and by James Thomson and his team in America independently (Yu, et al., 2007). Yamanaka and Thomson's methods were
similar. In the report by Yu et... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
964–965). ii)Human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are pluripotent cells isolated from blastocysts, and are highly useful in studying human development
(Itzkovitz–Eldor et al., 2000 p. 88). Although the National Institute of Health states that "it is not known if iPSCs and embryonic stem cells differ in
clinically significant ways", iPSCs are already being used to achieve the same results as ESCs in some applications without the use of embryos,
removing the ethical concern associated with ESCs (National Institutes of Health, 2009). ESCs are capable of differentiating into all cell types, and
can be used as a source of differentiated cells. In the report by Itskovitz–Eldor et al., they discuss the induced differentiation of ESCs in suspension into
embryoid bodies, including the three embryonic germ layers. The authors state that "the ability to induce formation of human embryoid bodies that
contain cells of neuronal, hematopoietic and cardiac origins will be useful in studying early human embryonic development" (Itzkovitz–Eldor et al.,
2000 p. 88). This is invaluable in terms of studying the early stages of human foetal development. As iPSCs are better understood, and the methods of
generating them are refined, they have the potential to play an increasingly integral role in our study of human development, in place of ESCs. In the
report by Itzkovitz–Eldor et al. it is noted that the ability

Human Stem Cell Research : Ethical Dilemmas With The...
Trevor McCarthy Human Embryonic Stem Cell (hESC) research possesses ethical dilemmas with the utility of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) derived
from human blastocyst, one of the earliest stages of embryonic development. Embryonic stem cell derivation is controversial because there are
different opinions and beliefs on when an embryo is deserving of full moral status, equal to the moral respect, rights and treatment to that of a human
being. ESCs extracted from a blastocyst will undergo experimentation that would be considered unethical if it were performed on humans. Having a
restrictive federal policy would eliminate the unethical destruction of blastocyst that is required to extract ESCs and it would push the scientific
community to find other means to provide cells with the equivalent or sufficient potential to attenuate or cure disease, such as induced pluripotent stem
cells (iPSC). Moreover, a restrictive policy would also terminate the unethical experimentation that embryos and fetuses undergo in laboratories across
the U.S. The United States requires the integration of restrictive ESC policy for the following reasons: an embryo at all stages has the potential to
form human life and is deserving of full moral status, and the need for ESC research can be rendered obsolete now that induced pluripotent stem cells
are available. From the moment the egg is fertilized, the embryo holds full potential to become a human being and thus deserves dignity and unrestricted

Ethical Concerns Of Stem Cell Research
Steven Weinberg, a famous theoretical physicist, once said, "It does not help that some politicians and journalists assume the public is interested only
in those aspects of science that promise immediate practical applications to technology or medicine" (Doc, 2016). Though this refers to many, if not all,
fields of science when there are new technological advances, there is one in particular that falls under this assumption. There are two basic fields within
stem cell research and the one under the most scrutiny is embryonic stem cell research. To be able to use their stem cells without killing them has not
been developed yet, so many articles on ethical concerns of stem cell research are focused on this specific topic. Many areas of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
As a result of their abilities, stem cells have the potential to develop into many separate cell types in the body during early life. In addition, many
tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing practically without limit to replenish other cells as long as the organism is still alive
(NIH, 2015). When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a function that is
permanent.
Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells and non–embryonic "somatic"
or "adult" stem cells (NIH, 2015). The detailed study of the biology of mouse stem cells led to the discovery of a method to derive stem cells from
human embryos and grow the cells in the laboratory (NIH, 2015). These are the human embryonic stem cells. In 2006, another breakthrough was made
by identifying conditions that would allow some specialized adult cells to be "reprogrammed" to acquire a stem cell–like state, called induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) (NIH, 2015).
Though they are thought to be limited in their capabilities, adult stem cells, and tissues derived from them, are believed to less likely to reject after
transplantation. This is because a patient 's own cells could be coaxed into assuming a specific cell type (differentiation), and then reintroduced into the
patient (NIH, 2015). This represents a significant advantage, as immune rejection can

A Compartment Of Tendon Progenitors
A Somitic Compartment of Tendon Progenitors Summary
Tendons are some of the most important tissues in the body of any organism, transferring the power created by the muscles to the bones and allowing
coordinated body movements to occur. However, until recently there was very little known about the origin of this tissue and most of the research
performed focused on the limbs and the tendons associated with them. Along with the limited amount of research seemingly none of it was focused on
the axial and ventrolateral body wall tendons. It was not until the discovery of Scleraxis (Scx), a bHLH transcription factor found in progenitor cells
and mature tendons, that tendons could be observed through the embryonic stages (Schweitzer et al. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Upon confirming that axial and intercostal tendons originated from the somites, the researchers wanted to determine if the other somitic compartments
affected the syndetome fate. Double whole–mount in situ hybridization was used to compare Scx in progenitor cells, Pax1 in sclerotome, and MyoD in
myotome. Scx expression was restricted to the anterior and posterior borders while MyoD expression was present in the center of the myotome
with no overlap of the two markers. When Scx was compared to Pax1 it appeared that they existed in the same region; however, Pax1 was expressed
more ventromedial and Scx was closer to the myotome, these markers did not have any overlap either. Additionally, Scx expression occurred much
later in development compared to MyoD and Pax1(Kiefer and Hauschka, 2001; Stockdale et al., 2000). It showed that the Scx expression progenitor
cells had a distinct fate producing a separate compartment of tendon progenitor cells, which did not overlap with the adjacent tissues.
To establish the origin of the syndetome a fate map was created using a chick–quail chimera where two successive sclerotomes or dermomyotomes
were transplanted from a quail to a chick embryo.
Utilizing in situ hybridization to visualize Scx expression and QCPN to identify quail cells, sclerotome and Scx expressing tendon

