Zaki Swem Beba Thesis

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
The systematic study of population has assumed growing
importance in recent decades, because of the trend in development of
demography as a scientific discipline and the increasing evidence of the
implications of population growth on the life of individuals and society.
The population issue needs to be taken into account in analyzing the
needs and programmes in education, housing, food production and
distribution, fuel and water supply, transportation, industrial output, job
opportunities, etc. In addition, the truly rational use of natural resources
presupposes a correct and conscientious evaluation of their relationship
to human welfare and the population they are designed to support.
In a situation of constraining resources and environmental
conditions, nations are becoming watchful of the rate at which their
population is growing. Nigeria is no exception. There is also the
realization that the family, as the reproductive nucleus of society, is at
the core of the population issue. Much focus therefore, must be directed
at the family to enable it to assume an informed position to make the
right decisions about its size and the desired quality of life of its
members.
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Population/Family Life Education (POP/FLE) as an educational
intervention strategy came into being as a result of rapid population
growth coupled with very limited resources especially of those countries
that has so far implemented it. The main argument in favour of its
introduction is the ‘need for educational renovation and innovation’ by
offering subject matter that is highly relevant. Our task is therefore, to
evaluate teachers’ and students’ knowledge, attitudes and skills in
Population/Family life Education and how it can help the society if it is
effectively implemented.
1.2 Background to the Study
Population/Family Life Education programme started in Nigeria
in 1980 with a needs assessment mission at the instance of the Federal
Government of Nigeria. The mission recommended a Comprehensive
Population Education Programme to address the issues of the
relationship between resources and population change and how
education could be used as an instrument of change. The then Nigerian
Educational Research Council (NERC) was mandated by the Federal
Ministry of Education to implement the programme on behalf of the
Government. The Council in 1981, with technical assistance from
UNESCO, presented a project proposal to the Federal Government and
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requested for funding from the United Nations Fund for Population
Activities (UNFPA). The proposal was approved by the Federal
Government in 1983 and actual implementation started by mid 1984.
Since then the programme has enjoyed financial support from UNFPA
and technical assistance from UNESCO.
However, since 1989, more funds have been made available to the
Nigerian Family Health Services from USAID and technical assistance
from the Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDA),
Washington in collaboration with the John Hopkins University,
Baltimore.
Population/Family Life Education programme is thus developed to
prepare the citizenry, especially the youths, to understand this aspect of
contemporary society. The ultimate goal is to contribute, through
education, to the solution of population-related problems that impedes
social and economic progress. This means therefore, that
population/family life education could be seen as part of a global effort
to promote human rights, cultural identity, self-reliance and, ultimately,
the quality of life of the people.
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Population/Family life education has been defined in many ways by
various countries based on their general population and family life
situations. However, these different perceptions have given rise to major
misconceptions and a crisis of identity. Many believe that
Population/Family Life Education is another name for family planning
or birth control; to others it is sex education, while some others see it as
demography or population studies. It should be understood, that
population/family life education is not synonymous with any of these.
While family planning provides service delivery and counselling as a
means for fertility control, sex education is mainly concerned with
human sexuality, reproduction and, sometimes, the ethical issues
relevant to sex morality. Demography deals with quantitative study and
changes in human population as they relate to births, deaths and
migration.
What then is population/family life education? For Yisa (1988:12):
Population/family life education is an educational
process, which provides for an articulated and
practical study of the situation in the family, the
community, the nation, and the world, with the aim
of developing in the individual a more rational
attitude and responsible behaviour towards
improving the quality of their life now and in the
future.
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The above definition denotes the multi-disciplinary nature of
population/family life education. It must, therefore, be presented in that
global framework with regional, national and local relevance. Hence, the
programme in Nigeria has adopted as its theme, the “improvement of the
quality of life” which illustrates the relationship that exists among
population change, development and the quality of life of the nation.
Population/Family Life Education should promote therefore:
i) Mastery of knowledge and understanding relating to
the interrelationships between population phenomena
and other spheres of life.
ii) Acquisition of attitudes and values, which are
necessary for the skills needed to make informed
decisions on Population/Family Life Education issues.
iii) Mastery of specific teaching skills required for
effective Population/Family Life Education teaching
and learning.
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1.3 Statement of the Problem
The awareness in Population as a universal concept of study has
drawn the attention and consciousness of the global world, ranging from
the social, political and economic spheres of human life. The propensity
at which population concept has directed the society leads to the
concrete awareness of the effect of population increase as well as
decrease and consequent effect it has produced on the quality of human
life.
The awareness of the population concept has drawn the society to a
closer study on the various ways and means of balancing the world
population as well as the world economy for the betterment of life.
This study of Population/Family Life Education therefore seeks to
evaluate teachers’ and students’ knowledge, attitude and skills in
Population/Family Life Education in the Federal Capital Territory of
Nigeria, Abuja.
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1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following questions therefore, can help in the achievement of
the aims and objectives of this research work.
1. Do the teachers in secondary schools have the training to teach
Population and Family Life issues to their students?
2. Do the students learn from the teachers the content and themes of
Pop/FLE in the classroom?
3. Do the students have enough knowledge of Pop/FLE in their subjects?
4. Do the students have positive attitude towards population/family Life
issues
5. Do students use acquired skills from Pop/FLE to tackle population
and family life issues in their schools?
6. Is there a difference between boys and girls in their knowledge and
skills in Pop/FLE?
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1.5 Significance of the Study
A philosophy is developed on the basis of some rationality. A
philosophy that does not encompass the horizon of human rationality
cannot stand the acceptance of the time for which such philosophy is
meant. The rationale and philosophy of population/family life education
is built on the basis of improving the quality of human life and paving
way for the future.
The basic philosophy of population education in Nigeria is the
improvement and maintenance of a better quality of life for the
individual, the family, the community and the nation. A better quality of
life in this sense connotes a standard of living that can provide adequate
housing, education, health services, food, leisure and other amenities of
life. This condition makes the attainment of family welfare, happiness,
security and physical as well as mental and social well being easier.
Better quality of life in the final analysis means a condition where man’s
basic needs are satisfactorily met. Hence this study will provide the
necessary data to evaluate the impact of this programme so far. Where
there are weaknesses, modifications can be made to improve the
programme effectiveness.
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According to Dienye (1982): Population education is a relatively
new field of study whose primary focus is on the impact of various
population factors on the lives of individuals and societies. The extent of
such impact varies with societies, depending on their levels of economic
development, ideological and cultural orientation. Thus, an
understanding of the consequences of population change on the lives of
all Nigerians is so important that it should warrant an urgent curricular
attention within the school system. It is about two decades, since its
inception and an evaluation is appropriate to bring about the necessary
improvement.
The attainment of better quality of life is a common goal or
objective that inspires and directs the energies of every human being in
his various fields of endeavour. Population education plays a key role in
the achievement of this goal, but unless man solves human population
problems consciously and responsibly, attaining a better quality of life
seems difficult and almost impossible. A research study such as this
helps to reinstate the benefits of Pop/FLE especially at the secondary
school level.
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In the views of Ajaegbu (1994:94):
The essence of population education is primarily to
provide population and related information and
make people, the audience, suitably informed
regarding population situation processes,
relationships with other variables, and population
consequences, particularly for the development
process; create awareness regarding the actual
processes involved in the relationships between
population and development, as well as in
population consequences; How these actually come
about, occur or are fuelled and sustained overtime.
Thus population education aims especially at
achieving ultimately, suitable medications in
people’s family-life related decisions and actions as
well as in the wider population and development
related decisions and actions.
The twenty-first century has been an era of high aspirations for
the well being of the human race on the earth’s surface. Thus, since
independence in 1960, Nigeria’s over riding concern has always been
the improvement of the living conditions of its people using resources,
human and material, with which the country is so richly endowed.
Efforts to mobilize these resources and to develop a system geared
towards the needs of the people, as can be seen from the different
National Development Plans since independence, have thus constituted
the aspirations of Government to secure real development and not just
mere economic growth in Nigeria.
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According to Ikegulu (1997:230):
Many Nigerians met the introduction of POP/FLE
into the Nigerian education system with a lot of
suspicion as it was interpreted on political,
economic, social, religious and cultural grounds.
While some were of the opinion that POP/FLE was
being introduced into the developing countries by
the developed world to ensure that the former
remained perpetually tied to their apron, others
argued that the developmental problems of Nigeria
are not necessarily related to, or determined by the
population situation, but rather to mismanagement
of resources.
The author further justifies the introduction of POP/FLE in
Nigeria as summarized below:
1. While all the development plans up to date have articulated series
of programmes for the enhancement of the nation’s standard of living
and welfare, a laissez-faire approach to population issues has always
been adopted which eventually has indirectly favoured rapid population
growth with adverse consequences on the welfare of the citizens and the
socio-economic development of the country, hence the need for
enlightenment on this issue.
