Wk11Assign: Theories of Development

Running head: WK11ASSGN 1
Week 11 Assignment: Journaling
Human development theories are, in part, explanations about how humans evolve, how
cognition, personalities, behaviors, and thoughts develop as well as whether such is continuous
or discontinuous, how learning originates and improves, and how socioeconomic, sociocultural,
and sociohistorical systems influence human development. All of which serve as foundations for
further research inquiries (Darwin, 1859/1979; DeBono, 2018; Gredler, 2012; Jorgensen, 2006;
Milton, & Polmear, 2011; Newman. & Newman, 2016; Ragozzino, & O’Brien, 2009; Rosa, &
Tudge, 2013; Russ, 2014). This discussion overviews human development theories, including
evolutionary, psychoanalytic, psychosocial, cognitive, moral development, social learning,
sociocultural, and systems. Components include philosophies, foundations, key concepts,
strengths, weaknesses, and major theorists including Albert Bandura; Charles Darwin; Erik H.
Erikson; Jean-Baptiste Lamarck; Jean Piaget; Lawrence Kohlberg; and L.S. Vygotsky. That
said, let us begin.
Evolutionary Theory
Theories about evolutionary changes date to medieval times (e.g., ancient Greeks,
Romans, Chinese). Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829) ,for instance, published works about
the transmutation of species. Although it was Darwin (1859/1979) who pioneered the most
prevalent research: the theory of natural selection. He argued that species’ biological and
physical properties change in relation to their environments, which ,in part, ensure survival of
their off-springs from one generation to the next. Other major concepts included fitness,
inclusive fitness, adaptation, extinction, ecological niches, and speciation (Newman, & Newman,
2016). Darwin (1859/1979) hypothesized that the survival of species (also known as fitness)

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depends ,largely, on their ability to reproduce successfully, to find adequate food supply, and to
protect themselves from predators.
Moreover, some species adapt to environmental factors more successfully than others;
Darwin termed the phenomena inclusive fitness. He emphasized that successful genetic
reproduction, survival of off-springs, and adaptation are essential to the theory of evolution.
Primarily because such factors determine which species will pass genetics blueprints to the next
generation and which ones will become extinct (Darwin, 1859/1979; Newman, & Newman,
2016). As such, survivors become dominate within ecological niches (Darwin, 1859/1979;
Newman, & Newman, 2016). On the other hand, speciation refers to new genealogies; in that,
sometimes, a break in ancestral lines occurs. Thus, speciation explains diversity among species
(Newman, & Newman, 2016). As literature suggests, Darwin’s theory of natural selection is a
major source in the evolution of species literature (Darwin, 1859/1979; Newman, & Newman,
2016).
Psychoanalytic Theory
The study of personalities development and organization make-up psychoanalytic
literature. Neurologist, Sigmund Freud laid the foundation with his research in psychoanalysis,
which he used ,in the late 1800s, to develop a therapy technique for the treatment of mental
disorders (Ellman, 2010; Newman, & Newman, 2016). He believed that the cure for depression
and anxiety was to enable unconscious thoughts; thereby, patients would gain insights as to the
source of conscious conflicts (Ellman, 2010; Newman, & Newman, 2016). Today, therapists use
psychoanalytic research data to develop therapeutic tools such as “pretend play” (Milton, &