Teratogen Essay
Teratogens are all around pregnant women. Only look at the normal house hold toothpaste that states on the bottle, to seek medical attention if
swallowed. Almost everyone has toothpaste in their home and uses it everyday but with all the chemicals, it is considered a teratogen if ingested.
Teratogens affect embryo's development and counselors can help prevent exposure to teratogens. Almost any man made substance could be
considered a teratogen to some extent. However, the key question is at what level is a substance to be considered a teratogens because, to officially
be classified as a teratogen it has to alter the embryo from an unnatural growth or lack of. From the Life Span text, it lists the most researched
teratogens as... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The nervous system is likely to be subject to teratogens at week 3 to week 20. However, the nervous system could be subject to teratogens until birth.
Each stage of development with the embryo constantly transforming the embryo is subject to teratogens largely at initial development of each major
system. Teratogens could affect the heart development at three and half weeks to six and a half. Without a developed heart, an embryo might not have
a long life. As this learner's chosen major as counseling psychology, There are approaches that would be taken into account to persuade clients not to
expose themselves to teratogens. Everything from educating the client about teratogens to referring them to a medical doctor to ensure they had a
normal and healthy embryo. Listening and explaining the consequences to the client would help the client understand the consequence of their
actions, to exposure to teratogens. As a counselor, there would not be much one could do to stop exposure of teratogens besides persuasion unless
the client implied or said they were purposely going to try to harm the embryo, in which it would be a moral obligation and possibly a legal one to
take all actions possible to stop the exposure to the embryo. Teratogens can harm an embryo. Most will not kill an embryo. However, any large
quantity of teratogens like nicotine will

Sample Resume : Proper Development And Patterning Of...
Name: Omid HadjDrawer/Group #: 7
PS ID #: 1235832Three digit mutant code: 168
BIOL 3311 Fall 2016Lab Section: 16706 (Th2)
Date:9/28/2016TA Instructor Name: Laura Montier
BarH1 is critical for the proper development and patterning of ommatidia in D. melanogaster
Introduction
Although D. melanogaster is small and relatively inexpensive, its value to the research community and modern medicine is immeasurable. D.
melanogaster is a great model organism for researching cellular processes of various diseases because within its genome, almost 70% of the human
genome is conserved (Rubin 1988). Due to this similarity, the use of D. melanogaster has led to breakthroughs in the research of cancer, neurological
diseases and various other diseases. For example, studying the development of photoreceptors in D. melanogaster eyes led to the identification of the
Ras proto–oncogene pathway, which allowed researchers to gain a greater understanding of the signaling pathway and cellular process behind cancer
(Tickoo and Russell 2002). Another example of the benefit of D. melanogaster as a model organism is the use of the mutant bang senseless and its
known effect on voltage–gated sodium channels may lead to potential treatments for human epilepsy (Parker et al. 2010).
D. melanogaster is also an excellent model organism in studying embryological development due to its aforementioned similarities with the human
genome. Certain homeobox genes found in the D. melanogaster

The Evolution Of Stem Cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to differentiate into specialized cells that make up various organs in our body. Intriguingly,
if the stem cells are given the right conditions, they can divide, differentiate and self–organize to form an organ by itself. Organs formed in this manner
are called organoids. Specifically, Organoids are structures resembling organs, generated from embryonic stem cells in a three–dimensional culture
system similar to in vivo. However, these structures need to possess specific characteristics in order to be termed as organoids; must contain multiple
cell types of the organ it models (organ specific), must exhibit some specific functions of that organ and the cells should be spastically organized to
mimic the targeted organ. Organoids have the ability to recapitulate the organ by self organizing itself. Self–organizing is governed by the combination
of sorting out and fate specification and also, due to a growing movement away from two–dimensional culture. Different organoids can be generated
different organs. Although, the generation of 3D organoids is a relatively new concept, it holds the potential to make promising changes in the field of
medicine. Organoids are mostly formed by differentiation and culturing of stem cells. The general procedure used for generating organoid involves
growing embryoid from stem cells. The embryo has 3 germ layers: endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm which differentiate to form various