2. For the government to achieve her intention of improving and
maintaining the living condition and quality of life of Nigerians, the
relationship that exist between population change and available
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resources, as well as impact of the latter on the former must be
understood by the populace, both old and young.
3. There is a need to control the quality of or population, to attempt a
redistribution of our unevenly distributed population and to adjust the
rate of our population growth to the resources and infrastructure
available to the people, hence the need for a programme that will take
cognisance of the inter-relationship among population factors, resources
and environment.
4. Youth, most especially adolescents form the majority of our
population today and they usually exhibit peculiar characteristics which
affect them physically, mentally, emotionally, and so for prompt and
accurate information and guidance, POP/FLE has to be taught in
schools.
5. For the government efforts to be felt by the people in such areas
as agriculture, education, health, urbanization, there is the need to
sensitize and enlighten people at all levels on population issues and
problems. The rationale for the introduction of POP/FLE into Nigerian
schools cannot be over-emphasized. In order to develop a realistic and
comprehensive plan to meet the country’s needs for a fair and equitable
distribution of the available resources, the relationship between
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population growth and resource development must be understood not
only by the country’s policy-makers but also by the entire citizenry.
Finally, for Ihebuzor (1994): “Population and Family Life
Education are concerned with helping individuals acquire the necessary
knowledge, attitude, skills to deal with interacting and related practical
and life saturated problems.” Pop/FLE programme he goes on: “…
must be modeled as closely as possible to those life issues they seek to
address. This is so because of the imperative of the principles of
harmony and congruence between educational progammes and the
social problems they are designed to address.”
Pop/FLE programmes must therefore be integrated, problem
solving and centered on the human agent (the learner).
1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study is restricted to secondary schools in FCT- Abuja. Only
the pilot secondary schools in which the Pop/FLE was implemented
were used.
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It is observed in the general objectives of secondary school
curriculum, that population education is not limited only to outcomes
related to spacing and planning of children, but it embraces also many
dimensions of socio-economic, cultural and political life of the people.
The content of population education is largely derived from
population studies, which means the body of knowledge, concepts and
theories which describe and attempt to explain the dynamics of human
population and their relationships with the social, cultural, economic,
political and biological environments. Population studies do not form an
integrated field of study; rather, the term is an educational one, to
convey the notion of a combination of subject matter drawn from
various disciplines and professional fields. A few examples of these
disciplines are given below to illustrate this point.
Population studies are a combination of fields of discipline with
inputs from such as: Demography, Sociology, Psychology, Economics,
Geography, Law, Medical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Ecological
Science, Political Science, and History.
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Delimitation to the study is the fact that Pop/FLE curricula are
prepared for 21 subjects in the secondary schools but this study has
chosen only seven subjects that have been used in the pilot level of
implementation. This is also due to the fact that the teacher training so
far has been based on the seven subjects.
1.7 Definition of Terms in Pop/FLE Education
1.7.1. Population Studies
Population Studies is more academic and research-oriented than
population education and mostly offered at higher educational levels.
Population studies cover the body of knowledge, concepts and theories
that describe and attempt to explain the dynamics of human population
and their relationship with the social, cultural, economic, political and
biological environment. Like demography, population studies are a
major source of content of population education programmes.
1.7.2. Demography:
Demography is the scientific study of human populations
primarily with respect to their size, their structure and development. It
involves the quantitative study of human populations and the changes in
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them examples are: the statistics of births, deaths, diseases, migration
and so on, to show the condition of a community. However,
demographic contents are part of population education subject matter
since quantitative changes in human population affect the quality of life.
1.7.2. Family Planning
Another term, which is often taken to mean the same thing, as
population education is family planning. The two terms are not one and
the same. Population education is far wider in scope than family
planning, although the relation between these two spheres of activities is
self-evident. Family planning activities provide the means of fertility
control while population education provides the knowledge, skill,
attitudes and values. Therefore, family planning is just a topic required
for making informed decisions on population issues or subject matter in
population education.
Family planning involves, among other things, the spacing of
births to provide for the health and welfare of mothers and children. It
also involves birth control, fertility regulation or regulating the intervals
between pregnancies. Udo (1985) defines family planning as an
organized effort to assist people to have the number of children they
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want, and space them as they choose. In other words, family planning is
the use of contraceptive methods for regulating family size, be it large or
small. In the case of childless couples, family planning can assist them
to achieve parenthood. Family planning also seeks to promote
responsible parenthood through voluntary reduction in fertility and
encouraging small family norms.
1.7.4. Family Life Education
Family Life Education is concerned with the study of attitudes
and skills related to dating, marriage, parenthood, family health, and
later life of the family as a socio-cultural and economic unit in the
society. It is an educational process designed to assist people in their
physical, social, emotional and moral development as they prepare for
adulthood, marriage, etc. Because the family is seen as the central focus
of the National Population Programme, Family Life Education is a
necessary addition to the programme, as well as a component of
population education. Thus, the NERDC has introduced further topics in
FLE into the original population education curriculum.
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1.7.5. Sex Education
Sex education is mainly concerned with human sexuality,
reproduction and often the ethical issues relevant to sex-related morality.
The basic content of sex education includes male and female anatomy,
the physiology of reproduction, psychological similarities and
differences between the sexes, and the ethics of sexual behaviour, self-
respect and concept of individual’s sexuality. In sex education, details of
human reproduction are discussed. These include the male and female
organs involved in reproduction and their functions.
1.7.6. AIDS Education
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a
deadly disease caused by the HIV (Human Immune-deficiency Virus),
which destroys the body’s ability to fight off infection. The role of
education as a preventive measure in combating HIV/AIDS spread
cannot be overemphasized, especially as currently there is no known
cure for AIDS. Recently, the Nigerian Population/Family Life Education
also incorporated AIDS Education into its Curricula. The content areas
of AIDS education include topics like: meaning, cause, modes of
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transmission, symptoms, effects and modes of prevention and control of
HIV/AIDS, among others.
1.7.7. Curriculum
The use of the term curriculum is said to date from the nineteenth
century. Educationists have borrowed the term to mean anything or
actions taken to get the leaner begin and attain his goal in education.
According to Ikponmwosa et al (1991), curriculum is derived from the
Latin word “Currere”, meaning a ‘race course’ or a course through
which people have to run in order to get to a set goal. Glen Hass (1977)
posits the word curriculum to mean, ‘a school’s written courses of study
and other materials of curriculum’; ‘the subject matter taught to the
students’; the various courses offered in the school’; and ‘the planned
experiences of the learners under the guidance of the school’. For
Nwosu (1995) curriculum is all the experiences that individual learners
have in a programme of education whose purpose is to achieve broad
goals and related specific objectives; which is planned in terms of
framework of theory and research or past and present professional
practice.
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In the views of Manasseh (1990) curriculum is the planned and
guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience
under the auspices of the school, for the learner’s continuous and willful
growth in personal – social competence.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0. Introduction
In life, all our actions are oriented towards a desired end. We eat to
war off hunger, study to pass our examinations, work to earn a living
and become self-sufficient. The list of what we do and reasons for doing
these things is endless. One thing is perfectly clear and that is, there is
always a reason for what we do or fail to do. In like manner, the basic
consideration of any educational venture is determining the purpose of
education. This purpose, otherwise known as educational objective,
determines educational plans and their implementation.
The Nigeria’s overriding concern to improve the living standard of
her citizenry using the human and natural resources with which the
country is so richly endowed has been recognized in Pop/FLE
Programmes. The Revised Pop/FLE Curricula for Junior and Senior
Secondary Schools (NERDC, 2000) reviewed the seven carrier subjects
in the thematic approach, which emphasizes the following format:
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1. Theme in Pop/FLE
2. Unit in Carrier Subject
3. Topic in Pop/FLE
4. Performance Objectives
5. Content
6. Activities
7. Materials
8. Assessment
The implementation strategy recommended demands that the
emerging population issues are integrated into the appropriate and
relevant units in the respective carrier subject’s curriculum.
According to NERDC (2000): Population/Family Life Education
is a value-laden discipline, which deal with individual and behaviour
modification of the learners. Assessment of students’ achievement
should therefore cover the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains. Teachers should ensure that assessment questions
especially in their carrier subjects reflect components of Pop/FLE in
the three domains of learning.
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In the following sections, an attempt would be made to review
relevant and related literature in Pop/FLE especially as they relate to
research monitoring and evaluation of students and teacher in the
programme.
2.1 Goals/Objectives of Pop/FLE in Nigeria
The goals and objectives of Population/Family Life Education
in Nigeria, are derived from national objectives and educational
goals, and have been categorized into the following according to the
style and placement priority of Oroge (1993):
2.1.1. Long-term goals
1. To assist the government in achieving its main national
objectives and national policy thrust in population as stated in
various national development and rolling plans.
2. To assist the Federal Ministry of Education in realizing its
educational objectives of reforming the content of general
education in the context of the 6-3-3-4 educational systems.
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2.1.2. Immediate objectives
1. To identify needs, problems and gaps in population/family life
education for both in-school and out-of-school sectors.
2. To analyse existing curricular materials, syllabuses,
