This document summarizes Maria Montessori's ideas about the spiritual wellbeing of young children and argues that her principles remain relevant today. Montessori viewed spirituality as innate in children and the primary driver of their development and capacity for joyful learning. She saw children's ability to concentrate as a spiritual pathway to greater self-awareness and connection to the world. The document discusses how Montessori's principles of creating conditions to support children's "concentration" can inform modern approaches to children's spiritual development and wellbeing in education.
This document summarizes an interview between Tim Seldin, President of The Montessori Foundation, and Dr. Angeline Lillard regarding her recent study comparing outcomes of children enrolled in a Montessori school versus a traditional school.
The study found that Montessori education led to better academic and social outcomes for children. It addressed previous criticisms of Montessori research by using a control group of children who lost a random lottery for admission to the Montessori school. Media coverage of the study has been significant internationally but more limited in the United States. Dr. Lillard discusses details of the study such as the school studied, criteria for what constituted a strict Montessori program, and background of the
Child's individuality has to be appreciated and helicopter parenting will inhibit the growth of child.Montessori school environment provides a space for the child to discover himself/herself.Here the Spiritual embryo is child.Help the child how to think not on what to think.
Child development refers to orderly changes that occur as children grow. It can be described across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains. Many theories have aimed to describe and explain child development. Major 20th century theories included psychoanalytic theories focusing on personality formation, behavioral and social learning theories emphasizing environmental influences, biological theories highlighting innate processes, cognitive theories examining information processing and knowledge construction, and systems theories analyzing a child's complex interactions within multiple environmental systems.
The document provides an overview of the history and major theories in early childhood education. It discusses influential European figures like Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori, and Steiner who made important contributions to the field. It also summarizes major developmental and learning theories including psychosocial, behaviorist, cognitive, sociohistorical, and multiple intelligences theories. The document aims to give students context on the evolution of the field and demonstrate connections between psychology and early childhood education.
Holistic education in elementary schoolsSaminah Khan
Holistic education focuses on educating the whole child through connections to community, nature, and spiritual values. It aims to nurture wonder and intrinsic reverence for life. There is no set curriculum; education starts with each unique student and their experiences. The teacher acts as a coach and facilitator rather than just an information provider. Classrooms are democratic communities where students learn through play, activities, and projects rather than textbooks. When students become confident, sincere, hardworking learners who value themselves and their community, the goals of holistic education are achieved.
Taking contemporary research and aligning it with the Montessori method of education. This presentation is a starting point for those wishing to move away from traditional education, which has been entrenched in the industrial model for the last century.
Montessori 101 - A Parent Education Evening Seth D. Webb
The document outlines an evening event for new parents to learn about the Montessori method of education. It will include an overview of Maria Montessori's life and philosophy, a discussion of the planes of child development and human tendencies, and explanations of key Montessori concepts like the prepared environment, grace and courtesy, and peace education. The goal is to introduce parents to Montessori's vision of supporting each child's innate drive for learning and independence within a just and peaceful social system.
Children are a blessing from God and a source of new life and hope for continuity in the community as documented by Mbiti (1969) that “children are buds of society, and every birth is the arrival of ‘spring’ when life shoots out and the community thrives.” This implies children are a blessing to behold by parents as well as the larger community. Their arrival brings joy, jubilations and celebrations (Kiarie, 2016) as they are ushered in to be part and parcel of the larger community. However, children come with enormous responsibilities and demands to holistically nurture their physical, psychological, social and spiritual dimensions of growth (Genz & Kjsebo, 2010). While all these dimensions are critical, this paper focuses on the nurturing of children’s spiritual development by their Christian mothers. This is imperative since children are spiritual beings (Miller, 2015) and they require spiritual nurture to become responsible Christians, prepared to live up to Christian standards and faith as they grow. Jesus takes children seriously, they have a special place in his kingdom (Stonehouse, 2006), hence, the need for spiritual nurture and development. It is with this understanding that the paper sought to explore the place of Christian mothers in enriching spiritual growth of their children in a world least concerned about spiritual development. The objectives of this study were to; investigate the role of Christian mothers in cultivating Christian values in their children’s lives, examine the approaches Christian mothers use in enhancing spiritual development of their children and proffer strategies that Christian mothers could utilize to promote spiritual development of their children. This study was informed by James Fowler’s theory of faith development (1081). The study adopted desk top research methodology. The findings of this study revealed that while the responsibility to nurture the spiritual development of children is a corporate responsibility in the Christian faith, it is highly influenced by mothers.
This document summarizes an interview between Tim Seldin, President of The Montessori Foundation, and Dr. Angeline Lillard regarding her recent study comparing outcomes of children enrolled in a Montessori school versus a traditional school.
The study found that Montessori education led to better academic and social outcomes for children. It addressed previous criticisms of Montessori research by using a control group of children who lost a random lottery for admission to the Montessori school. Media coverage of the study has been significant internationally but more limited in the United States. Dr. Lillard discusses details of the study such as the school studied, criteria for what constituted a strict Montessori program, and background of the
Child's individuality has to be appreciated and helicopter parenting will inhibit the growth of child.Montessori school environment provides a space for the child to discover himself/herself.Here the Spiritual embryo is child.Help the child how to think not on what to think.
Child development refers to orderly changes that occur as children grow. It can be described across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains. Many theories have aimed to describe and explain child development. Major 20th century theories included psychoanalytic theories focusing on personality formation, behavioral and social learning theories emphasizing environmental influences, biological theories highlighting innate processes, cognitive theories examining information processing and knowledge construction, and systems theories analyzing a child's complex interactions within multiple environmental systems.
The document provides an overview of the history and major theories in early childhood education. It discusses influential European figures like Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori, and Steiner who made important contributions to the field. It also summarizes major developmental and learning theories including psychosocial, behaviorist, cognitive, sociohistorical, and multiple intelligences theories. The document aims to give students context on the evolution of the field and demonstrate connections between psychology and early childhood education.