A Research On Limb Regeneration
Researchers have been conducting studies that could bring us closer to a breakthrough in regenerative medicine. Scientifically, regeneration means the
process of regrowth of damaged or lost tissue. When the human body has become fully matured, around the age twenty–five human organs, such as the
liver can be regenerated. If any damage is caused to the liver it is capable of regenerating itself, although it may not fully return to its original state. Our
skin can also be classified as undergoing regeneration, as it is continually being renewed through peeling. Although humans are capable of a small form
of regeneration we are incapable of regenerating complex organs with complete function after surgery or amputation. With that said, this information
has lead me to question whether or not scientific technology is able to trigger tissue regeneration within the human body? After years of research on
limb regeneration scientist believe that the key to human limb regeneration is held within salamanders. If a salamander were to lose a tail or leg it
would not be a horrible incident because they have the ability to regenerate their damaged limbs back to its original state. This natural ability of the
salamander has caught the attention of many researchers who are interested in applying regenerative medicine on human amputees. Before applying
any type of regenerative medicine to amputees researchers need to consider the side affects this could have on humans, as well as if we even

Molecular Physiology And Developmental Biology
Dr. Elizabeth Ables is an assistant professor at East Carolina University, in Greenville, North Carolina. She has worked there since 2013. Dr. Ables
received her BS degree from St. Andrews University and her Ph.D. in Molecular Physiology and Developmental Biology from Vanderbilt University.
She studied how the pancreas precursor cells are led by a cascade of transcription factors during development to become insulin–producing beta cells,
while using transgenic mice and immunofluorescence microscopy to examine the topic. Her current studies resulted in the discovery that the steroid
hormone ecdysone, which directly controls Drosophila germline stem cell activity. These studies expanded her ability to design experiments significant
for... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We learned tissue homeostasis is a balance between cell division, specialization, and turnover time. Normal cells have a plethora of specialized
cells and with proliferation there tends to be a loss of specialized function. Her interest in stem cells came with some problems. First, all cells come
from other cells. Secondly, specialized cells tend to divide very infrequently. Therefore, she began studying the germline cells of fruit flies because
the cell cycle is very similar to humans. She wanted to study stem signals and their complex connections to determine the cell fate. Such as in the
Drosophila uterine cells, there is a cluster of cells in which only one will become the final egg cell, the others are nurse cells that monitor the egg. The
fate of these cells is predetermined by genes and were illustrated through immunofluorescence microscopy. During her presentation she held the
attention of entire audience with the use of direct eye contact, and did not need to look at note cards or reference the slides unless directing the
audience through a figure. She also spoke with respectable volume and articulation to keep the audience interested and emphasize key points. I like
that she moved around a bit while she spoke. She also made the class very informal, which helped to make it more comfortable to ask questions. She
seemed very comfortable with her research and could answer all questions presented to her by the audience. She was very knowledgeable and

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells And The Maintenance Of...
Alyssa Gbewonyo
Biology 441
Section 16138
December 11, 2014 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells–Derived Neural Crest Stem Cells and the maintenance of Neural crest stem cell multipotency
Stem cells are unspecialized cells, which have the potential to develop into several different cell types–muscle cells, brain cells, skin cells, or red blood
cells–during early development. Stem cells continuously divide in order to replace other cells. As stem cells divide, they have the potential to develop
into a specialized cell or remain a stem cell. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) play an essential role in tissue regeneration, and can circumvent
immune system concerns. There are a variety of stem cells, including embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.
However, the main focus of this paper will be the usage of induced pluripotent stem cells.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells–Derived Neural Crest Stem Cells Induced pluripotent stem cells are adult cells that are genetically altered in order to
match embryonic stem cells. In order to achieve this embryonic stem cell–like nature, induced pluripotent stem cells are impelled to express genes and
factors required to maintain the properties of embryonic stem cells. The main iPSC discussed in this paper will be derived neural crest stem cells
(NCSCs). Derived neural crest stem cells are present in both the embryonic neural crest and the

Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation
Attainment of the differentiated state during the final stages of somatic cell differentiation is closely tied to cell cycle progression. Much less is
known about the role of the cell cycle at very early stages of embryonic development. Here, we show that molecular pathways involving the cell cycle
can be engineered to strongly affect embryonic stem cell differentiation at early stages in vitro. Strategies based on perturbing these pathways can
shorten the rate and simplify the lineage path of ES differentiation. These results make it likely that pathways involving cell proliferation intersect at
various points with pathways that regulate cell lineages in embryos and demonstrate that this knowledge can be used profitably to guide the path and ...
It is surprising, for example, that mouse and human ES cells appear to be so different with respect to the molecules that mediate their self–renewal, and
perhaps even in their developmental potentials. BMPs, for example, in combination with LIF, promote the self–renewal of mouse ES cells. But in
conditions that would otherwise support undifferentiated proliferation, BMPs cause rapid differentiation of human ES cells. Also, human ES cells
differentiate quite readily to trophoblast, whereas mouse ES cells do so poorly, if at all. One would expect that at some level, the basic molecular
mechanisms that control pluripotency would be conserved, and indeed, human and mouse ES cells share the expression of many key genes. Yet we
remain remarkably ignorant about the molecular mechanisms that control pluripotency, and the nature of this remarkable cellular state has become one
of the central questions of developmental biology. Of course, the other great challenge will be to continue to unravel the factors that control the
differentiation of human ES cells to specific lineages, so that ES cells can fulfill their tremendous promise in basic human biology, drug screening, and
transplantation