teaching/learning materials at all levels of education and suggest
suitable guidelines for determining appropriate contents and modes
of introducing population/family life education into the curricula.
3. To create a favourable climate of awareness and knowledge on
population/family life education among all sectors of the Nigerian
population through a public awareness campaign.
4. To develop desirable attitudes and behaviours in the teachers and
students as well as the community at large towards population issues
so as to take rational decisions concerning their quality of life.
5. To develop appropriate curricular materials for use in the
population/family life education programme.
6. To incorporate population/family life education into all teacher
training (both pre-service and in-service) programmes.
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7. To train teacher educators as well as other teachers to teach
population/family life education concepts in schools.
8. To develop relevant materials, newsletters, source books and other
audio-visual aids for public enlightenment and teaching/learning in
schools.
2.1.3. Secondary school level objectives
According to National Policy on Population and Development
(1988), population education at the secondary school level is meant
to help students to:
1. Recognize the implications of the increasing gap between birth
and death rates for the provision of such basic facilities and
services as schools, water and housing;
2. Relate growth and size of family to the demand for available
food and other facilities, health and productivity of members of
the family.
3. Explain how population situation at the household and national
levels affects the patterns of demand for the consumption of
goods and services.
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4. Recognize the various ways in which population growth, the
constraints on resources development and the pattern of
consumption at the family level, etc, have contributed to the
present state of the economy and quality of life situation in
Nigeria.
5. Compare and contrast the population/resources situation in
Nigeria with that in other countries so as to have an insight into
the international dimension of the population and family life
problems;
6. Highlight the importance of self-sufficiency in food production
and the dangers of dependence on food imports and food aids;
and
7. Identify the various uses to which population data are put and,
therefore, develop an understanding of the importance of, and
a sense of responsibility towards population census
enumeration and the registration of vital statistics.
8. The pandemic nature of HIV/AID in the Country motivated yet
another objective: to give adequate information to students on
the HIV/AIDS to prevent them from contracting the disease.
2.1.4. Programme implementation objectives
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The fourth groups of objectives are peculiar to the implementation
and role of population/family life education the ultimate objectives of
which are:
1. To institutionalize population/family life education at all
levels and sectors of our educational system.
2. To assist the individual citizens in defining their population
problems, in understanding the determinants and
consequences of population processes and changes, and in
evaluating possible actions which they and their
communities can take to improve their quality of life.
3. To complement other population programmes aimed at
improving the quality of life of the individual, the family
and the nation.
It is however important to note that the ultimate goal of
Population/family life education programme in Nigeria: is to
involve the citizens in a guided or self-learning process which
would make them become aware of the interrelationship between
population change and the quality of life.
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In line with the National Policy on Education (1981),
population education at the secondary school level is our chief
concern in this project and sequel to that the specific objectives
would have to be laid out for a speedy completion of the research
objectives.
Consequent to the stated objectives the project would accomplish
its task of evaluating teachers’ and students’ knowledge, attitude
and skills in Pop/FLE in pilot schools mapped out for the
programme implementation in the FCT.
2.2. Description/Content of Pop/FLE Curriculum in Nigeria
2.2.1. Description of Pop/FLE Curriculum
Pop/FLE is multidisciplinary. Pop/FLE concepts, messages
and curricula have been chosen and designed to reflect this
multidimensional and multidisciplinary character. In Philippine
population education programme, for instance population education
messages are integrated into several school subjects, such as
Elementary Science, Health Education, Home Economics,
Mathematics and Social Studies, among others. As part of the non-
formal component of the population education programme in Viet
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Nam, population education topics have been integrated into some 40
pages of the farmers’ curricula. Furthermore, supplementary
materials in population education have been produced for the
farmers’ rural cadres in that country, as part of the country’s effort to
reach the farmers with population education messages. In India,
population education concepts and messages form part of the
country’s Adult Education programme.
In Nigeria, Pop/FLE programme started with a needs
assessment mission to address the issues of the relationship between
resources and population change and how education could be used as
an instrument of change.
Curriculum structure has been considered not only from the
standpoint of its vertical dimension, but also in terms of the
horizontal relationship among elements of knowledge such as is
implied in the concept of integration and correlation. In this regard,
many curriculum theorists have stressed the importance of providing
structure, in dealing with curricula issue. Among factors considered
in an effort to illuminate this area, are continuity, sequence,
integration, spiraling, hierarchical arrangement, dynamic versus static
structure and commonality versus progression and coherence.
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Among all these terms used in relation to structure, integration is
considered most relevant to our topic and so for that reason will
receive more attention. A definition of integration refers to it as a
relationship between what is learnt on a particular course, and other
areas of study. For example a link between the content in History and
the content in Social Studies can be established.
In attempting therefore, to solve problems posed by population
issues many countries have organized curricula packages, as stated
above. Experience with the content of such curricula portrays
Population Education as not belonging to any particular discipline
but rather of an inter-disciplinary nature. This means that a learning
experience in this field can draw from biology, geography, history,
home economics, government, social studies, etc. It therefore has
curricula elements drawn from the various areas and can therefore
not be claimed to be rooted in any one discipline.
As clearly mentioned above, in 1980, the Nigerian Government
and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) carried out a
Needs Assessment Mission to determine whether Nigeria needed
population education. The assessment report showed astronomical
increases in school enrollment and dropout at the primary and
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secondary levels, contributing to the poor socio-economic conditions,
as most dropouts were not prepared for working life. In addition, the
assessment report also discovered increases in the rate of early
marriage and pregnancy of schoolgirls and other teenagers, and an
increasing disregard for societal norms and values among the youth
generally.
Malthus’ classical theory of the late 18th
century brought into
world-view the impact of rapid population growth on world
resources. According to Baba (1990) the thrust of Malthus’s classical
theory is that at a geometrical rate of growth, world population would
ultimately outstrip the finite resources of the earth, and thus lead to
food shortages, fallen standard of living and general human misery.
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and is growing
rapidly. The 1991 national census of 88.5 million people was
projected to reach 152.2 million by the year 2010 and to double
within 23 years if the current growth rate of 3.0% is maintained. The
rapid population growth is a result of a high level of fertility and
declining mortality rates. The average Nigerian woman will bear six
to seven children during her reproductive lifetime; improvements in
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health service delivery have increased the chances for survival of
these children.
Rapid population growth provokes concern because the
country’s existing natural resources and social services are unable to
grow at an equivalent rate. As the population grows, demand for food
increases while the available land decreases. This shortage of land
leads to over cropping, overgrazing, and erosion, as farmers try to get
as much yield as possible out of the over-used land. Eventually,
deforestation and desertification occur, resulting in decreased food
output, and even greater shortages of arable land. Urban migration
increases as rural inhabitants seek alternatives to farming,
exacerbating housing, sanitation, and unemployment,
underemployment, and crime problems in the cities. So, employment
opportunities, land, food, housing, clean water, and other resources
become increasingly scarce as the population expands.
Although mortality rates are declining, Nigeria scores low on
many basic health indicators, a reflection of social and community
services that are already overburdened by the demands placed upon
them. Life expectancy at birth is 48 years for men and 49 years for
women. Infant mortality is 114/1000 and the mortality rate for
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children under five years is 177/1000, indicating that approximately
17% of all children born will not survive to age five. Many of the six
to seven births of the average Nigerian woman are high-risk, that is,
they occur in women under 18 years of age or over 35 years of age,
within two years of a previous delivery, or after the fifth pregnancy.
The health of both mothers and babies is jeopardized when births
occur too early, too frequently, and for too long.
Because a large percentage of the population is under the age of
fifteen or in the “dependent group,” a large part of the productivity of
the adults is consumed, rather than used to improve agriculture,
modernize the economy, generate jobs, or advance economic and
social development and self-reliance. As the population continues to
grow, expenditures will need to increase dramatically just to maintain
the current level of services and standard of living. The government
will be put under increasing pressure to allocate even more resources
for housing, sanitation, and health care. These funds will be diverted
from investments in other areas, which could promote economic
development.
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As summarized in the National Policy on Population, with
continued high fertility:
…The Gross Domestic Product per capita is likely to decline, the
domestic food production will not increase, land resources will be
under increasing pressure, fuel wood will be increasingly
depleted, desertification in the North will be enhanced, the
proportion of petroleum production required for domestic
purposes will increase and the amount available for sale abroad
will diminish … It will be most difficult to provide enough jobs for
the large number of young people entering the labour market.
Achievement of the goal of health for all by the year 2000 will be
difficult, perhaps impossible. The ecology will suffer greater
degradation and urban blight increase.
The rapidly increasing population, then, impedes improvement
in the quality of life of Nigerian citizens and sets back advances
made in the standard of living. The relationship between population
growth and development must be understood by citizens as well as
policymakers, teachers, and community and other opinion leaders in
order for them to make rational decisions regarding population
issues.
In 1981, in response to increasing concern over the relationship
between resources and population change and the growing social
problems, the Federal Government of Nigeria assigned the Federal
34