Holistic education in elementary schoolsSaminah Khan
Holistic education focuses on educating the whole child through connections to community, nature, and spiritual values. It aims to nurture wonder and intrinsic reverence for life. There is no set curriculum; education starts with each unique student and their experiences. The teacher acts as a coach and facilitator rather than just an information provider. Classrooms are democratic communities where students learn through play, activities, and projects rather than textbooks. When students become confident, sincere, hardworking learners who value themselves and their community, the goals of holistic education are achieved.
Taking contemporary research and aligning it with the Montessori method of education. This presentation is a starting point for those wishing to move away from traditional education, which has been entrenched in the industrial model for the last century.
Montessori 101 - A Parent Education Evening Seth D. Webb
The document outlines an evening event for new parents to learn about the Montessori method of education. It will include an overview of Maria Montessori's life and philosophy, a discussion of the planes of child development and human tendencies, and explanations of key Montessori concepts like the prepared environment, grace and courtesy, and peace education. The goal is to introduce parents to Montessori's vision of supporting each child's innate drive for learning and independence within a just and peaceful social system.
Children are a blessing from God and a source of new life and hope for continuity in the community as documented by Mbiti (1969) that “children are buds of society, and every birth is the arrival of ‘spring’ when life shoots out and the community thrives.” This implies children are a blessing to behold by parents as well as the larger community. Their arrival brings joy, jubilations and celebrations (Kiarie, 2016) as they are ushered in to be part and parcel of the larger community. However, children come with enormous responsibilities and demands to holistically nurture their physical, psychological, social and spiritual dimensions of growth (Genz & Kjsebo, 2010). While all these dimensions are critical, this paper focuses on the nurturing of children’s spiritual development by their Christian mothers. This is imperative since children are spiritual beings (Miller, 2015) and they require spiritual nurture to become responsible Christians, prepared to live up to Christian standards and faith as they grow. Jesus takes children seriously, they have a special place in his kingdom (Stonehouse, 2006), hence, the need for spiritual nurture and development. It is with this understanding that the paper sought to explore the place of Christian mothers in enriching spiritual growth of their children in a world least concerned about spiritual development. The objectives of this study were to; investigate the role of Christian mothers in cultivating Christian values in their children’s lives, examine the approaches Christian mothers use in enhancing spiritual development of their children and proffer strategies that Christian mothers could utilize to promote spiritual development of their children. This study was informed by James Fowler’s theory of faith development (1081). The study adopted desk top research methodology. The findings of this study revealed that while the responsibility to nurture the spiritual development of children is a corporate responsibility in the Christian faith, it is highly influenced by mothers.
This document provides an overview of a special issue of the magazine Professional Development Today focused on exploring the work and legacy of Reuven Feuerstein. The issue includes contributions from experts around the world on how Feuerstein's theories have benefited children, teachers, and families. The introduction provides background on Feuerstein's pioneering work challenging the notion of fixed intelligence and showing how children's learning potential could be improved. It describes Feuerstein's assessments and interventions with children deemed "uneducable." The issue aims to sustain interest in Feuerstein's ideas and their application to support children.
This document provides an overview of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It discusses Piaget's key concepts including schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and his four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage involves developing object permanence through sensory experiences and motor skills. In the preoperational stage, children use symbols and language but cannot yet use logic. During the concrete operational stage, children develop logical thought processes.
Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentAyushi Gupta
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children. He observed his own children and others to develop a theory of four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In each stage, children build cognitive structures through processes of assimilation and accommodation. Piaget's theory emphasizes that children are active learners who construct understanding of the world through experiences. His work influenced theories of education to focus on discovery learning tailored to children's developmental levels.
Child development can be described across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains from conception through adolescence. Numerous theories have attempted to explain how and why children change over time, including psychoanalytic, behaviorist, biological, cognitive, and systems approaches. The document provides an overview of the major 20th century child development theorists such as Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bowlby, Skinner, and Bronfenbrenner and their theories regarding the key influences and stages of child growth and learning.
Day 2 history and psych foundations bridgewater 2011vpriddle
The document provides an overview of various psychological theories of learning including behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and constructivism. It summarizes key contributors to each theory like Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Montessori. It also outlines concepts from each theory like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, schemas, the zone of proximal development, and the idea that learners must construct their own knowledge.
Sustainable Living through Inner Blooming: Spiritual Development in SchoolsNirekha De Silva
Key to sustainable living is a society with self-realized individuals. Self-realization through self-understanding could be attained through spiritual development. Spiritual development is a core aspect of sustainable development as it lead to development of human qualities and skills that can be the foundation for an individual’s health, inner peace, positive relationships, higher achievements in academic goals and success in career. By incorporating spiritual development into the school curriculum it is possible to promote the concept of sustainable living.
Identifying the Tenets for Socio-Emotional Learning (SEL) & Development of Pr...iosrjce
India struggling to come out of the developing nation is undergoing lots of changes. The
industrialization and urbanization has already brought a change in the society wherein the women also have
started to earn for a living which is not only because of ambition but in order to run their homes. The joint
families are breaking and more and more nuclear families are coming into existence. Thus in such changing
times it is the children who become the bait of parents struggle and stress. In such conditions the preschools
should offer something which provides them more then education. The researcher in this paper has tried to
come out with a solution that can provide kids with support, love and care and take care of their social and
emotional needs which they can get deprived off. The educationist, psychologists and theorists have given a lot
of principles on which today’s early childhood education is based on. All this literature is like a goldmine from
within which the present researchers can still extract lots of gold. The researcher has done the same. After
going through all these theories the researcher has tried to extract some tenets that can be applied for the social
and emotional development and learning. It is not so that these tenets will lead to only social and emotional
development but can also lead to holistic development of preschoolers.