An Observation of Development of Danio Rerio
An Observation of Development of Danio rerio Principles of Nervous System Development An observation of development of Danio rerio
Xenopus laevis and Danio rerio are two models that are extensively used to study early embryonic development, in particular, neurulation. During
this practical Danio rerio was used as the model, however the advantages and disadvantages of the use of both models will be discussed herein. Both
Xenopus and Zebrafish are excellent model organisms in the study of development. They can both be generated in the lab at relatively low cost and
development of the embryos can be observed within a relatively short time frame. The eggs themselves are also very easy to observe due to their
transparency. Xenopus can be generated through in vitro fertilisation or natural mating with an optimal temperature of 23В°C (Xenbase.org 2014).
Zebrafish similarly can be generated in relatively large sizes, by maintaining them on long day photoperiods of about 14 hours of light and 10 hours of
dark with their development, once fertilized and incubated between 26–28В°C, hatching between 3–4 days (Bradford and Sun 1994). Both Xenopus
and Zebrafish have a known genome and knockdowns of genes etc., can be easily performed and observed as micro–manipulation of both Zebrafish
and Xenopus are relatively easy to do as they are robust embryos. It is also worth mentioning that while both animals are excellent models for
development, genetic studies cannot be done on Xenopus

Embryonic Stem Cell Research Persuasive Speech
Do the benefits of stem cell research and more specifically embryonic stem cell therapy outweigh the ethical controversies?
Answer/Thesis Claim: Stem cell research and therapy is a promising field being held back by ethical issue. Stem cells are a regenerative medicine
that can cure numerous diseases such as, cancer, diabetes, leukemia. The main ethical question society presents is, when does life start and what is
ethical? The future of medicine and abolishment of diseases is being halted by ethical stigmas, once society accepts this form of regenerative medicine
disease control and abolishment will be available.
Ethos: I am a medical biology student at Metro State University devoting my life to furthering progression of medicine and the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This regenerative medicine is not like any other medicine. Warrant connecting evidence 5 to reason 2– This claim is important because it connects my
reasons to that fact no other cells do this. Stem cells are vital due to this characteristic.
Evidence 6: Stem cells contain (NGFs), natural growth factors. Stem cells also accelerate the human body's natural healing process and response. This
alleviates the patients from taking toxic pain killers and other medications. Warrant connecting evidence 6 to reason 2– This piece of evidence is crucial
to back up my reason because it shows the unique characteristic of stem cells that have the ability to help immune response and get rid of medications.
Reason 3: Stem cell research and therapy will advance the science and medical field by allowing scientist and doctors to test millions of potential drugs
and medicine, without having to use animals or potentially harmful

A Research Study On Regenerative Medicine
Aging, injuries and diseases like dystrophies are all ensue respectively from dying, damaged or malfunctioning specialised cells. Nowadays,
researchers aim at finding possible methods to treat patients by understanding better how diseases develop. Regenerative medicine is an emerging field
that had known incredible advances over the last 20 years. It's a broad interdisciplinary field aiming at repairing, regenerating or replacing damaged,
malfunctioning or missing cells and tissues leading to restore normal function in patients. The remarkable progresses made in stem cell therapy, gene
therapy and bioengineering, and the intersection of these domains are the basis of this developing (promising, emerging, evolving, blooming) medicine
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The basis of tissue engineering involves the production of stem cell, progenitor or precursor cells from embryonic or adult origin, which will induce the
regeneration of tissues and organs. The following step is to create biocompatible matrices or scaffolds for the conduction of the signal. These matrices
or scaffolds must be able to sustain cell proliferation and differentiation as well as the vascular ingrowth and the unification the new tissue with the
surrounding host tissue. Additionally, they must have the capacity to adequately degrade concurrent with tissue regeneration. Then, the induction of
growth factors or signalling proteins will activate the proliferation and differentiation of the stem cells. Finally the mechanical stimulation by
biochemical forces like shear or strain. Scaffolds can be made in different types of materials like bioceramics, membrane, fibres, foams hydrogels...
Another approach of regenerative medicine is the possibility to grow tissues and organs in the laboratory directly from the patient's cells and
implanting them in case the body cannot heal itself; thus, avoiding problems of organs available for donation and transplant rejection. The term
"regeneration" is therefore used to describe the process of replacing the loss of specialized tissue by proliferating undamaged specialized cells. The
finality of this medicine is to imitate nature's capacity avoiding a maximum of