Ministry of Education (FMOE) and the Nigerian Educational
Research and Development Council (NERDC) the task of
formulating a comprehensive national population Education
Programme (PEP) for the country. According to the official
government population policy, a large proportion of the nation’s
Population, especially in rural areas, had limited access to
information. An action programme of population education and
information gathering and dissemination was needed to enlighten the
people about rapid population growth and its implications.
In 1983, the Federal Government of Nigeria approved the
proposal for a Comprehensive Population Education Programme for
Nigeria.
Population education in the Nigerian context is defined as:
An articulated and practical study of the population
situation in the family, the community, the nation, and the
world, with the aim of developing in the individuals a
more rational attitude and responsible behaviour towards
improving the quality of life now and in the future.
The programme aims at integrating population and family life
education in both formal and non-formal sectors of the educational
systems, from the secondary school to the university level. The
objective of the secondary school level programme is to help students
35

understand the relationships between population growth and natural
resources, provision of social services, employment, resource
development, and overall quality of life.
The Population Education Programme is sanctioned by the
National Policy on Population for Development, Unity, Progress and
Self-Reliance – which includes as one of its targets: to make
available suitable family life education, family planning information
and services to all adolescents by the year 2000 to enable them to
assume responsible parenthood.
In more categorical terms, Gulma (1988:64) states the purpose
of population education as:
To give the learner an insight into the totality of
issues connected with population, especially the nature,
causes, determinants and consequences of rapid
population growth, both at macro and micro levels, the
nature and dynamics of productive process and finally the
possibilities of planning family size and population
growth, the assumption of which is that the learner may
develop the understanding and attitudes that can
contribute positively to rational decision-making both at
the personal level and as a member of the society when
the need for such decision-making avails it.
According to Adeniyi (1995) the comprehensive Pop/FLE
programme for Nigeria started over a decade ago and was met with a
lot of misconceptions and antagonism by people from various sectors
36

due largely to ignorance. As a solution to the above problems, the
need for clarification of the philosophy, objectives and content of the
programme became paramount.
However, it has become necessary to begin to ask the question:
What led to Population/Family Life Education Programme in
Nigeria? The answer is not far-fetched. As said earlier, Nigeria is the
most populous country in Africa and is growing rapidly. The rapid
population growth is due to decreasing mortality and sustained high
fertility. There is an estimated 45% of the population who are under
age 15, this preponderance of young person’s means that the number
of young women entering their reproductive years exceeds the
number of older women leaving the reproductive years. This also
means that the overall population would continue to grow for several
decades thereby creating an age structure that contains tremendous
potential for growth.
Sequel to this development, therefore, high fertility and
population growth rates put a heavy burden on the health of families,
their standard of living, their capacity to produce enough food, and
their ability to generate, manage and conserve available resources.
There is thus the need for a national population policy translated into
37

a strategy of population/family life education programme: the
objectives of which are to improve the quality of life and standard of
living of all citizens within the limits of the available resources.
The Nigerian population is perhaps the country’s most valuable
asset. It is both the agent and beneficiary of national development.
Consequently, the overriding concern of government has always been
the improvement of the living conditions of the people, using
available resources, human and material with which the nation is
richly endowed. The government, for this reason embarked on a
series of development programmes and policy formulation geared
towards improving the quality of life of its citizens. The
implementation of these policies and programmes may have resulted
into some improvements in the standard of living of the people in
respect of housing, education, health, goods and services. One of
such programmes is the Population/Family Life Education
(POP/FLE) programme through the primary, secondary and tertiary
institutions; and also adult and non-formal sub sector.
Population education according to Adeniyi (1995:12):
Grew out of recognition that family planning
programmes alone were not sufficient to deal with
population growth and related problems. It was realized
that the programmes should include an education
38

component targeting children as well as adults with
information about the relationships between population
growth, resource development, and quality of life.
The general goal of population education in Nigeria according to
Nwagwu (1985) is to involve citizens in a learning process and to
make people aware of the interrelationships between population
change and quality of life at all levels.
Family Life Education (FLE) is a component of population
education that is concerned with the study related to dating, marriage,
parenthood, family health, and later life of the family as a socio-
cultural and economic unit in the society. Family Life Education
addresses physiological processes of sexual maturation, human
conception and birth, the consequences of adolescent pregnancy and
parenting, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), family roles, and
social structures.
Finally, all these and several other developments follow
population problem and change. Because population problems
impinge on the quality of life of the entire people within their
environment, the knowledge required to cope with such problems of
global proportion necessitates a synthesis of knowledge from several
39

relevant areas of disciplines for proper perspectives in the solution of
the problems.
2.2.2. Content of Pop/FLE Curriculum in Nigeria
The content of population education formulated by the National
Population Education Committee was comprehensive in nature. It
took into consideration the population situation in Nigeria and the
world, the causes and consequences of population change and what
can be done to improve the quality of life in Nigerians.
Also, for Familusi (1995), the content of Pop/FLE cannot be
meaningful until the identified themes; the concepts and messages
that students are supposed to grasp have been known.
As mentioned in the general and specific objectives, population
education is not limited only to outcomes related to spacing and
planning of children, but it embraces also many dimensions of socio-
economic, cultural and political life of the people.
For Yisa (1988), the content of population education is largely
derived from population studies, a term used by UNESCO to denote
the body of knowledge, concepts and theories which describes and
40

attempt to explain the dynamics of human populations and their
relationships with the social, cultural, political and biological
environments.
Deriving its inspiration from the set goals and objectives as well
as the elements of knowledge and concepts from the several
disciplines, the content of population education for Nigeria can be
categorized into two: themes and core messages. The themes were
subsequently used to develop the National Population Education
Curriculum for Secondary Schools as well as the core messages.
The themes include the following:
1. Nigerian People and Population Issues
2. Human Reproduction (Sex Biology)
3. Population and Family Life
4. Population and Urbanisation
5. Population and Socio-cultural Life
6. Population and Economic Consequences
7. Population and Education
8. Population and Labour Force
9. Population, Health, and Nutrition
10. Population and Environmental Quality
41

11. Population and Infrastructural Services
12. Population and Politics (National and International)
13. Population in History (National and International)
14. Demographic Aspects of Population
15. Population Data
16. Population and Rural Development
17. Population and AIDS.
However, the issues and concepts raised in each theme are
contained in Appendix “A”. Each theme formed a chapter in what
has now become the Population Education Sourcebook for Nigeria.
The core messages, which were initially developed for Asian
population education programmes, were adopted for African
programmes. The core messages are grouped under five categories:
1. Family size and family welfare: A small family size is more
conducive to the enhancement of quality of life for the family. Some
indicators of quality of life as they affect the individual and the
family are the following for Yisa (1988):
a. Food and nutrition
42

b. Clothing
c. Health
d. Safe drinking water
e. Education
f. Leisure/recreation
g. Savings; and
h. Parental care and attention
2. Delayed Marriage: Delayed marriage has many advantages for
the individual, the community, and the country. Women who delay
their marriage will have shorter reproductive span and, therefore, will
tend to have fewer children than women who marry earlier.
Likewise, for Yisa (1988), a country’s youth who delay marriage
will:
a tend to have smaller families;
b be enabled to pursue education for self-fulfillment and
gainful employment;
43

c be able to help improve the welfare of parents, brothers
and sisters and;
d be enabled to become mentally and emotionally mature
and financially prepared to cope with the responsibilities of
married life.
3. Responsible parenthood: This involves, among other things,
planning the size of the family, spacing children, taking care of the
elderly, and knowledge of physiology of human reproduction.
Having fewer and longer spaced births promote the health of the
mother and child. This also affords women more opportunities for
sharing social and economic responsibilities.
4. Population change and resource development: This message
includes the demographic situation and population dynamics and
their interrelationship with the environment, resources (natural and
human), and socio-economic development. This also includes the
effects of enhanced status of women on population growth and
development.
44

5. Population-related beliefs and values: This includes
clarification of pro-natalist, socio-cultural beliefs and values, such as
preference for a son, early marriage, large family, security for old
age, and traditional beliefs about the role of women.
From the foregoing, it can be observed that population
education is a broad subject which derives from many fields of
learning. With such a complex derivation, the ultimate content and
scope of population education will depend on the target group. What
may be suitable for out-of-school adults may not be necessary for
young school pupils. For example, while the use of contraceptives
may be included in the content of population education for married
couples, it would not be good for secondary school students.
The content of population education for Nigerian schools as
shown earlier, therefore, gives much consideration to these
variations. These have made population education content different
from the content of family planning or sex education. Moreso, the
content of Pop/FLE can be inference that teachers and students can
draw from the information available to them, which they can use in
making rational decisions.
2.3. Selected Carrier Subjects for Nigerian Pop/FLE
45

In 1985, the National Council on Education (NCE) approved
the population education curriculum for integration into the
secondary schools. The Population Education Curricula for Junior
and senior secondary schools encompass 17 themes or broad issues.
Each of the themes is comprised of units, or more narrowly defined
topics pertaining to the broader theme. Concepts and lesson topics
are specific issues relating to the unit. The concepts of each theme
and unit shape the course objectives and content, teaching methods
and activities, teaching aids and materials, and the evaluation and
follow up activities.
The 17 themes are incorporated into eight existing subjects –
known as “carrier” subjects – for Junior Secondary School (JSS), and
13 carrier subjects for Senior Secondary School (SSS). In this way,
population issues are examined from different angles, providing
students with a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to
learning about the impact of population growth on the quality of life
of individuals, communities, and the nation. (For more details see
appendix “A”).
2.4. Component Areas of Pop/FLE
46

The success of Pop/FLE has been viewed along five
component areas: Research, Monitoring and evaluation; Curriculum
development; Instructional material development; Training of
teachers and other personnel; and Information, documentation and
awareness. Each of these components has well mapped out objectives
and activities to ensure smooth and comprehensive implementation.
2.4.1. Research, Monitoring and Evaluation:
Research and evaluation is a major component of any given
educational programme.
Monitoring entails a continuous review of activities by
management at every level to ensure that the work plan is carried out.
By providing feedback to project management at all levels,
monitoring helps produce efficient and effective project performance.
As an internal activity, monitoring forms part of the management
information system. It needs to be conducted by those responsible for
carrying out projects or programmes at every level of the
management hierarchy. However, many population projects have
included monitoring merely to comply with requirements of external
funding agencies and not as a management tool.
47