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Polmear, 2011; 2016; Russ, 2014). The tool is most useful for the development of positive
behaviors in children (Russ, 2014). However, a core weakness of psychoanalytic theory is that it
does not consider sociocultural influences as they relate to personality disorders (Ellman, 2010;
Newman, & Newman, 2016). Nonetheless, it does emphasize how negative unconscious
thoughts and experiences influence human development (Ellman, 2010; Milton, & Polmear,
2011; Newman, & Newman, 2016; Russ, 2014).
Psychosocial Theory
Human development occurs in stages rather than continuous processes (Newman, &
Newman, 2016). During stages that range from early to late adulthood, people usually overview
their experiences, those of others, and their lifestyle preferences in relation to cultural norms and
social customs. As such, they have control over their own psychological development, which
includes ,mostly with, coping with challenges and directing life aspirations (Newman, &
Newman, 2016). Erik H. Erikson developed the psychosocial theory. Like Freud, he believed
development of personalities occur through stages; however, he also emphasized that
social-cultural influences are dominant throughout one’s lifespan (Newman, & Newman, 2016).
If, for example, a person lacks skills or abilities to master stages according to cultural
expectations, then a psychosocial crisis could occur; it is a state of negative tension (Newman, &
Newman, 2016). Erikson described eight stages of psychosocial development: generativity vs.
stagnation and integrity vs. despair, which are stages seven and eight. Generativity vs.
stagnation occurs during middle adulthood (e.g., age range between 40 to 65 years old) when
people ,generally, want to create legacies by doing volunteer work, for example, or by helping
their grandchildren achieve goals. It is a development stage characterized by individuals need to

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nurture something or someone. Stagnation, on the other hand, occurs when a person’s life is
devoid of growth factors, as described above or other meaningful activities that depicts concern
for oneself or others ( Newman, & Newman, 2016). The manner that integrity vs. despair
occurs is similar.
In that, this stage succeeds the latter (e.g., around 65 years of age and above), again,
when people usually feel satisfied with their life accomplishments and tend to take life-reviews.
If, however, the results do not evoke feelings of integrity, a typical emotion that aligns with
success, then one may feel a sense of despair which aligns with regret (Newman, & Newman,
2016). Critics of psychosocial theory, however, highlight both its strengths and weakness. They
acknowledge that the concept considers the social-cultural aspects of human development in
ways that similar theories such as Freud’s psychosexual theory does not. From this context,
positive human development depends mostly on one’s ability to successfully interact within his
or her sociocultural environment; therefore, psychosocial theory is the results of such (Newman,
& Newman, 2016). However, a primary weakness is that the theory assumes that stages of
development are unaffected by diversity among cultures or between males and females
(Newman, & Newman, 2016).
Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget developed the theory to explain both the nature of human intelligence and the
stages of development. He underscored that assimilation of language depends ,mostly, on proper
cognitive development from infancy to childhood. Thus, cognitive development is a continuous
process of organizing and reorganizing mental factors, such as thought and logic, influenced by
the nature of biology as well as social and environmental experiences (Newman, & Newman,

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2016). He defined three core constructs: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium. When
humans, for example, engage in unfamiliar situations or activities, they usually rely on
previously learned knowledge to make meaning of the new tasks; thus, assimilating added
information into existing schemas or knowledge. In contrast, if one uses the added information
to alter an existing situation then the act refers to accommodation, which is a means to use new
knowledge (Newman, & Newman, 2016). Equilibration enables the process.
When discrepancy arise, for instance, between existing schemas and new ones,
then (through the process of adaptation) equilibration occurs. It is a method by which new
knowledge balances with an existing knowledge (Newman, & Newman, 2016). According to
Piaget, human intelligence occurs in four stages beginning with sensorimotor, which starts in
infancy and continues until children are around 18 months of age (Newman, & Newman, 2016).
During which time, they use both sensory and motor schemes, which allow for moderate control
of their environment (Newman, & Newman, 2016). The second stage encompasses
preoperational thoughts; it occurs when children learn language skills (around five or six years
old). (Newman, & Newman, 2016).
The third stage (concrete operational thought) begins at around age 6 and ends in
adolescent. Among other traits, it depicts children’s ability to recognize differences among
relationships (Newman, & Newman, 2016). Formal operational thought is the fifth stage. It
begins in adolescent and continues throughout adulthood. This stage allows for the highest
cognitive development possible (Newman, & Newman, 2016). In contrast, L.S. Vygotsky
believed that addressing the complex nature of cognitive development from a social-historical