The Effects Of Stem Cell On The Human Body
Reflect back to the year 1984, to the tragic day former professional boxer Muhammad Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. In a blink of an
eye, Ali's career slipped through his fingertips. Unfortunately, many tragedies such as Ali's occur everyday whether it is due to an accident or
disease. I can relate to this issue along with others who may know someone who suffers from a life long disease such as Parkinson's, paralysis, or
diabetes. For quite some time these diseases have been seen as incurable but embryotic stem cells may hold the cure. With that said, many researchers
in the medical field have become quite involved in the study of stem cells. Astem cell is an immature cell that has the potential to become specialized
into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although this research could theoretically cure life long diseases, ethical concerns have been brought to the attention to many religions that are against
embryonic stem cell research. As I took a closer look at the religion aspect, such as Catholicism and Christianity, the research of ESC is ostracized
because the process involves the destruction of a human in its early stages of life. For many religions this study has been compared to abortions in that
researchers are not giving the embryo the right to its life (Robertson). From my personal view as a catholic, I do believe that conception declares the
start of a human life. Embryos are not just an assortment of cells that can be researched without limitations, they are a person and should be held
with respect, and have the same rights as a born child or elder. Along with Christianity and Catholicism, Mormons trust it would be wrong to destroy
the embryo no matter what the gestational age is (Dawson). However, I do not believe religions are gazing at the scientific prospective of embryotic
stem cell research. Religions that are against ESC research oppose it because they believe scientists are harming healthy embryos but I do not
consider that to be the case. There are cases in which an embryo does fail to develop whether it is from miscarriage, abortion, or infertility. Only in

Role Of Homeobox Geness
Introduction The expression of homeobox (or HOX) genes is essential for the development of the normal embryo. These genes encode proteins that act
as transcription factors called homeoproteins which regulate development of the embryo across the anterior–posterior (AP) axis. Homeoproteins are the
ultimate regulators of development; however – mutations in the homeobox genes – specifically – HOXC10 are oncogenic (by gain–of–function
mutations) and aid in the proliferation of certain cancer types and developmental disorders. Elucidation of HOXC10, its function in embryonic
development at the molecular level, and characteristics shared among the function(s) of its paralogues should allow for better understanding of
HOXC10's role primarily ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In embryonic development – spatial patterning along with HOX gene expression indicates the order of paralogues within the cluster–according to 3
distinct aspects: (1.) spatial collinearity indicates the position of a HOX gene or cluster of genes from 3' to 5' which induces embryonic development
along the AP axis; (2.) temporal collinearity indicates the position of a HOX gene or cluster of genes from 3' to 5' that coordinates HOX gene expression
during development; and (3.) posterior prevalence – HOX genes that reside closer to 5' areas of the cluster will possess a dominant phenotype
compared to those that reside closer to 3' areas of the cluster. The nature of these aspects provides further insight into the complex nature of gene
expression, regulation, and the basis of morphogenesis. Given that there are 4 paralogous clusters – these actions of collinearity suggest some form of
redundancy in HOX gene function (Shah, N paper).
The role of HOXC10 in development: Homeodomain–containing gene 10 (HOXC10) belongs to the HOXC gene cluster that resides on chromosome
12 (ACAMPORA_HUMAN HOX FAMILY). Expression of the gene leads to the production of a transcription factor that possesses a helix–turn–helix
motif and functions as either a monomer or heterodimer containing a unique three–amino acid loop–extensions called TALE. TALE functions as a
co–factor and promotes embryonic development and tumorigenesis. Nonetheless–common TALE domains

The Biology Of Early Life Stages Of Fish Development
Understanding the biology of early life history stages of fish is essential for effective fisheries management (Mwaluma et al., 2014; Hames Hichford,
2005). For example, knowledge in fish development such as ontogenetic intervals and embryonic and larval development of fish species is a
prerequisite to set the policies for their conservation and stock enhancement through larviculture (Rahman et al, 2009; Yanes–Roca et al., 2012; Amini
et al., 2015; Andrade et al., 2016). Furthermore, the mechanisms that affect the survival during the early life stages of п¬Ѓsh can regulate the future
year–class strength (Mwaluma et al., 2014; Garrido et al., 2009). Consequently, estimated variability in abundance of fish eggs and larval survival rate
can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Larval stages are followed by a transformation stage during which individuals transform to juveniles, which morphologically resemble adults (Osse et
al., 1997). Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral changes such as dentition, feeding behavior, and swimming capacity allow various larval stages
to attain new capabilities for biological activities, which in turn enable them to utilize their new environmental conditions (Moteki, 2002, Moteki et al.,
2002; Pena and Dumas, 2009).
Identification of eggs and newly hatched larvae have been proven difficult due to having little or no resemblance to their adult stages, considerable
overlap in the time and location of spawning among multiple fish species, similarity in morphology of eggs among species, small size, and quick
changes in shapes during larval stage (Victor et al., 2009; Ko et al., 2013; Amini et al., 2015).
In the present study, we also aimed to describe the larval characteristics of fish species in Southern Caspian Sea based on morphometric and meristic
variables and pigmentation patterns. Several ichthyoplankton surveys have been carried out in the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, located on coastal
waters of Khuzestan, Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan–Balochistan provinces, Iran (Rabbaniha, 1998; Rabbaniha, 2002; Rabbanihaet al., 2003;
Rabbaniha, 2007; Vosough et al., 2009; Vosough et al., 2010;