Evaluation is the analysis of the extent to which goals have
been met and of the appropriateness of programme design. It entails
systematically and objectively weighing the relevance, efficiency and
effectiveness of projects while they are under way or gauging their
impact when completed. Evaluation can be undertaken internally or
externally. It should enable management both to improve ongoing
activities and to incorporate valuable information into future
planning, programming and decision-making. In actuality, however,
evaluations seldom address the difficult issue of impact, because
many factors in addition to a single project or programme may be
responsible for influencing change.
The usefulness and quality of monitoring and evaluation
depends greatly on the original planning of the project. In well-
planned project with well-defined objectives, evaluations can reliably
measure progress, records immediate and long-range objectives.
Evaluations can also help teachers ascertain the effectiveness and
impact of programmes and their continued responsiveness to
community needs. Furthermore, through evaluations, planners can
gauge the extent to which women have participated in, and benefited
from, programmes.
48

For these benefits to accrue, however, evaluation plans need to be
part of project design.
According to Sadik (1991), the early years of population
education programmes, monitoring and evaluation were given low
priority. In recent years, their value has become more apparent, but
even now monitoring and evaluation are used less systematically than
they should.
However, for Oroge (1995), the primary aims of the Research,
Monitoring and Evaluation component are to:
1. identify the needs, problems and gaps in
population/family life education in and out of
schools sectors;
2. analyze the existing curriculum materials as a
basis for determining appropriate content and
methods of introducing Pop/FLE concepts into the
curriculum; and
3. monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the
various areas of the programme.
2.4.2. Curriculum Development:
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According to Sadik (1991), developing population education
curricula has sometimes been difficult because few people have
acquired expertise in this new field. Therefore, only few educators
agreed on what should be part of the knowledge base for population
education, for example, the content from which curriculum developer
would prepare material appropriate for different age groups. This
knowledge base has had to be derived from various disciplines and
from country-specific data. Not only is the content multidisciplinary,
but also it often touches sensitive, personal matters and needs to be
developed in a non-prescriptive manner.
For Familusi and Etim ((1995), in Nigeria, curricula on
Pop/FLE have been developed for the primary, secondary and tertiary
levels of the educational system. The stages of curriculum
development in Pop/FLE include planning, writing, trial testing,
critique, edition and integration.
Subject specialists developed the curricula for the secondary
school level and after various reviews, modifications and
refinements; the National Council on Education approved the
materials for inclusion in identified existing subject curricula at the
secondary school level. The curricula have been pilot-tested in
50

selected secondary schools throughout Nigeria since January 1990.
This has been done through he plugging in of Pop/FLE concepts
developed in the Pop/FLE curricula into the regular subject curricula
as appropriate. The development process of the curricular for primary
and secondary schools is similar and is adapted from the Wheeler
(1967) model namely baseline research, setting of objectives,
selection of learning experiences (content), development of
instructional materials and methods, training of teachers and teaching
practice, actual classroom teaching and monitoring and evaluation.
In designing the curriculum units on Pop/FLE, the designers
were guided by the fact that the curricula of school subjects were
already overcrowded or loaded and so, it was best not to present
Pop/FLE as a separate subject. Rather, the “Unit Approach” for
introducing Pop/FLE concepts into existing school subjects appeared
to be more appropriate under the circumstances. This approach
enables the teacher to “Plug in” conveniently the Pop/FLE concepts
and messages into an appropriate spot without displacing or upsetting
the core curriculum content of the host subject.
Finally, the integrative approach is being used in the teaching
of Pop/FLE concepts and messages. It enables the classroom teacher
51

to “Plug in” conveniently the Pop/FLE concept into an appropriate
spot in the existing subject curriculum without unduly upsetting it.
Therefore, Pop/FLE concepts are incorporated into different subject
areas at appropriate entry points.
2.4.3. Instructional Materials Development:
The concept of relevant instructional materials as conceived by
Nwagbara and Ikegulu (1994) as the collections and selection of
resources from available resources, which are applied and integrated
into a systematic process of teaching and learning to make learning
more effective is not disputable. Hence, instructional materials are
devices employed to aid the teaching and learning process, to
facilitate the teacher’s job of imparting knowledge. The teacher’s
work as communicator, model, and identification figure can be
supported by a wise use of a variety of devices that expand
experience, clarify it, and give it personal significance. Therefore,
there is no conflict between the teacher and instructional materials.
The former should make effective use of the latter. With the use of
instructional materials, learning should be effective and permanent.
52

For Alade (1995) instructional materials are designed,
produced and used to promote and sustain effective teaching/learning
activities that lead to the achievement of curriculum objectives. They
can also be used to communicate concepts, ideas and content to
identified target audience. Instructional materials include, among
others, source books, reference materials, teaching charts, posters,
teachers’ guides and training manual, students’ texts and workbooks,
supplementary books. Non-print materials include films, filmstrips
sliders, pictures, audio and visual tapes, records, transparencies,
globes and boards.
NERDC developed various instructional materials to use as
companion pieces to its existing National Population Education
Curriculum. The instructional materials for the Pop/FLE programme
at the secondary school level were thus developed 1987 and 1990 for
the use of teachers and students based on the identified sub-themes
and enumerated above. For each of the junior and senior secondary
school levels, a teacher’s guide was developed to address the 17
themes within the context of seven major academic subject areas:
biology, geography, integrated sciences, home economics, social
studies, mathematics, and English. The guides provide teachers with
53

an understanding of Pop/FLE issues, assistance in the effective
teaching of Pop/FLE, and examples of lesson plan for conveying the
concepts and messages of Pop/FLE to students. Other instructional
materials that have been developed include monographs, 13 self-
learning modules for training teachers, sourcebooks, and posters.
In developing Pop/FLE materials, the National Population
Policy as well as the National Policy on Education that contain the
country’s priority concerns, thrusts and needs was carefully gone
through. The conceptualizations of the population education
programme for Nigeria especially the goals and objectives were also
taken into consideration. Other areas of consideration were the
intended programme targets and the core-messages developed for the
programme.
The approach used by NERDC in the planning and
development of population education instructional materials is the
active involvement of local experts and subject specialists in the
planning, identification of content, writing and production of
indigenous Pop/FLE materials. Materials produced are suitable to the
varied socio-cultural values and practices of the Nigerian society.
54

As mentioned above, population education is a
multidisciplinary curriculum that draws its contents from subjects
such as demography, sex education, family planning, family life
education, and population studies. It is concerned with changes in
population and the effects of such changes on individuals, families,
communities, and nations; to this end, population education looks at
various dimensions of socio-economic, cultural, and political life.
Population/Family Life Education has many messages, all
geared towards the enhancement of quality of life of the citizenry.
Population education is designed to improve and increase people’s
knowledge and awareness of the causes and consequences of
population growth at the family, community, national and
international levels. It aims at providing for people better
understanding of the relationship between population processes and
dynamics and social, cultural and environmental conditions and the
implications of this relationship for a better quality of life at the
micro and macro levels. It is a part of the overall National Population
Policy, which seeks to solve population, and population related
problems by creating awareness among the populace who are then
55

expected to take rational decisions for themselves, their communities,
the nation and the world at large.
The core messages listed below are common to population and
family life education programmes in Africa. According to Oroge
(1993) they were initially developed for Asian population education
programmes but adopted for African programmes at a Training
Course for Population Education Programme Managers and Teacher
Educators in Nairobi, Kenya in September 1986.
According to Etim (1995) the key population related issues or
core messages that are constantly addressed through researches,
curriculum and instructional materials developed population
awareness and teacher training are presented thus:
1. Family size and family welfare
2. Delayed Marriage
3. Responsible Parenthood
4. Population change and resource development
5. Population related beliefs and values
6. Gender Issues
7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases/AIDS/DRUGS; and
8. Primary Health Care Concepts.
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Finally, all these issues and relevant core-messages according
to Adeniyi, Nwagbara and Etim (1995) revolve around “quality of
life”. Whether the degree of one’s satisfaction with the life one is
living is high or low depends on one’s knowledge, attitudes and
behaviour towards the above listed issues. For them, it also
depends on one’s decision and action taken on population issues.
2.4.4. Training of Teachers and other Personnel:
Generally, the training of teachers for population education has
often fallen short. Too few teachers have been trained and the
training period is seldom long enough-in some cases it has been only
a few days. In addition, neither refresher training nor opportunities
for follow-up training have been provided as often as needed. In
many countries abroad, one attempted remedy is to provide
classroom teachers with teaching guides and brief instructions on
population education and the most salient issues. After the teachers
used the guides in their classrooms, a brief but intensive face-to-face
follow-up session is held.
There is no clear-cut evidence as to which of the man training
modalities being used in population education are consistently
successful. Although face-to-face learning according to Sadik (1991)
57

is generally considered the most effective, it is also expensive and
time-consuming.
Cost-effective approaches are being sought in all regions.
Because at least one or two weeks may be needed for training, unless
training is conducted during vacation periods, teachers have to be
removed from their classes and substitutes provided. The length of
training is less important than the quality. For Sadik (1991), a good
training programme requires much careful planning and highly
skilled trainers who are free from having to handle the logistical
details. To achieve this, initial project work must be sharply focused,
covering only a few grades and subject areas, thereby allowing a base
of positive experience to be built up before expanding the activity.
In Nigeria, according to Obasi (1995), the early emergence of
Population Education came as a result of an identified imbalance
between population growth and available resources especially the
social services. It became necessary to create an awareness of this
imbalance by educating the people and alerting them on the
consequences of this to their quality of life. The growing concern for
issues such as population, health, environment, nutrition and other
development programmes poses a challenge to education as to what
58