This document discusses Maria Montessori's theory of the four planes of development. It describes the first two planes:
1) Ages 0-6, where children need independence, order, and practical activities to develop physically and socially.
2) Ages 6-12, where children undergo physical and psychological changes and seek intellectual understanding through abstract concepts and exploring ethics. They need a wider social environment beyond the home.
3) The third and fourth planes are not described in detail.
The document summarizes how nature and nurture have influenced the development of the author from childhood to adolescence. It discusses how genes from parents determined traits like appearance, while environmental factors like supportive parenting, stimulating toys, and interactions with siblings and peers helped develop skills and behaviors. The author's cognitive abilities progressed as they interacted more with their environment. Their educational experiences were mostly positive, though some learning was hindered by bullying. Language developed through social interactions, and relationships with parents, siblings, peers, and society all contributed to the author's development.
This document discusses the concepts of psychology, development, and learning. It defines psychology as the study of the soul and traces its origins and evolution. It outlines several areas of psychology like general psychology, abnormal psychology, and developmental psychology. It then focuses on developmental psychology and explains key concepts like growth, development, stages of development from infancy to old age, factors influencing development, individual differences, and implications for teaching and learning.
Early childhood education involves the teaching of young children up until age 8. It focuses on learning through play based on theories that play meets children's physical, intellectual, language, emotional and social needs. Several studies have found benefits of early childhood education including increased IQ scores, higher test scores, and greater success in school and life. For example, the Perry Preschool Project found children who participated were more likely to graduate high school, be employed, and less likely to commit crimes.
This document provides an overview of philosophy of education. It defines philosophy, education, and philosophy of education. It also outlines several branches of philosophy including epistemology, metaphysics, axiology/ethics, politics, and aesthetics. The relationship between philosophy and education is discussed. Finally, the document summarizes the philosophies of major educational philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Comenius, Locke, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, Spencer, and Dewey and their views on education.
The document discusses key concepts in lifespan developmental psychology including:
1) Development involves biological, social, cognitive, and personality changes across the lifespan from conception to death.
2) There are debates around nature vs nurture and whether development is continuous or occurs in distinct stages.
3) Early prenatal development and environmental influences can impact lifelong physical and psychological development.
4) Infants progress from reflexes to language development and form attachments with caregivers that shape social and emotional development.
Holistic Education aims to provide a balanced, compassionate worldview through curricula drawing from eastern and western wisdom. It seeks to develop the whole personality including body, mind and heart. Currently, education focuses too much on the logical mind and lacks inputs for body and heart. Holistic Education would provide balanced inputs across all aspects of being through reformed curricula, teaching processes, and organizational structure. It aspires to enhance multiple types of intelligence and social well-being for all stakeholders in education.
The document discusses the sociocultural perspective on cognitive development. It explains that according to this view, how we learn and think is primarily shaped by our social and cultural environment. Culture influences cognitive development through child-rearing practices and what types of problems children are exposed to in their daily lives. Vygotsky argued that higher mental functions originate through social interactions and are then internalized. Children's intellectual development occurs within their zone of proximal development through guided participation and scaffolding provided by more skilled members of their culture. Different cultures will socialize cognition in different ways depending on their beliefs and tasks required to function within that culture.
Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator born in 1870 who developed the philosophical approach to educating children that bears her name. She observed that children progress through distinct developmental planes from birth to age 6, age 6 to 12, age 12 to 18, and age 18 to 24. During the first plane from birth to age 6, she noted the absorbent mind and sensitive periods where children are highly attuned to different stimuli. Her educational method aims to foster independence, observation of children, following the child's interests and needs, correcting mistakes gently, and providing a prepared learning environment. The teacher's role is to observe children and prepare materials to support their development according to Montessori's theories.
This presentation is for language teachers working with adults.It is on what is Montessori Method in general and how to apply it to teach 2nd language to adults.
The Cobb School, Montessori in Simsbury, CT has been believing in the child since 1974. A Montessori education meets the academic, physical and spiritual needs of the child.
Montessori education is an educational approach developed by Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori based on her extensive research with "phrenasthenic" or "special needs" children and characterized by an emphasis on independence, freedom within limits, and respect for a child’s natural psychological, physical, and social development. Although a range of practices exists under the name "Montessori", the Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) and the American Montessori Society (AMS) cite these elements as essential:
The document discusses Montessori cultural exercises and their significance. It explains that Montessori exercises introduce children to different environments, cultures, plants, and animals around the world. They help children classify and organize information to develop understanding and communication. The exercises provide experiences in language, arts, music, sciences, history and geography to help children adapt to their own culture. Specific exercises are described that use jigsaw puzzle maps of continents to teach children about the names and locations of continents, countries, and oceans.
This document provides an overview of a special issue of the magazine Professional Development Today focused on exploring the work and legacy of Reuven Feuerstein. The issue includes contributions from experts around the world on how Feuerstein's theories have benefited children, teachers, and families. The introduction provides background on Feuerstein's pioneering work challenging the notion of fixed intelligence and showing how children's learning potential could be improved. It describes Feuerstein's assessments and interventions with children deemed "uneducable." The issue aims to sustain interest in Feuerstein's ideas and their application to support children.
This document provides an overview of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It discusses Piaget's key concepts including schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and his four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage involves developing object permanence through sensory experiences and motor skills. In the preoperational stage, children use symbols and language but cannot yet use logic. During the concrete operational stage, children develop logical thought processes.
Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentAyushi Gupta
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children. He observed his own children and others to develop a theory of four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In each stage, children build cognitive structures through processes of assimilation and accommodation. Piaget's theory emphasizes that children are active learners who construct understanding of the world through experiences. His work influenced theories of education to focus on discovery learning tailored to children's developmental levels.