Role Of The Egf Receptor On Lipid
The Role of the EGF Receptor LET–23 on Lipid Biosynthesis in Caenorhabditis elegans
N. R. Contos
Thesis Abstract
The Caenorhabditis elegans LET–23, which is an Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) receptor, controls multiple developmental pathways. In humans,
EGF receptor mutations are implicated in a large number of cancers due to excess signaling promoting cell growth and cell division. Recent work has
shown that in C. elegans LET–23 may also affect lipid production, specifically that of the phospholipid phosphatidylcholine. To investigate the role of
the LET–23 receptor on lipid production, I have examined the cellular location of a fluorescent–tagged SBP–1 marker under different conditions within
the worm and from these inferred levels of lipid production. I will discuss my results and their impact on our understanding of EGF signaling and lipid
biosynthesis.
Thesis Intro: As a whole the world is becoming more aware of how fats affect the body. Not only are lipids a key element in cell membranes, they
also lead to many issues regarding health. Obesity is an ever–increasing risk factor for many diseases including type II diabetes, cardiac disease, and
some forms of cancer (Kopelman 2000). As obesity transitions from little known problem into a full–blown global epidemic, it is important to
understand how lipids are synthesized and regulated within the body. Lipid synthesis pathways involve a complex interaction between the endocrine
system, tissues, nutrient storage and

Benefits Of Embryonic Stem Cells
Erika Ramos
Mrs. DeCarvalho
English 10
13 April 2015
The Benefits of Stem Cells
Stem cell research holds the cures and treatments for most of the major diseases in the world. Many people with major and deadly diseases may be
benefited by stem cell research. Other people have been fortunate enough to have had the benefits of it already. There are two types of cells, which are
embryonic and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can become any type of cell, for example, blood, brain tissue, and skin cells. Many people may
not be supportive of this research because of cloning fears. Other people do not support it because of the use of aborted embryos for research. Stem
cells will save many people's lives all over the world. Stem cell research ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In October 2014, a study showed that stem cells could help people with macular degeneration, which is a disease that causes continuous loss of
sight. Researchers followed eighteen patients for three years and saw no signals of rejection of the transplanted stem cells (Young). Stem cells
can also be used to create brain tissue. The creation of brain tissue with stem cells will provide the treatments for Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease,
and Dementia. These treatments may not cure the disease completely, but it could stop the progression of the disease. It could also reverse some
of the damage already done. "Anything that might reasonably be called a real brain is going to have to pass more tests than simply being made of
brain cells and looking a bit like a brain under a microscope"(Coath 4). "Any technique that gives us 'something like a brain' that we can modify,
work on, and watch as it develops has to be exciting"(Coath 4). On September 2013, the creation of cerebral organoids was achieved. Cerebral
organoids are pea–sized brain tissue. This achievement of brain tissue organs can help researchers explore important questions about brain
development and brain functions. All this research and new developments on stem cells gets researchers a little closer every time to actually finding
the cure for a brain

What Activity During Oocyte Activation Prevents...
What activity during oocyte activation prevents penetration by additional sperm?
There are to methods consisting of an electrical block and mechanical block, which prevents penetration of additional sperms during oocyte activation.
Electrical block involves the absences of fertilization (the oocyte contains a negative charge within and the sperm a positive charge). For instance, if an
oocyte comes into contact with a sperm the negative charge within the oocyte changes to positive resulting any other sperms from penetrating the
oocyte since the repulsive forces between like charges. However, a mechanical block operates primarily in mammals and other animals such as
endoplasmic reticulum. The calcium ion stimulates the vesicles to undertake exocytosis of molecules from cortical granules modifying the
extracellular membranes such as the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida to harden preventing polyspermy, therefore, resulting in creating a
barrier against ruther sperm penetration. However, in mammals the first sperm to enter into the egg; the cortical granules found in the cortex of the
egg secretes a serine protease allowing it to shift its properties of the membrane of the zona pellucida typically the layer found outside the plasma
membrane. The protease grinds up the proteins and function as a receptor in binding a sperm (i.e. ZP3 glycoproteins and ZP2) as well as the ones that
adhere the cell membrane to the vitelline envelope. The secreted molecules consist of

The Incidence Of Thyroid Cancer
The incidence of thyroid cancer is rapidly rising in the US accounting for 62,980 cases with 1890 deaths every year[1]. It is the seventh most common
cancer diagnosed in women and peaks earlier than in men. Despite its high prevalence, death rate from thyroid cancer is fairly stable from past many
years. In general, thyroid cancer offers a good prognosis with an overall survival rate of approximately 90%[2]. Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC)
and follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) termed as differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) contribute to majority of thyroid cancers sharing a superior
prognosis. Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), mostly acquired as a part of familial syndromes, display only modest cure rates. While surgical
resection followed by radioiodine therapy remains the treatment of choice for localized thyroid cancer, it fails to eradicate tumors with aggressive
behavior. In marked contrast to DTC, anaplastic carcinoma (ATC), an undifferentiated sub
–type of thyroid cancer, has a higher propensity to locally
invade nearby structures and metastasize rapidly. It approaches to almost 50% of all thyroid cancer–related deaths, the median survival being only six
months[3]. The grim prognosis of ATC is due to the fact that it is diagnosed at an advanced stage which offers palliative treatment as the only option
for patients suffering from the disease. Because of the chemo– and radio–resistant nature observed in aggressive thyroid cancers, many researchers have
been