role it could play in the improvement of the quality of life of its
population. Education, in its attempt to proffer solutions to quite as
number of population issues strongly recognizes the involvement of
teachers. The teacher must be adequately trained. And for education
in Population and Family Life issues to be effective, it must be
structured, be qualitative and relevant to the needs of its recipients. A
lot of attention needs to be given to the initial training of teachers,
monitoring their classroom teaching strategies and subsequently
giving them more opportunities for professional development.
It is necessary to specify that while education aims at preparing
individuals for successful living in the society, training, on the other
hand, prepares the individual to carry out a specific set of tasks in
relation to a particular profession. In fact, training is one form of
education as it helps the trainee to do a particular job well. Training
can also be a tool that could be used to improve the management of
administration and performance on a programme. When properly
conducted, training not only improves performance but also increases
the motivation and confidence of trainees. The training of teachers
therefore, could be seen as an organized purposeful activity, which
develops knowledge, attitude and skills in teachers.
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For the Pop/FLE programme for Nigeria, the NERDC is the
chief agent that organizes the teachers training programme at
national, state and school levels. Therefore, the training programmes
for teachers at national level are guided by outlines given to the states
or educational bodies by NERDC that may be required to participate
in the training programme. The training center is chosen by NERDC
and all the logistics are taken care of by the NERDC while funds are
provided by the funding agency. Resource persons are also chosen by
NERDC and the NERDC collaborates with the State Population
Education Co-ordination in the host state. So far, training sessions
have lasted for not less than ten working days even at state levels.
At state levels, the NERDC organizes training programmes for
classroom teachers using trained State Master Trainers as resource
persons. The training dates are specified by NERDC, funds are
provided by the funding agency while the State Co-ordinator makes
choice of the training venue according to NERDC guidelines. The
Council gives the guidelines for nomination of teachers and schools
to the States.
The training of teachers for Population Education commenced
with the training of Master Trainers in 1988. Between 1988 and
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January 1998, over 3000 teachers have been trained for the pilot
secondary schools all over the states. For Obasi (1995), it is hoped
that by the end of 1995 additional 2000 teachers will join the
Pop/FLE programme implementation family.
2.4.5. Information, Documentation and Awareness Creation:
Information promotes the understanding and awareness of
population concerns through the generation and dissemination of
general and technical facts. It also motivates people to adopt new
attitudes, behaviour and change their perceptions of the programme.
Documentation also deals with the provision of information
support on the programme. However, this is often in writing
packaged or repackaged forms through publications on programme
implementation activities.
Awareness creation involves fostering of interest in; seeking
support for; changing perceptions and broadening of attitudes of the
general public towards the programme. This is carried out though
public enlightenment activities provided to all sectors of the Nigeria
society.
However, to promote people’s capacity to understand
population trends and its effects on the individual, the society and the
61

nation, adequate information must be provided. To this end, different
kinds of information are used to create awareness and promote
understanding of population issues and acceptance of their relevance
to daily living. These can be classified into technical and general
information.
2.4.5.1. Technical Information:
Technical information includes basic and statistical
information from census, survey, vital registration systems and
researches. These constitute the body of scientific and technical
knowledge required to understand population phenomena.
Others are on global, regional and national rates of population
growth, patterns of fertility, mortality, age and spatial distribution.
Technical information is predominantly communicated through
printed materials. They are mostly intended for policy formulation.
They also serve as important references for policy planners and
administrators.
2.4.5.2. Public Information:
Public information is also known as general information.
These are mostly on population and development issues needed by
opinion leaders; as such people can greatly influence decision matters
62

and help gain support for the programme. They include
representatives of the print and broadcasting media; community and
religious leaders; educators; etc.
Public information contributes to steady growth in knowledge
and greater understanding of population issues. The scope of public
information include demography; resources and relationship to
human population; rights and status of women; health and
environmental stress; rapid urbanization; adolescent pregnancy; and
STD/AIDS.
Media coverage of population issues such as feature articles,
news items, press reports are classified as public information. This
has generated lively debate and reinforced public confidence in the
programme.
According to Alade (1995), the population information base
has been considerably increased by non-governmental, national,
regional and, international initiatives and organizations. Such
organizations make use of their regular and occasional publications
to disseminate population information worldwide. The range of
information contained in the publications include: theories,
principles, definitions and approaches in population education;
63

quality of life issues as they are affected by population dynamics and
process; results of population education researches and other
activities; strategies for integrating population education into
different subject areas; curriculum and instructional materials
development training and teaching methodologies used in population
education; population data, demography and policies etc.
For Alade (1995), the NERDC Information and
Documentation Unit is sufficiently interlinked and well coordinated
with the international sources. These sources continuously provide
the programme with updated knowledge and information as well as
new and emerging concerns in population education. Information for
use in the programme has been generated at the national level
through the conduct and publications of researches. The information
base is also tapped from other publications such as Monographs,
Self-Learning Modules, Curriculum Guides and instructional
materials developed for the programme.
Finally, the NERDC maintains a mailing list to widely and
effectively disseminate carefully selected information to relevant
audience. It has put in place a coordinated, strategic approach to
enable state and local government implementers effectively carry out
64

their functions. Nevertheless, there is still the need to determine the
information needs and the most effectively culturally acceptable way
of reaching the intended audience by creating a communication link.
This will no doubt go a long way in enhancing community support
for and active participation in the Population/Family Life Education
Programme for Nigeria.
2.5. SUMMARY:
The literature review is an attempt to stress briefly the
genesis, concepts and themes of Population/Family Life
Education. The review in addition summarizes the various
authors and researchers in the development of Pop/FLE
programme. It also stresses the significance of integration of
POP/FLE concepts and themes into the already existing
school curriculum both at the junior and senior secondary
schools as a means of realizing its objectives.
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology
3.0. Introduction:
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This chapter is designed to describe the process and procedures
used for obtaining data for this research. It begins with the
description of the area of study, the population and the sampling
procedure, the instrument used for data collection and administration
of the questionnaires. The researcher also showed the procedure
adopted to ensure that the instruments measured what they were to
measure – validation and reliability of the instruments. Finally the
method of data analysis is explained.
3.1. Population:
This study is a survey. According to Viashima (1997) a survey
gathers data at a particular point in time with the intention of
describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards
against which existing conditions can be compared, or determining
the relationships that exist between specific events.
As a survey, this study involves an evaluation of Teachers’ and
students’ knowledge, attitude and skills of Population/Family Life
Education in Secondary Schools in the Federal Capital Territory –
Abuja.
Data for the study were collected from 282 students and 21
teachers from selected pilot schools in Pop/FLE in the FCT. Only
66

five (5) out of nine (9) pilot schools in the FCT were selected for
reasons of nearness and limitation in terms of resources and time
available for the study. However, since the schools involved in the
study are public schools with no systematic difference in the
characteristics of teachers and students with those in other public
schools, the result will be generalizable to a similar population.
Again, a deliberate effort was made to select schools from both
rural and urban areas.
3.2. Sample and Sampling Procedure:
Out of the nine (9) pilot schools in Pop/FLE whose teachers
were trained within 17th
– 27th
January 1995, five (5) were selected
for this study.
Students in SSS 2 and SSS 3 in these schools formed the
subject of the study. The selected schools are:
A. Government Secondary School,Wuse, Abuja.
B. Government Secondary School,Tudun Wada, Abuja.
C. Government Day Secondary School, Sani Abacha Barrack,
Abuja.
D. Government Secondary School, Kwali, Abuja.
E. Federal Government College, Kwali, Abuja.
67

To ensure true randomness in the selection of students in the
selected schools, the various alms of the classes were written in a
paper and folded. These folded papers were randomly selected from a
bag. This procedure was followed for all the two classes in each of
the five (5) selected schools.
As for the teachers, seven (7) of them were trained in each
school during the 1995 training exercise. All the seven teachers were
given questionnaires to complete therefore a total of thirty-five (35)
teachers from the pilot schools. The teachers constituted both male
and female in the ratio of 4 – 3, that is, (12 males and 9 females).
It is interesting to note that all the teachers and students
selected for the study expressed their optimism and willingness in
Pop/FLE related issues by completing the questionnaires promptly.
3.3. Instrumentation:
Two different questionnaires were constructed for
administration to both the teachers and students. The instruments
were developed based on the research questions of the study and the
extensive literature review on Pop/FLE curriculum to ensure content
validity.
68

The secondary sources of information were from relevant
materials or write-ups from journals, magazines, pamphlets, related
textbooks and projects of other researchers.
3.3.1. Teachers’ Test on Knowledge, Attitudes and Skills in
Pop/FLE:
This was the first instrument prepared for administration on
teachers. It has four (4) sections. These are:
1. Demographic information on the respondent (six – 6
questions).
2. Knowledge inventory (8 questions). These questions are of
the multiple-choice type.
3. Attitude inventory (9 questions). These questions were
rated on a modified likert scale of SD – Strongly Disagree,
D – Disagrees, A – Agree, SA – Strongly Agree.
4. Skills inventory (8 questions). This required the teachers to
give some priority to identify need areas in Pop/FLE.
The maximum points obtainable on the 25-item questionnaire are
100 while the minimum is 0.
69