Child development can be described across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains from conception through adolescence. Numerous theories have attempted to explain how and why children change over time, including psychoanalytic, behaviorist, biological, cognitive, and systems approaches. The document provides an overview of the major 20th century child development theorists such as Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bowlby, Skinner, and Bronfenbrenner and their theories regarding the key influences and stages of child growth and learning.
Day 2 history and psych foundations bridgewater 2011vpriddle
The document provides an overview of various psychological theories of learning including behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and constructivism. It summarizes key contributors to each theory like Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Montessori. It also outlines concepts from each theory like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, schemas, the zone of proximal development, and the idea that learners must construct their own knowledge.
Sustainable Living through Inner Blooming: Spiritual Development in SchoolsNirekha De Silva
Key to sustainable living is a society with self-realized individuals. Self-realization through self-understanding could be attained through spiritual development. Spiritual development is a core aspect of sustainable development as it lead to development of human qualities and skills that can be the foundation for an individual’s health, inner peace, positive relationships, higher achievements in academic goals and success in career. By incorporating spiritual development into the school curriculum it is possible to promote the concept of sustainable living.
Identifying the Tenets for Socio-Emotional Learning (SEL) & Development of Pr...iosrjce
India struggling to come out of the developing nation is undergoing lots of changes. The
industrialization and urbanization has already brought a change in the society wherein the women also have
started to earn for a living which is not only because of ambition but in order to run their homes. The joint
families are breaking and more and more nuclear families are coming into existence. Thus in such changing
times it is the children who become the bait of parents struggle and stress. In such conditions the preschools
should offer something which provides them more then education. The researcher in this paper has tried to
come out with a solution that can provide kids with support, love and care and take care of their social and
emotional needs which they can get deprived off. The educationist, psychologists and theorists have given a lot
of principles on which today’s early childhood education is based on. All this literature is like a goldmine from
within which the present researchers can still extract lots of gold. The researcher has done the same. After
going through all these theories the researcher has tried to extract some tenets that can be applied for the social
and emotional development and learning. It is not so that these tenets will lead to only social and emotional
development but can also lead to holistic development of preschoolers.
This document discusses Maria Montessori's theory of the four planes of development. It describes the first two planes:
1) Ages 0-6, where children need independence, order, and practical activities to develop physically and socially.
2) Ages 6-12, where children undergo physical and psychological changes and seek intellectual understanding through abstract concepts and exploring ethics. They need a wider social environment beyond the home.
3) The third and fourth planes are not described in detail.
The document summarizes how nature and nurture have influenced the development of the author from childhood to adolescence. It discusses how genes from parents determined traits like appearance, while environmental factors like supportive parenting, stimulating toys, and interactions with siblings and peers helped develop skills and behaviors. The author's cognitive abilities progressed as they interacted more with their environment. Their educational experiences were mostly positive, though some learning was hindered by bullying. Language developed through social interactions, and relationships with parents, siblings, peers, and society all contributed to the author's development.
This document discusses the concepts of psychology, development, and learning. It defines psychology as the study of the soul and traces its origins and evolution. It outlines several areas of psychology like general psychology, abnormal psychology, and developmental psychology. It then focuses on developmental psychology and explains key concepts like growth, development, stages of development from infancy to old age, factors influencing development, individual differences, and implications for teaching and learning.
Early childhood education involves the teaching of young children up until age 8. It focuses on learning through play based on theories that play meets children's physical, intellectual, language, emotional and social needs. Several studies have found benefits of early childhood education including increased IQ scores, higher test scores, and greater success in school and life. For example, the Perry Preschool Project found children who participated were more likely to graduate high school, be employed, and less likely to commit crimes.
This document provides an overview of philosophy of education. It defines philosophy, education, and philosophy of education. It also outlines several branches of philosophy including epistemology, metaphysics, axiology/ethics, politics, and aesthetics. The relationship between philosophy and education is discussed. Finally, the document summarizes the philosophies of major educational philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Comenius, Locke, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, Spencer, and Dewey and their views on education.
The document discusses key concepts in lifespan developmental psychology including:
1) Development involves biological, social, cognitive, and personality changes across the lifespan from conception to death.
2) There are debates around nature vs nurture and whether development is continuous or occurs in distinct stages.
3) Early prenatal development and environmental influences can impact lifelong physical and psychological development.
4) Infants progress from reflexes to language development and form attachments with caregivers that shape social and emotional development.
Holistic Education aims to provide a balanced, compassionate worldview through curricula drawing from eastern and western wisdom. It seeks to develop the whole personality including body, mind and heart. Currently, education focuses too much on the logical mind and lacks inputs for body and heart. Holistic Education would provide balanced inputs across all aspects of being through reformed curricula, teaching processes, and organizational structure. It aspires to enhance multiple types of intelligence and social well-being for all stakeholders in education.
The document discusses the sociocultural perspective on cognitive development. It explains that according to this view, how we learn and think is primarily shaped by our social and cultural environment. Culture influences cognitive development through child-rearing practices and what types of problems children are exposed to in their daily lives. Vygotsky argued that higher mental functions originate through social interactions and are then internalized. Children's intellectual development occurs within their zone of proximal development through guided participation and scaffolding provided by more skilled members of their culture. Different cultures will socialize cognition in different ways depending on their beliefs and tasks required to function within that culture.
Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator born in 1870 who developed the philosophical approach to educating children that bears her name. She observed that children progress through distinct developmental planes from birth to age 6, age 6 to 12, age 12 to 18, and age 18 to 24. During the first plane from birth to age 6, she noted the absorbent mind and sensitive periods where children are highly attuned to different stimuli. Her educational method aims to foster independence, observation of children, following the child's interests and needs, correcting mistakes gently, and providing a prepared learning environment. The teacher's role is to observe children and prepare materials to support their development according to Montessori's theories.
This presentation is for language teachers working with adults.It is on what is Montessori Method in general and how to apply it to teach 2nd language to adults.