Embryonic Stem Cell Research And Current Use
Introduction:
The issue at discussion in this report is ESCR (embryonic stem cell research) and current use. This issue causes controversial concerns because the
first isolation of the embryo was in 1998, which is still very recent and the policies around it are grey areas. Many countries including the United
States of America have removed funding because of issues that have risen due to religious, ethical and legal formalities. Some of the benefits that ESC
(embryonic stem cells) promise are the cure for many diseases and even the creation of organs between other scientific advances that could save
numerous lives. The benefits that ESC could provide are sometimes questioned to be worth all the ethical issues that they bring. Some ... Show more
The process to isolate an embryonic cell demands de inner cell of a blastocyst. A blastocyst can be described as one of the earlier stages of an
embryo, which is reached at about four to five days after fertilization. In the blastocyst stage, the future embryo is not formed by more than fifty to a
150 cells. In the blastocyst stage the cell is comprised of an external layer called trophoblast and the inner cell mass comprised of approximately thirty
cells which following normal procedures becomes the embryo and the trophoblast, the placenta. In the process to cultivate the stem cell, the blastocyst
must die as the inner cell mass is removed. This practice has been legalized since 2002 in Australia but strict guidelines in regards to licenses as to
who is able to perform research and what is permitted in their research must be met.
Alternative Views and their Explanation:
Dr. James Douglas professor and chair, cell anddevelopmental biology director for Center of Organogenesis has specialised and dedicated most of his
career to research how tissues and organs are generated in mammals and how cells are instructed to become specialised cells. Similarly, Dr. Eva L.
Feldman professor of neurology in the medical school 'A. Alfred Taubman Medical Research Institute' and director at ALS clinic has devoted her latest
years in the field to conduct innovative research to generate stem–cell technology to treat ALS by injecting stem cells into the spinal cord.

Multipotent Stem Cells
Stem cells are essentially undifferentiated cells; cells which are not yet adapted to a particular function, and have the capacity to differentiate into any
specialised cell type within the organism. Every cell in plants and animals begins as these cells, created by mitosis and meiosis, and stem cells can
continue to divide until they have become specialised and they lose this ability. After embryonic development, stem cells can be found all throughout
tissues in the body, including the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the liver (Crosta, 2008). Whereas the stem cell is
undifferentiated and has no specialised function, the specialised cells have the specific parts that allow them to carry out their function ... Show more
A few treatments are already in existence for Parkinson's, but they only replace lost cells, and cannot reverse damage to existing cells that have been
destroyed previously. With stem cells, it is hoped that new and fully functioning dopamine neurons can be transplanted into those with Parkinson's
disease, and research on rat models with Parkinson's has reported long term survival rates, and has proven that human embryonic stem cells have the
capacity to project long distances, sufficient enough for use in humans. Furthermore, the newly developed neurons are functioning with efficiency
comparable to human dopamine producing neurons (Grealish, 2014). Despite the positive results, there is not enough embryonic stem cells to treat the
vast numbers of people affected by Parkinson's disease, at least not without raising various ethical

Genome Manipulation Essay
Targeted genome–editing technology is an area of great attention for biomedical research fields, as it has potential in clinical applications to cure or
improve some genetic diseases. In particular, the case of genome manipulation has been revolutionized by the development of the CRISPR/Cas 9
system. Despite recent advances in editing targeted genes inside of cultured cells, in vivo targeted transgene integrations are still out of reach, because
of current tools. Principally, this applies to nondividing cells, which are made up of adult tissues, including the brain, eyes, ears, and pancreas, and
halts the development of treatments for a broad range of genetic disorders. Now, scientists have discovered a new approach that not only works in...
They improved the NHEJ machinery to collaborate with the CRISPR system, allowing DNA to be inserted at precise locations in the genome, and then
inserted "an inert virus to deliver HITI's package of genetic instructions to neurons derived from human embryonic stem cells" (...). The innovation
allows the cells to glue the ends of cut targeted DNA back together, with the extra addition of the DNA template in–between the cut targeted DNA, via
NHEJ. In the case of the cell re–joining without the added insertion or mutation, the CRISPR system would reform and repeat the process. Likewise,
donor DNA was designed to recreate the cut site, for the situation of the insertion gluing back together in the wrong orientation.
(CDB, 2017, Scheme of HITI method)
Before HITI, recent techniques in the area of gene–editing were focused on using a natural DNA repair pathway, called homology–directed repair
(HDR). These systems are targeted at dividing cells, such as the skin, but has been proven to be ineffective in nondividing cells, and therefore
inefficient to provide solutions to genetic disorders in adult tissue. However, the non–homologous end–joining (NHEJ) pathway is an additional natural
DNA repair pathway, which is typically unused in gene insertion, as studies have shown that NHEJ is "error prone when used to turn off targeted
genes" (...). Yet, when used in insertion of DNA sequences in a gene, NHEJ is highly precise, and more