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context allows for a more comprehensive grasp of the phenomenon (Gredler, 2012; Newman, &
Newman, 2016)
To achieve this, he defined core concepts encompassing culture, forms of speech, and the
zone of proximal development. He emphasized that cultural tools such as cars and signs are key
cultural instruments that enable cognitive development. That is, not only do they regulate how
humans engage within environments but also through which means. Cultural tools ,therefore,
heavily influenced the human brain throughout one’s lifespan (Gredler, 2012; Newman, &
Newman, 2016). Similarly, Vygotsky underscored forms of speech (e.g., social, inner, and
silent) as essential for regulating behaviors (Gredler, 2012; Newman, & Newman, 2016).
He theorized that speech originates in social contexts. When infants ,for example, want
to communicate needs or desires, they use social tools such as social speech (verbalizing
outwardly) derived from egocentric speech (non-directed utterances) which becomes inner
speech (verbalizing inwardly) and eventually silent speech (non-verbalizing). All of which
enable the process of problem-solving (Gredler, 2012; Newman, & Newman, 2016). On the
other hand, to show how learning and cognitive development intersect within a social context,
Vygotsky developed the “zone of proximal development” (Gredler, 2012).
He theorized that there are learning gaps between what one knows about a subject, which
is usually determined by using standardized tests, and his or her learning potential if guided by
knowledgeable mentors. Vygotsky termed the gap the zone of proximal development (Newman,
& Newman, 2016). This concept illustrates how social constructs dominate cognitive
development processes (Gredler, 2012). Although Piaget and Vygotsky’s premises emphasize
cognitive development as a continuous interplay between the individual and his or her cultural

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environments, critics highlighted that Piaget’s theory evolves primarily around children which
excludes other learners, and that he described cognitive development processes from infancy to
adolescent as universal (Gredler, 2012; Newman, & Newman, 2016).
Moral Development Theory
Moral development explores the interplay of biopsychology, cognitive psychology, and
socialization to address the phenomenon of justice as it relates to moral conflict (Jorgensen,
2006; McLeod, 2007). During the late 19th
century cognitive theorist Jean Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg pioneered social sciences research (Jorgensen, 2006; McLeod, 2007). Piaget
developed a cognitive development theory that suggests children cognitive abilities evolve
through stages. Kohlberg, based on Piaget’s foundation, termed three stages of moral
development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional (Jorgensen, 2006; McLeod,
2007). During the preconventional stage (at, above, or below nine years old), authority figures
such as parents and teachers control children’s sense of morality; thus, their behaviors are related
to reward and punishment concepts (McLeod, 2007). When cultural norms ,within social
groups, regulate children’s morality, it signals a progression from the preconventional stage to
the conventional stage.
In that, children’s acceptance of morality rules relates to their belief that doing so
ensures unity among social relationships as well as rules of law (McLeod, 2007). When one
enters the postconventional stage ,however, he or she places more emphasis on self-actualized
views about justice and morality than their concerns about keeping unity among social
relationships (McLeod, 2007). In some instance, they may feel compelled to join protest
movements (McLeod, 2007; Newman, & Newman, 2016). Although Kohlberg’s moral

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development theory has widespread appeal, criticism exists. A core complaint is that the theory
(a) infers that women lacks moral reasoning, (b) that results are bias because Kohlberg recruited
all white, upper-class, male research subjects, most of whom were boys, and that (c) the theory
places more emphasis on westernized views of justice, which devalues opinions from
nonwestern cultures (Jorgensen, 2006; McLeod, 2007).
Social Learning Theory
The school of thought that observations, imitations, and reinforcement conditions play
key roles in the learning process are characteristic of social learning (Bandura, 1986; McLeod,
2016; Newman, & Newman, 2016). From this context, individuals gain a clear understanding
about potential consequences of various acts, which usually lead to positive behavior patterns
(Bandura, 1986; McLeod, 2016; Newman, & Newman, 2016). Moreover, social learning is a
continuous process, in part, because opportunities for observations and imitations are limitless
(McLeod, 2016; Newman, & Newman, 2016). Albert Bandura developed the social learning
theory. He termed four components for learning: observation, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. The observed (referred to as a model) is essential for social learning.
In addition, the model must be of interest to the observer (e.g., TV. personalities, parents,
educators, etc.); however, demographic information is not relevant to the learning theory
(McLeod, 2016). What is more, observers could imitate behaviors at once or later (retention). It
depends, mostly, on reactions from the observer’s social groups as well as the observer’s ethical
and moral beliefs (motivation) (McLeod, 2016; Newman, & Newman, 2016). On the other hand,
an observer could be interested in imitating a behavior but cannot , for example, due to health
problems (reproduction). (McLeod, 2016). Bandura’s social learning theory addresses the origin