The Cobb School, Montessori in Simsbury, CT has been believing in the child since 1974. A Montessori education meets the academic, physical and spiritual needs of the child.
Montessori education is an educational approach developed by Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori based on her extensive research with "phrenasthenic" or "special needs" children and characterized by an emphasis on independence, freedom within limits, and respect for a child’s natural psychological, physical, and social development. Although a range of practices exists under the name "Montessori", the Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) and the American Montessori Society (AMS) cite these elements as essential:
The document discusses Montessori cultural exercises and their significance. It explains that Montessori exercises introduce children to different environments, cultures, plants, and animals around the world. They help children classify and organize information to develop understanding and communication. The exercises provide experiences in language, arts, music, sciences, history and geography to help children adapt to their own culture. Specific exercises are described that use jigsaw puzzle maps of continents to teach children about the names and locations of continents, countries, and oceans.
The stamp game introduces subtraction through concrete materials. It uses wooden stamps marked with values of 1, 10, 100, and 1000 to represent numbers. The child first constructs the minuend by placing the appropriate stamps. Then stamps are removed one place value at a time to represent the subtrahend being taken away. The remaining stamps are counted to find the difference. This allows the child to experience subtraction physically through removing equal groups.
Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator born in 1870 who developed the Montessori Method of education. Some key points:
- She was the first female doctor in Italy and became interested in educating mentally disabled children.
- In 1907 she opened her first Casa dei Bambini, a preschool program, which became very famous and helped spread her educational philosophy.
- Montessori believed that children have an innate potential and ability to develop in an environment of love and freedom. She emphasized the importance of sensitive periods, freedom of movement, and using hands-on materials tailored for different stages of development.
- Her method focused on practical life skills, sensorial exploration, language acquisition
Maria Montessori was a feminist doctor and researcher who developed the Montessori Method of education, which focuses on creating a child-friendly learning environment with hands-on materials to allow children to learn independently rather than being directly taught. She observed that children were thriving in the environment she created and developed her educational philosophy based on allowing children's natural instincts to guide their learning.
The document discusses romantic drama genre conventions. It notes romantic dramas typically focus on love stories, affairs, and passions that face obstacles. Common plot points include love at first sight, forbidden love, and tragic endings. Examples of iconic romantic drama scenes from films like Titanic, Dirty Dancing, A Walk to Remember, The Notebook are provided. The document then proposes two potential story ideas: one about a woman who kills her cousin to keep her husband, and one about a man who divorces his wife after realizing he's interested in men. It provides character outlines and potential plot points for developing either story into a romantic drama film.
Personal Learning Philosophy For Early ChildhoodjusGrace
Children are Capable and Competent; learning, developing, and growing as unique and diverse individuals..."the way we perceive children is evident in how we treat them...
Abstract-- Education in itself means all round Development of personality whether it is social,
moral, emotional, physical, mental and spiritual also. But since time immemorial spiritual
development was ignored in comparison to other dimensions of development in contemporary
education. This is not the case of religious education where main emphasis is laid on
spiritualism. In today’s modern world of globalization, spiritual development is the need of the
hour because of competition, educated unemployed etc that leads youths towards anxiety,
frustration, depression etc which leads them towards committing suicide sometime. At that time
it may be realized that there is something failure in the system mechanism etc of contemporary
education which leads youths towards committing such types of heinous acts. As Glenn Cupit
notes, “spirituality is generally ignored in human development texts and never treated as an
essential component of development,” while Kimball, Mannes, and Hackel point out there is a
vacuum in this “important and understudied domain of human development.” Aostre Johnson
Roehlkepartain, King, Wagener, and Benson (2006). The objectives of the study are: to explore
the idea of spiritualism as the main dimension of all Round Development of Personality; to
highlight the constraints and barriers of present educational system that restricts spiritualism in
education and to study the educational implications of spiritualism so that system of education
lay emphasis on all round development of personality. As quoted by Mohan Das Karam Chand
Gandhi, ‘Education means all round of personality’.
2.1 DEVELOPING A STATEMENT OF YOUR PROGRAM’S CORE VALUESThe co.docxlorainedeserre
2.1 DEVELOPING A STATEMENT OF YOUR PROGRAM’S CORE VALUES
The core values of a program of early care and education express the foundational, essential beliefs thatguide every aspect of its operation. They should reflect the knowledge base, history, and traditions thathave shaped the field of early childhood education as well as the philosophy of teaching and learningand beliefs about the purposes of education embraced by the program’s sponsor, leadership, and staff.They must also respond to the needs and values of the community that the program serves.Core Values of Early Childhood Education
The process of developing a statement of the program’s core values begins by considering theprofessional core values of the field of early childhood education that are part of the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct (NAEYC, 2011). They provide afoundation for the commitments all early childhood educators make to the children and families theyserve, to each other, and to their communities:
· Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle
· Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
· Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
· Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family, culture,1community, and society
· Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and colleague)
· Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues
· Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships thatare based on trust and respect.
A center working to identify the particular core values upon which its programming is based shouldbegin by affirming its commitment to these core values. It may then, after careful consideration, decide ifit is appropriate to add to, expand upon, or elaborate on them to reflect their particular center’sphilosophy of teaching and learning, their views about the purposes of education, and the needs andvalues of their community.Theories of Teaching and Learning
A center’s approach to teaching and learning is based on theories of child development. This knowledgebase guides teachers’ day-to-day interactions with children, families, and colleagues; its curriculum; andeach classroom’s layout, daily schedule, materials, and equipment.
While not all early childhood educators agree about which theories are most accurate, the field is unifiedin its belief, as expressed in the core values in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that teachers of youngchildren must be familiar with theories of child development and must understand how these theoriesinform their work.A Brief Review of Developmental Theories That Have Influenced Early Childhood Education
Theories of cognitive development that describe how children learn, and theories that explore children’ssocial and emotional development, are essential components of early childhood e ...