3.3.2. Students’ Tests on Knowledge, Attitudes and Skills in
Pop/FLE:
1. Demographic information (5 questions).
2. Knowledge inventory (8 questions). These questions were
of the multiple-choice type.
3. Attitudes inventory (9 questions). These questions were
scored using the modified likert scale of SD – Strongly
Disagree, D – Disagrees, A – Agree, SA – Strongly Agree.
4. Skills inventory (8 questions). Again, this required students
to give some priority to selected themes in Pop/FLE.
The maximum points obtainable on the 26-item questionnaire are
100 while the minimum is 0.
As can be seen from the appendix, the test items for teachers and
students are different measuring different areas of Pop/FLE.
3.4. Validation of Instruments:
The constructed instruments were given to some experts in the field of Pop/FLE Programme for scrutiny,
criticisms and necessary corrections. Finally, they were sent to the project supervisor for correction and approval. The
instrument that was finally approved by the project supervisor was administered to the schools to aid the collection of the
necessary data that eventually was used in the study.
3.5. Administration of Research Instruments:
70

In administering the two questionnaires to teachers and students of the selected schools, the first step was to
briefly discuss with the principal of each of the selected schools, the purpose of the research. Most of the principals
undertook to assist in the administration of the questionnaire to the selected teachers and students. The next step was to
acquaint each respondent with the purpose of the research and what they were expected to do. To ensure anonymity, the
respondents were requested not to write their names.
Of the 375 copies of the questionnaire administered on students, only 282 were found useful for analysis. For
the teachers, 21 copies of the questionnaire were retrieved and used out of the 35 administered.
3.6. Data Analysis Techniques:
Frequency count and percentages were used for analyzing the data in research questions 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6.
However, data was more importantly considered on the levels of their frequency and percentage counts to bring out a
clear and simpler interpretation of the data.
Therefore, data analysis followed in the manner of the designation of the research questions. The Teacher
Questionnaire was given a general analysis based on the general percentages gathered from the knowledge, attitude and
skills, which presupposes the capabilities and efficiencies of the teacher to impart on the knowledge, attitude and skills of
the students as the chief recipient. However, the Student Questionnaire would receive a more critical dimension of
analysis under the consideration of the general, and other three-dimensional areas of concentration which are: knowledge
dimension, attitude dimension and Skill dimension. At the end of the analysis, a systematic discussion on the data and
analysis of the data, in which case, the project aim would be discussed fully.
The attitude inventory is measured by a four point likert scale. This is a modified scale in which
Strongly Agree (SA) attracts 4 points in item nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 while Strongly Disagree attracts 4 points
in item no. 5.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis
71

This chapter deals with presentation, analysis of data collected and
discussions of the findings that emerged. Data was analyzed and presented
based on the research questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Questionnaire I,
constructed for the teachers was used to answer the research question 1,
while questionnaire II, was used to answer the research questions 2,3,4,5
and 6. Through the systematic percentage rating, the researcher was able to
record and analyze the responses of both the students and teachers.
Research Question I.
Do the teachers in secondary schools have the training to teach
Pop/FLE issues to their students?
Data needed to answer this research question is presented in
table I below.
TABLE: I Average score of teachers in all schools on Pop/FLE
Grades
72

SCHOOLS
Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-
60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-0%
A
4
67%
2
33%
0
0%
0
0%
B
1
25%
3
75%
0
0%
0
0%
C
0
0%
2
100%
0
0%
0
0%
D
3
75%
1
25%
0
0%
0
0%
E
1
20%
3
60%
1
20%
0
0%
TOTAL
9
43%
11
52%
1
5%
0
0%
This table indicates that 9 (43%) of the teachers scored Distinction
(100% - 76%) indicating that they have expertise in
73

Population/Family Life issues. Again 11 (52%) of the teachers scored
Good (75% - 60%) in the questionnaire.
This in essence means that 95% of the teachers have acquired
enough expertise in the knowledge, attitude and skills of
Population/Family Life to prepare them for the teaching of the
knowledge of Population/Family Life concepts to students.
Therefore, the answer to the first research question is YES.
Research Question II.
Do the students learn from the teachers the content and themes of
Pop/FLE in the classroom?
TABLE: II. Average score of students in all schools on Pop/FLE knowledge,
attitudes and skills
GRADES
SCHOOLS
Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-
0%
A
22
41%
28
52%
4
7%
0
0%
B
31
40%
41
53%
6
8%
0
0%
C
24
47%
21
41%
6
12%
0
0%
74

D
12
25%
32
67%
4
8%
0
0%
E
20
39%
28
55%
3
6%
0
0%
TOTAL
109
39%
150
53%
23
8%
0
0%
An analysis of table II indicates that, in all schools, students
performed well in the general skill areas of Population/Family Life
Education. A total number of 259 students scored Distinction and
Good on the questionnaire items; this indicates a very high
performance. Only an insignificant number of 23 students (8%)
scored average in the test. No student was recorded to have scored
less than average in the questionnaire. Therefore, the research
question of whether the students learn from the teachers the
content/themes of the Population/Family Life in the classroom is
answered positively.
Research Question III:
Do the students have enough knowledge of Pop/FLE in their subject?
75

TABLE: III. Average score of students on knowledge of Pop/FLE concepts
in all schools
GRADES
SCHOOLS
Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-
0%
A
22
41%
24
44%
4
7%
4
7%
B
13
17%
48
52%
10
12%
7
9%
C
16
31%
27
53%
7
14%
1
2%
D
14
29%
22
46%
6
13%
6
13%
E
14
27%
22
43%
11
22%
4
8%
TOTAL
79
28%
143
51%
38
13%
22
8%
76

This table indicates the scores of students on knowledge of
Population/Family Life. As in table II, this table indicates a very
good performance in this skill area. While 79 students (28%) scored
Distinction here, 143 students scored Good, which represents (51%)
of the total number. 38 students scored in the average region while
only 22 (8%) scored poorly on knowledge.
This table has therefore shown that the students have
demonstrated sufficient knowledge of Population/Family Life
Education. The answer to research question 3 is therefore positive.
Research Question IV:
Do the students have positive attitude towards Pop/FLE issues?
77

TABLE: IV. Average score of students on attitude to Pop/FLE concepts in
all schools
GRADES
SCHOOLS
Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-
0%
A
19
35%
27
50%
8
15%
0
0%
B
35
45%
37
47%
5
6%
1
1%
C
16
31%
30
59%
4
8%
1
2%
D
16
33%
31
65%
1
2%
0
0%
E
20
39%
31
61%
0
0%
0
0%
TOTAL
106
38%
156
55%
18
6%
2
1%
78

Table IV shows the average score of students’ attitude to
Population/Family Life concepts. A close look at the table indicates
that 262 students (93%) demonstrated a positive attitude by scoring
Distinction and Good in the test items. While 18 students (6%)
scored in the average region, 2 students (1%) performed poorly. This
overwhelming good performance indicates that students’ attitudes
towards Population/Family Life concepts are positive.
Research Question V:
Do students use-acquired skills from Pop/FLE to tackle Pop/FLE
issues in their schools?
79

TABLE: V. Average score of students on skills of Pop/FLE in all
schools
GRADES
SCHOOLS Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-0%
A 25
46%
22
41%
7
13%
0
0%
B 46
59%
30
38%
2
3%
0
0%
C 25
49%
20
39%
6
12%
0
0%
D 13
27%
32
67%
3
6%
0
0%
E 23
45%
21
41%
7
14%
0
0%
TOTAL 132
47%
125
44%
25
9%
0
0%
The average score of student on skills of Population/Family Life are
indicated in table V. As in the previous tables, a generally good
performance was recorded. While 132 students (47%) scored
Distinction in this area, 125 (44%) recorded Good scores. This means
80

that 91% of the students performed very well under skills. While 25
(9%) students scored on the average, no student was recorded to have
a poor performance here. This therefore, goes to show that the
students have sufficient skills to tackle Population/Family Life
issues.
Research Question VI:
Is there a difference between boys and girls in their knowledge and
skills in Pop/FLE?
TABLE VI: Performance of male and female students on
knowledge, attitudes and skills in Pop/FLE.
GRADES:
81

Of the 163 male students who completed the questionnaire, 57
(35.0%) scored distinction, while 92 (56%) scored good. This means
that 91% of the males had sufficient knowledge of Pop/FLE. Only 14
(9%) had an average performance. A comparable figure is recorded
for the female respondents. Of the 115 female students that
responded to the questionnaire, 50 (44%) scored distinction, while 57
SCHOOLS/SEX Distinction
100%-76%
Good
75%-60%
Average
59%-45%
Poor
44%-0%
A Male
Female
6 – 33%
15 – 47%
11 – 65%
15 – 47%
1 – 6%
2 – 6%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
B Male
Female
15 – 33%
16 – 49%
26 – 58%
15 – 46%
4 – 9%
2 – 6%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
C Male
Female
11 – 36%
13 – 65%
15 – 48%
6 – 30%
5 – 16%
1 – 5%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
D Male
Female
10 – 29%
1 – 7%
20 – 59%
13 – 93%
4 – 12%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
E Male
Female
15 – 43%
5 – 31%
20 – 57%
8 – 50%
0 – 0%
3 – 19%
0 – 0%
0 – 0%
TOTAL
MALE
TOTAL
FEMALE
57
35%
50
44%
92
56%
57
50%
14
9%
8
7%
0
0%
0
0%
82