Ethical Concerns Of Stem Cell Research Essay
Steven Weinberg, a famous theoretical physicist, once said, "It does not help that some politicians and journalists assume the public is interested only
in those aspects of science that promise immediate practical applications to technology or medicine" (Doc, 2016, p. 1). Though this refers to many, if
not all, fields of science when there are new technological advances, there is one in particular that falls under this assumption. There are two basic
fields within stem cell research and the one under the most scrutiny is embryonic stem cell research. To be able to use their stem cells without killing
them has not been developed yet, so many articles on ethical concerns of stem cell research are focused on this specific topic. Many areas of science
are treated as unethical, but stem cell research, which is considered the worst,could single–handedly reshape the world as we know it.
Description of Stem Cells
Unlike the other cells that make up living organisms, stem cells are very different from the others by two distinguishing characteristics. First, they
can be used to become tissue or other specific cells, mainly organs, with special functions. Second, they are generalized cells capable of restoring
themselves through cell division (NIH, 2015). In some organs, including bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or
damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions

Central Nervous System
Generation of pattern and diversity in Central Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) is composed of brain and the spinal cord. Neurons
constitute a major part of the developing CNS. An axon is an extension of a neuron. The brain grows as a swelling at the front (rostal) end of the
neural tube and later leads to become a spinal cord (1,2). Development of the CNS involves many complex mechanisms beginning at the onset of
transformation of a single layer of ectodermal cells, the neuroectoderm until the end of the differentiation process resulting into highly complex
structure involving variety of neural cell types (1,2). A large number of cell types need to be arranged spatially and temporally to form a complex
structure during an... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A distinct subset of cells (roof–plate) can be identified on the dorsal midline along the entire anterior– posterior axis of the CNS. Roof–plate acts as an
organizing center that control mechanisms of dorsal CNS development. With the closure of dorsal end (caudal) of neural tube, arise the interneuron
progenitors with non–overlapping expression of Basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) Transcription factors (TFs) including Math1, Ngn1/2 and Mash1 in the
ventricular region of the developing dorsal spinal cord. (6) Mediators of roof–plate patterning activity in a developing spinal cord include secretory
factors of BMP and Wnt signaling cascades. (6,7) It has been documented that there is a mutual antagonistic effect between Wnt and BMP signaling
pathways in regulation of differentiation and proliferation of neuroepithelial cells in the dorsal spinal cord. (8). Several other signaling pathways like
the retinoic acid signaling and homeodomain TF– Lbx1expression in a group of interneurons is found to be crucial for dorsal spinal cord development.
However, there are evidences that had shown roof plate dependent patterning in the rostral (anterior) CNS. It is also hypothesized to influence the
development of dorsal hindbrain and forebrain. (6) The vertebrate CNS is a very

Genuine Intrigue In Developmental Biology
Curiosity has recently been revealed to me as my greatest boon. My younger self asked so many questions, I would sometimes be accosted by others
for it. My questioning never stopped, but my circumstances changed once I entered college. Thereupon I was surrounded by individuals who loved
answering questions. Fortunately, these circumstances have not changed with my transition to University of Michigan. Academically speaking, my
adventurous and skeptical nature allows me to identify and understand exactly what I intellectually need, and easily contrast that with my wants and
capabilities.
Genuine intrigue in developmental biology is what makes UROP's Biomedical Research Fellowship perfect for me. Many laboratories are searching for
summer interns.

Stem Cells And Its Effects On Human Cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells within the body that are defined by their ability to self renew and differentiate into specialized cells (1). Stem
cells function in body tissues as a repair mechanism, with an unlimited ability to divide and restock cells as needed by the body. Each time a stem cell
divides, the new cell formed can either remain a stem cell or differentiate into a specialized cell, such as a brain cell. Traditionally, there are two main
types of stem cells: human embryonic stem cells [HESCs] and adult somatic stem cells. In 1981,embryonic stem cells were the first type of stem cell
to be discovered (2). Embryonic stem cells originate from four–to–five day old embryos formed during the blastocyst phase of embryological
development. The embryos used to derive stem cells are usually extras that were created using in vitro fertilization and not implanted (2).
Induced pluripotent stem cells [iPS cells] are specialized adult somatic cells that have been genetically modified to function similarly to embryonic
stem cells; that is, iPS cells have the ability to differentiate into all adult cell types (2). The discovery of iPS cells in 2006 was very exciting for the
medical community as researchers hoped to use iPS cells in many ways, including: to gain an increased understanding of disease pathology, as aids in
transplant medicine, and in pharmaceutical and cytotoxicity studies. Subsequent research on iPS cells has revealed some areas of concern including:

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