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Children’s Spiritual Lives: The Development of a Children’s Spirituality MeasureJonathan Dunnemann
Previous researchers who have studied children’s spirituality have often used narrow measures that do not account for the rich spiritual experiences of children within a multi-faith context.
In the current study, we describe the initial stages of development of a children’s spirituality measure, in which items were derived from children’s spiritual narratives. An exploratory factor analysis of the items revealed three main factors, including Comfort (Factor 1), Omnipresence (Factor 2), and Duality (Factor 3).
Spiritual Well-Being and Parenting Stress in Caring for Children with Neuro-D...inventionjournals
Caregivers of children’s with neuro-developmental disorders face challenges starting from resistance and denial, and such challenges may be likely to impact their Well-being. The present study explores the relations between spiritual well-being and parenting stress when parents faced with a crisis like caring for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. A convenient sample of 38 parents who reared 3 to 12-year-old children diagnosed with neurodevelopmental issues was part of the study. Parental Stress Index -Short Form (PSI/SF; Abidin, 1995) and the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS; Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009) were used to obtain a measure of the variables chosen. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to find out the significance of relations between spiritual well-being and parenting stress. Also, thesignificance of themean difference between the gender groups in relation tospiritual well-being and parenting stress was analysed using Independent Sample‘t’ test. Findings reveal a significant negative correlation between spiritual wellbeing and parenting stress, and it also shows that there is no gender difference in relation to parenting stress and spiritual well-being among parents. The findings indicate that spiritual wellbeing might act as a buffer of parental stress and can play the role of a protective factor against parenting stress for life challenges. It also shows that there might be no gender differences in parents’ experience of stress and spiritual wellbeing, but slight mean differences show a higher stress and spiritual wellbeing among mothers than fathers.
Colleagues Responses
Colleagues responses
Assignment 4 8080 Part 2
. Interact with 3 colleagues and respond to them by sharing additional insights, comparing experiences, and posing questions that further promote dialogue. (Post to each colleague in 150 words.)
Colleague 1 response:
Posted by DeQuanda Cummings
Optimizing Brain Development
The first few years of a child’s life are critical for healthy brain development. Brain development begins during the prenatal period and continues through early childhood. Although the brain continues to develop into adulthood, the first eight years builds the foundation for learning and success (CDC, 2021). Brain development depends on many factors such as, prenatal care, experiences, and exposures to toxins and infections. “Nurturing and responsive care for the child’s body and mind is the key to supporting healthy brain development” (CDC, 2021). Positive and negative experiences help shape a child’s brain.
How the brain grows is highly affected by the child’/ s experiences with people and the world. Children depend on interactions with parents and their caregivers to be responsive to their needs. Children thrive in environments where they can explore and play in a safe environment. Their needs ought to be met and not neglected. They do not need to be exposed to stress. As a parent and/or caregiver to support healthy brain development you can constantly talk to the child, read to your child, meet their needs, and offer them a safe place to explore and play. Speaking and reading to children increase their language and communication skills. “Nurturing a child by understanding their needs and responding sensitively helps to protect children’s brains from stress” (CDC, 2021). Exposure to stress can negatively affect brain development. When children are at risk, it can cause them a delay in accomplishing developmental milestones. They will distrust people if their needs are not constantly being met.
This topic is important to me because in the school that I work at we have a high population of students who needs are not being met. When they get into the classroom, before I can teach them anything I have to meet their needs whether it be feeding them or giving them extra attention. I have even gone as far to buy clothes and shoes for students. This affected the students’ learning. They were usually the ones that were below grade level in the classroom. When having conversations with the parents, they want better for their children but did have the resources or just did not know.
I will need support from pediatricians, early childhood educators, and counselors to help inform parents and caregivers about the importance of brain development and optimizing brain development.
Reference
CDC. (2021, February 22). Early Brain Development and Health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdeve ...
The document discusses the relevance of psychology to education. It covers several topics including the general role of psychology in education, its relation to other branches of science, relation to human behavior, role in education, needs of students, conceptions of education, curriculum and psychology, selection of content, and psychology and the teacher. Key points covered include that psychology studies the interactions between organisms and their environment, it has influenced education, curriculum should meet the needs of all students as individuals, and educational psychology studies human behavior in educational situations.
A basic introduction to child development theoriesNoval Farlan
This document provides an overview of several prominent theories of child development, including those related to cognitive development (Piaget, Vygotsky), language development (Vygotsky, Skinner, Chomsky), social development (Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky), and emotional/psychological development (Erikson, Bowlby, Ainsworth). Theories discussed include stages of development, the importance of social interactions and language, and the interplay between nature and nurture in influencing a child's growth.
This document provides an overview of several prominent theories of child development, including those proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others. It discusses their perspectives on cognitive, emotional, social, language, and physical development. The document emphasizes that while each theory offers valid insights, professionals generally take an eclectic approach, using aspects of different theories as appropriate to further their understanding of child development.