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and evolution of complex behaviors derived from social and environmental influences.
However, critics argue that exposure to deviant behaviors such as aggression or violence does
not suggest all observers will respond by imitating the behaviors or by responding at all
(McLeod, 2016).
Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural research addresses phenomenon related to the development of cognition
from the contexts of historical, cultural, and institutional. All of which employ collaborative
learning frameworks such as modeling and scaffolding (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar, 2013;
Newman, & Newman, 2016; Vygotsky, 1997, 1979). Works by Theorists Lev Vygotsky have
prominence in sociocultural literature (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar, 2013; Newman, &
Newman, 2016). He theorized that stages of learning evolve through cultural constructs and the
society. Social interaction, which is a primary source of learning, begins within family
structures, followed by social groups, and professional affiliations (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar,
2013; Newman, & Newman, 2016).
Afterward, individuals assimilate what they have learned into metacognitive processes
(e.g., awareness, memory, development of abilities and skills) (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar,
2013; Newman, & Newman, 2016). Moreover, Vygotsky termed “ the zone of proximal
development” as the basis of cognitive development (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar, 2013;
Newman, & Newman, 2016). In that, it denotes the whole of individuals’ existing skill-sets,
which, in essence, reveals what social resources ( such as scaffolding) could enable further
learning (Kavanaugh, Puckett, & Tatar, 2013; Newman, & Newman, 2016).
Systems Theory

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The aim of systems theory is, in part, to categorizes multifarious sources of influence on
human development and to show how their influences converge with human influences
(Newman, & Newman, 2016; Urie, 1977). In that, individuals are components or members of
multiple cultural and environmental systems; as such, their interactions create an interchange of
diverse influences (Newman, & Newman, 2016). Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner termed the
phenomenon the ecological system theory (Newman, & Newman, 2016). The theory suggests
the roles of environmental factors are essential to the process of human development (Urie,
1977). He characterized five systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem (Newman, & Newman, 2016; Urie, 1977).
The first, microsystem, refers to the most influential system; it includes social and
religious affiliations, such as families, religious groups, and education communities. An
emphasis on relationships among such groups is characteristic of mesosystems. For example,
when people discuss their religious life in relation to their family life (Newman, & Newman,
2016; Urie, 1977). In contrast, if the head of a family decided to change his or her role within a
religious organization the decision could cause conflicts. Primarily because work and family
schedules may need realigning, which could pose hardships for some family member.
Moreover, the decision could also restrict family-time (e.g., socializing).
This interplay between a social environment the individual is not directly involved with
and his or her microsystem system refers to the context of exosystem (Newman, & Newman,
2016; Urie, 1977). Unlike exosystem, macrosystem defines cultural environments in which
individuals live such as socioeconomic factors, developed vs. developing countries, and culture
groups. All of which evolve and regress continuously (Newman, & Newman, 2016; Urie, 1977).