(50%) had good scores. Only 8 (7%) scored on the average region.
This again means that the total of 93% of the females had sufficient
knowledge of Pop/FLE. This figure is very comparable with males
who had 91% in this area.
This comparative figure is arrived at despite the fact that the
random sampling of respondents did not give the researcher to select
equal number of males and females for the study. This therefore,
shows that both boys and girls have sufficient knowledge of Pop/FLE
despite their sexes. The research question of whether there is a
difference between boys and girls in their knowledge, attitude and
skills of Pop/FLE is answered in the negative. This means that there
is no difference between boys and girls in their knowledge, attitude
and skills in the Pop/FLE.
4.2 Discussions:
A total number of 282 students’ questionnaire was received
out of the 375 questionnaire administered in 5 schools in the Federal
Capital Territory with 75 expected from each school. And a total of
83

21 responses were received from teachers from 5 schools out of the
targeted number of 35 with 7 teachers from each school.
However, the data and analysis above give result in the
impartation of the Population/Family Life contents, themes and
concepts.
Since the inception of the programme (POP/FLE), the
monitoring team of NERDC has carried out series of assessment on
the problems and prospects of the programme. This is an added
research.
The analysis on research questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, give the
general impression that the impact of the Pop/FLE programme on the
lives of both students and teachers in FCT is on the increase therefore
encouraging.
The evidence produced in table 1 on teachers, indicates
43% distinction result. This goes to show that teachers
received adequate training and were able to impart the
knowledge by integrating into their subject areas the
concepts of POP/FLE issues.
84

Moreso, the result also revealed that, 52% of the teachers
showed good knowledge, attitude and skills in POP/FLE issues and
only 5% had average knowledge and skills.
The teachers’ expertise to impart the knowledge; attitude and
skills of POP/FLE issues on the lives of the students is yielding
positive results.
The results of tables II, IV, and V attest to a significant and
positive result on the students’ general attitude and skills
performance.
Table six clearly shows the interest both boys and girls
exhibited in the completion of the questionnaire. While one had
expected that Pop/FLE issues would probably interest more girls than
boys this was certainly not the case from the analysis. Both boys and
girls showed equal interest in the knowledge, attitude and skills of
Pop/FLE recording very high marks in this area. This is a plus to the
Pop/FLE programme as it appears to be gender sensitive taking care
of the interest of both boys and girls.
These results go a long way to show the importance of the
programme, its level of receptivity and comprehension. It also
demonstrates the ability of the implementers and its workability.
85

Population/Family Life Education therefore, can make
significant contribution to development at both individual and
national levels. According to Nneji (2002) in Ezeali (1999),
development is now being measured not only by an increase in the
economic well-being of a nation but also by the increasing capacity
of individuals to guide and influence the direction of their own lives.
By this assertion, one can argue that POP/FLE, as a programme that
equips individuals for rational decisions, is a pre-requisite to
development at any level. It is only an understanding of population
issues and consequences that can assist decisions that affect
development and how best to meet social goals.
POP/FLE does not demand extra time in the school time
schedule; rather it enriches the knowledge base of both the teacher
and the learner. It can sustain learner’s attention because the contents
of education are being related to personal needs.
Although the researcher does not expect a significant difference from
the results obtained if more students and teachers had been
examined, one could say that it would be worthwhile in further
studies to reach more Population Pilot Schools to examine more
students and teachers to know if the sheer number would make a
86

significant difference. This would also be an uphill task on the part of
teachers whose attrition rate is very high. Out of seven teachers
trained in each school, the researcher was able to get a maximum of
six in one school and a minimum of two in another school, indicating
a high attrition rate within seven years of the training exercise.
A clear limitation of the study has to do with the number of
pilot schools selected for examination. Ideally, all the pilot schools in
FCT would have been studied to examine the full impact of
POP/FLE on both the teachers and students. However, time and
limited resources would not permit this and so the researcher made
do with the five schools representing both urban and rural pilot
schools.
87

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter is devoted to a summary of the findings and
discussions made in the preceding chapters; this will lead to a logical
suggestion, conclusions and recommendations.
22

For any educational intervention to be effective, it must be
believable, understandable and motivating. All forms of misconceptions,
which could lead to antagonism and possible rejection, must be removed
through aggressive awareness, campaigns and well calculated advocacy
programmes. The POP/FLE programme in Nigeria should therefore take
into consideration cultural and religious biases with a view to disabusing
the minds of the populace and convincing the target audience of its
usefulness to them and their loved ones. A good way of doing this is
constant programme evaluation to ensure continued relevance of
contents, messages and implementation strategies. Since POP/FLE is still
being implemented at the pilot level, all parties; the federal, the state, the
local government, funding agencies and non-governmental organizations
need renewed energy and effective implementation strategies to achieve
the needed support and success.
Pupils should be properly guided to effectively utilize materials
produced by the programme to develop positive attitudes and behaviour
towards the programme and other problems they face as they grow up.
With the explosion of information technology, many students would
come to obtain information concerning POP/FLE.
23

5.1. Summary
Population Education is an educational process which provides for
a study of the population situation… with the purpose of developing in
citizens a more rationale and responsible behaviour towards improving
the quality of life now and in the future.
You may find in this project that the targets of POP/FLE
programme focuses on the in-school students and teachers to equip them
with skills and knowledge that will enable them two make responsible
decisions. And its provisions are characteristics of life-long learning and
therefore find much relevance beyond schooling years.
24

The curricula approach is adopted whereby the contents of
POP/FLE are infused into the existing school curricula such that no extra
time in the timetable will be required to teach the components and no
new teacher will be needed. However, training of teachers on the skills of
integration of POP/FLE contents is an essential feature of the
programme.
A flashback will remind us that the POP/FLE programme is
multidisciplinary in nature and therefore the contents are drawn from a
wide range of disciplines. This multidisciplinary nature of the programme
brings the curricula contents up to date by integrating prevailing
problems and concerns into the learning process. However, for
organizational convenience, POP/FLE contents have been organized into
themes, which can find their ways into schools’ curricula. Each theme
addresses a particular issue or problem in the society.
As earlier mentioned, POP/FLE is not to be taught as a separate
school subject. Therefore, subject teachers are required to integrate the
messages of POP/FLE in their normal classroom lessons. Hence, to
achieve a genuine impact of the programme on the lives of the students
and teachers is to enhance the over riding method of teaching POP/FLE
by integration.
25

It is important to recognize that there are individual differences in
population situations and needs. While, to some people, the problem may
be over population, to some others, it may be under population and
therefore need information on how to increase their population. One good
characteristic of POP/FLE is that it finds relevance to diverse population
situations. It’s contents and methods have the capacity to deal with both
reduction and increase in the rate of population change.
POP/FLE does not demand extra time in the school time schedule;
rather it enriches the knowledge base of both the teacher and the learner.
It can sustain learner’s attention because the contents of education are
being related to personal needs.
Consequently, if we measure prospects of contributions, then
POP/FLE can be described as an important element of our educational
enterprise. But the question is; how do we sustain this element in the
system?
5.2. Conclusion
26

It is apt at this point to revisit Nigeria’s population situation, which
informed government to take a decisive action, which this study has
evaluated. The Nigerian government identified definite development
problems caused by the population situation. Such problems are viewed
as serious hindrance to sustainable development and improved quality of
life in the country. The identified population problems which are of
overriding concern to the government include: the relatively large size
and high rapid rates of increase of both the total population and urban
inhabitants; the preponderance of young people and high dependency
ratio; the sustained high fertility, morbidity and mortality rates;
population pressures on available resources and social facilities; high
incidence of poverty, diseases, deteriorating environment, poor
sanitation, reduced quality of life and insecurity; increasing risks of
reproductive tract diseases/infections, including Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs), HIV/AIDS in the Nigerian population; increasing
sexual activity, unplanned pregnancies, unsafe and illegal abortions
among adolescents, continued lack of empowerment of women, the poor
well-being and health of the various population groups in the country e.g.
children, women, adolescents.
27

To solve the national population problems, a decisive stand was
taken by government with the approval of a National Population Policy
in 1988. A multi-sectoral approach was adopted for the implementation
of the National Population Policy. The Federal Ministry of Education
through the NERDC was entrusted with the responsibility of realizing the
objectives in the educational sector. The Population/Family Life
Education Programme was introduced by the NERDC as a major strategy
of achieving the goals of the policy in educating in-school children and
youth. In implementing the programme NERDC maintains linkage and
collaboration with several government and non-governmental agencies.
The NERDC’s experience with the implementation of POP/FLE as
can be seen in the achievements and lessons learnt and emerging
concerns in the field of population (e.g. reproductive health, Gender)
made it imperative that POP/FLE be reoriented in content and approaches
in Nigeria. The present study has sought to find out if the programme has
made any impact on the target beneficiaries i.e. students and teachers.
The results have informed us to suggest the following strategies and
approaches, which will help, sustain the programme in Nigeria.
5.3 Recommendations
28

Zaki Swem Beba Thesis

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