Running Head DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS PAPER .docxsusanschei
Running Head: DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS PAPER 1
DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS PAPER 9
Developmental Analysis Paper Part 1 COMPLETED
Developmental Analysis Paper
Personal Introduction of Childhood-Adolescent
Feud Sigmund’s psychosexual theory provides a critical theoretical framework for understanding and appreciating the critical changes throughout the life of an individual. The stages include infancy, childhood, adolescence, early and middle adulthood as we as the older age. During the childhood-adolescent stages of development, parents and primary caretakers, as well as the surroundings, play significant roles in the event of a child. For example, the parents provide emotional and material support as the child grow. They also impact some necessary but essential life skills that allow the child to transition to the next stage. Conversely, the adolescent stage is characterized by the growing sense of identity as one interacts with the peers. Therefore, the purpose of this analysis paper is to discuss my development stages, childhood and adolescence, in the perspectives of different theorists as discussed below;
Theoretical Perspectives of Development
Other than Feud’s psychosexual theory, other leading theorists include Piaget, Bowlby, and Fowler. The scholars give different perspectives on the childhood and adolescent stages of development as outlined below;
Stages of Development According to Freud
According to Feud, childhood development includes the development of pleasure which is primarily on the anus, and the joy of the child comes from defecation. During this time, toilet training becomes the essential skills for children. The authorities, the parents, need to gently with the child to prevent the formation of maladaptive behaviors such as obsession with cleanliness. On the other hand, in adolescence, the primary focus on building sexual relationships with the opposite sexes (Templeton & Eccles, 2006). The adolescents derive pleasure from having heterosexual intercourse. Sexual experimentation tends to have profound impacts on the adolescents, especially when authority fails to check on some behaviors from the onset.
Personal life experiences and correlation with the Feud’s theory reveals some exciting revelations. For instance, during my childhood, my mother emphasized toiletry training leading to my current obsession with cleanliness and hygiene in general. Conversely, I also experienced increased intensity for a sexual drive during the adolescence stage marked by the formation of heterosexual relationships. The relationships went through different tides, separation and forming new ones. During this stage, I received parental guidance on the need for chastity and abstinence to mitigate possible adverse effects of overindulging in intercourse (Templeton & Eccles, 200 ...
A Brief Note On The Growth Theory And The Dual Sector...Michele Thomas
The attachment theory accounts for differences in the development of social relationships in aging adults in the following ways:
1. Attachment styles formed early in life with caregivers influence social relationships in adulthood. Secure attachment leads to more social confidence while insecure attachment can cause social wariness.
2. Life experiences like marriage and parenthood can influence attachment styles in adulthood. Positive relationships help maintain secure attachment while negative experiences increase insecure attachment.
3. In older age, attachment styles impact the ability to form new relationships and cope with loss of existing relationships. Securely attached seniors are generally more social and able to seek support, while insecure attachment leads to greater loneliness and isolation.
Concept and aims of education by jaynal sir | what is education.notes b.edJAYNAL HUSSAIN
Concept of education
Aims of education
Concept and aims of education
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What is education notes.b.ed
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This document provides an overview of Montessori education. It discusses how Montessori viewed the development of a child's brain and intelligence. Key aspects of the Montessori method are explained, including the prepared environment, focus on practical life skills, and use of hands-on multi-sensory materials. The document also compares Montessori's views to those of theorists like Piaget, highlighting their shared belief that children learn through independent exploration and interaction with their environment.
Working for the Romanian Angel Appeal and the Royal College of Nursing in Constanta Romania after the fall of Ceaucescu. Working in the hospital and orphanages of Constanta. The largest HIV - AIDS population of children anywhere in Europe at that time. Working alongside mad nurses, doctors, psycholgists, the odd hippy and some generally wonderful human beings. This is some of the information I stored during that time.
The document summarizes the work done by Stella Griffiths and others to document and preserve the photographic work of Stanley Phillips from St. Clears, Wales from 1908-1920. They published books of his photos, established a website, held exhibitions of his work locally and further abroad that were well-attended. They also took on preserving the work of other local photographers. However, they currently lack a permanent space to display the collection and hold community events. They hope to establish a gallery, office, and retail space in Lower St. Clears to address this need and support the local community.
Modernity arose in the 19th century in response to industrialization, urbanization, and new attitudes among artists; it was characterized by new styles of painting, universal access to art, and changing social classes. As cities and consumerism grew, new artistic movements developed that rejected realism and embraced new subject matters and styles, making art more accessible through museums, lithography, and photography. Postmodernism emerged in the late 20th century as a rejection of modernism's focus on rationality and function in favor of pluralism and mixing of styles and cultures in response to a capitalist and mass consumer society.
1) The document analyzes cigarette advertising techniques over time, including iconic ads like the Marlboro Man. Advertisers have used imagery of masculinity, freedom, and lifestyle to promote smoking.
2) As restrictions have increased, the tobacco industry has turned to more subtle advertising like sponsoring events. They also target new demographics like the LGBT community.
3) The future of tobacco advertising is uncertain as regulations continue to tighten globally, but the industry explores new promotional methods like point-of-sale displays and social media.
The author takes a bus from their small village to St. Clears to review the town's shops and services. Upon arriving, they find most shops closed on the weekend. The next day, they visit the few shops that are open, including a factory shop and snack bar. They also enjoy food from the local Chinese and Indian restaurants. However, the author feels the town could attract younger visitors by having more businesses open on weekends and offering more amenities for teenagers.
An elderly couple who used to live in St. Clears but now live in Spain drove over 1,000 miles each way to visit an exhibition documenting the area over the last 100 years. They identified relatives in the photographs and shared stories from when they were young. The man offered a prize to anyone who could name all the men in a photo of his father on a factory outing. He commended the curator for preserving the area's photographic history for future generations.
Two cyclists from Pendine, Andy Edwards and Phil Jenkins, known as the Two Fat Cyclists, rode 1,000 miles from Chicago to New York in six days to raise £8,000 for the Canolfan Plant Sir Gâr children's centre charity. They were joined by drivers Lyndon Williams and Gethin Jones and played acoustic music gigs along the route, meeting Welsh opera singer Bryn Terfel at the end. This was not their first long-distance charity cycling trip to the US, having previously ridden 3,000 miles across the country in 2009.
The document outlines the route taken by a torchbearer on May 27th 2012 through several communities in Wales, including Swansea, Llanelli, Burry Port, Kidwelly, Carmarthen, Haverfordwest, Fishguard, Newport, Cardigan, Sarnau, Brynhoffnant, Llanarth, Aberaeron, and Llanon. It provides details of the streets and roads traveled on in each location as well as the times spent in each community.