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chronosystem encompasses similar characteristics. In that, it highlights socioeconomic events
and sociohistorical circumstances that influences human development from the context of
lifespan transitions (Newman, & Newman, 2016; Urie, 1977).
Family separation, for example, caused by, say, immigration laws, which could pose both
psychological and financial hardships on the family as a group or as individuals (Newman, &
Newman, 2016). From a sociohistorical perspective, women did not have rights to vote in the
United States as men did until the 1900s (Ratified Amendments (1795-1992). Chronosystem
denotes, among other factors, a multifarious source of influence on human development
(Newman, & Newman, 2016; Urie, 1977). Although Bronfenbrenner’s systems theory
encompasses many strengths including depicting major sources of sociocultural, socioeconomic,
and sociohistorical influences on human development, critics’ core argument is that the theory
generalizes foundational concepts to all cultures, which devalue the theory’s credibility
(Newman, & Newman, 2016).
In summary, this journal assignment describes major human development theories,
including evolutionary, psychoanalytic, psychosocial, cognitive, moral development, learning,
sociocultural, and systems. Theorists include Albert Bandura; Charles Darwin; Erik H. Erikson;
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck; Jean Piaget; Lawrence Kohlberg; L.S. Vygotsky; and Sigmund Freud.
Other components depict key concepts, principles, and strengths and weakness. These theories
are, in fact, rationalizations about the origin and evolution of human species as well as whether
such is continuous or discontinuous (Newman. & Newman, 2016). Theories of evolution, for
instance, discuss human development from the perspective of how species evolve and adapt
through generations. The aim of cognitive theories is to show the interconnective nature of

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higher-order though processes. Learning, cultural, social role, and system theories show how
environments influence human development. All of which serve as foundations for further
research inquiries (DeBono, 2018; Darwin, 1859/1979; Gredler, 2012; Jorgensen, 2006; Milton,
& Polmear, 2011; Newman. & Newman, 2016; Ragozzino, & O’Brien, 2009; Rosa, & Tudge,
2013; Russ, 2014).
References
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Darwin, C. (1859/1979). The illustrated “Origin of species.” (Abridged and introduced
by Richard E. Leakey). New York: Hill &Wang.
Ellman, S. (2010). When theories touch: A historical and Theoretical integration of
Psychoanalytic thought. London: Karnac Books.
Gredler, M. (2012). Understanding Vygotsky for the classroom: Is it too late? Educational
Psychology Review, 24(1),pp. 113–131. Retrieved from
https://doiorg.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9183-6
Jorgensen, G. (2006). Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel? Journal of Moral Education, 35(2),
pp. 179–196. https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1080/03057240600681710
Kavanaugh, A., Puckett, A., & Tatar, D. (2013). Scaffolding technology for low literacy groups:
from mobile phone to desktop PC? International Journal of Human-Computer
Interaction, 29(4), 274–288. Retrieved from https://doiorg.ezp.waldenulibrary.
org/10.1080/10447318.2013.765766
McLeod, S. A. (2016). Bandura - social learning theory. Retrieved from

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www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
McLeod, S. (2007). Kohlberg. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html
Milton, J., & Polmear, J. F. (2011). A short introduction to psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Sage
Publication.
Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2016). Theories of human development (2nd ed.). New
York, NY: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis.
Ratified Amendments (1795-1992). Joint resolution of congress proposing a constitutional
amendment extending the right of suffrage to women [approved June 4, 1919].
General Records of the United States Government, Record Group 11: National Archive.
Retrieved from https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=63
Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. (2013). Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development: Its
evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5(4), pp.
243–258. https://doiorg.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1111/jftr.12022
Russ, S. W. (2014). Evolutionary, psychoanalytic, and developmental theories of pretend play
and creativity. In Pretend play in childhood: Foundation of adult creativity, pp. 29–43.
Urie, B. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American
Psychologist, (7), 513. Retrieved from
https://ezp.waldenulibrary.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d
b=edsovi&AN=edsovi.00000487.197707000.00001&site=edslive&scope=site
Vygotsky, L. S. (1979). Consciousness as a problem in the psychology of behaviour. Soviet
Psychology, 17(4), pp. 3–35. doi: 10.2753/RPO1061-040517043

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Vygotsky, L. S. (1997). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky, Vol. 4: The history of the
development of higher mental functions [R. W. Rieber, Vol. Ed; M. J. Hall, Trans.]. New
York: Plenum Press.

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Wk11Assign: Theories of Development