Pendine was crowded over the weekend hosting two major events - the fifth annual daffodil ride cycling event and a motocross event on the beach. The cycling event has grown in popularity each year and raises money for charity. A motocross event was recently added, with riders of all ages and a crowd watching exciting races. The organized events in Pendine have increased visitors to the area, helping struggling towns attract visitors through sports and family entertainment.
The document presents findings from a survey of community and town councils in Wales regarding their profiles, skills and capabilities, interactions with communities and other organizations, and use of technologies. Key findings include that councils vary significantly in size and budgets, most have adopted the Model Code of Conduct, and about half have websites while internet access varies. Councils generally reported good relationships with their communities and unitary authorities, while interactions with the Welsh Assembly Government elicited more neutral responses.
The Laugharne Festival committee decided that the 2012 festival will feature a production of Under Mik Wood for three nights, going back to the festival's original format. The next committee meeting will be on March 9th at 7pm in Fern Hill Orchard. Sadly, Miss Gleed, a founding trustee of the festival, passed away. She had helped clear stones from the Cors Playing Field and provided prizes to encourage children. In 2010, Burton by Rhodri Miles was well received, and the committee thanked all their supporters for helping make it a success.
The launch of a new photographic archive in St. Clears, Carmarthenshire aims to digitize tens of thousands of images documenting daily life in the area from the early 1900s to the late 1970s. Volunteers are cataloging photos from the archives of five local photographers. Lists of names and event details will be published online and in local areas to reconnect people with lost photos of family, friends and community events. The collection will showcase the region's history and be preserved for future generations.
Volunteers are sorting through tens of thousands of photographs from five Carmarthenshire photographers from the early 1900s to the 1970s to create an online archive. Names, locations, and dates for photos will be listed to help reunite people with old photos of themselves and families. The collection will be exhibited in St. Clears and passed on to the National Library of Wales to preserve it.
This document contains a list of over 150 events that took place in various towns in Wales between 1961-1986. The events include dinners, presentations, celebrations, school closures, church services, sports competitions and more. They took place in numerous locations such as hotels, inns, schools, churches, and other public buildings and venues.
This document appears to be a list of names, locations, and events from 1964-1982 in Wales. It includes things like baby photos, weddings, work passports, and other family events. Locations listed include towns like Whitland, Laugharne, Llanboidy. The list provides details on over 100 families in the region during this time period.
The Rural Conversion Grant Programme provides assistance to micro businesses for converting redundant rural buildings into business use when new jobs are created or existing jobs are safeguarded. The grant is funded by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and the Welsh Assembly Government. Applicants must be micro businesses employing less than 10 people and have a turnover less than 2 million euros. Grants will fund 50% of eligible project costs or £20,000 per job created, whichever is lower. Interested applicants should contact Mike Bull at Carmarthenshire County Council for an application form.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
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You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
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Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
1. Journal of Student Wellbeing
December 2008, Vol. 2(2), 1-15.
Looking back to the future: The current
relevance of Maria Montessori’s ideas
about the spiritual wellbeing of young
children
Virginia Tregenza
PhD Candidate
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was an Italian educator whose ideas and
principles have validity in informing, understanding and responding to the
challenges faced by contemporary educators. Many of her foundational
principles are at the forefront of current educational thinking but are not
acknowledged or known in mainstream education. It is argued that her ideas
and principles about the spiritual wellbeing of young children have validity in
the current debate. Montessori saw spirituality as innate in young children;
the primary force driving their development, and central to their capacity for
joyful and deep engagement with their environment. She saw children’s
capacity and ability to concentrate deeply as a spiritual pathway to a new
level of individual consciousness and connection to the environment. These
principles can inform our current thinking, understanding and response to
young children’s spirituality. The conditions to bring about, support and
protect what Montessori calls ‘concentration’ should be considered in
pedagogical responses to the spiritual needs of young children.
The most human of all the needs of the child is neglected – the
exigencies of his spirit, of his soul … Moral malnutrition and intoxication of
the spirit are as fatal for the soul of man as physical nutrition is for the health
of the body. Therefore child-education is the most important problem of
humanity. (Montessori 1987, p.10)
1
2. VIRGINIA TREGENZA
Introduction
We are living in times when the ideas of what childhood is, who children are, and
what and how they learn, are being re-examined. As we explore and seek a better
understanding of the childhood issues that have emerged in the first decade of the
21st century, the question arises: should we take time to rediscover and reconsider
ideas articulated in earlier times? Educationalists in prior centuries anticipated and
articulated issues that exist now. This paper will explore the current issues around
the identification and incorporation of spiritual wellbeing into young children’s
lives. Maria Montessori’s central ideas regarding education and principles of
spiritual development and support in young children, specifically the role of
concentration, will be addressed. It is argued that these ideas and principles have
contemporary validity and can be used as an impetus for extending our thinking
about, and understanding of, children’s spiritual wellbeing.
Redefining ‘the child’ and reconsidering wellbeing and
spirituality
Educational practices and policies are the products of how society views children
and the purpose of education; views that can contribute to regarding children as
future ‘products’ whose worth will be evaluated by their later performance as adults
(Wyness 2006). The young child, in this light, is seen as
the first stage in the process of producing a ‘stable, well-prepared’ workforce for the
future, and thus as a foundation for long-term success in an increasingly competitive
global market.
(Dahlberg, Moss & Pence 1999, p. 45)
However, a new understanding of the child is emerging: one that challenges
how this and other dominant concepts of the child have been constructed and
conceptualised (Malaguzzi 1993; Mayall 1996; Prout & James 1997). By
problematising existing constructions of the child, new views of childhood are
emerging. They seek to replace the view of the child as deficient, incapable,
controllable, primitive and dependent – as something that is in the process of
‘becoming’ an adult (Woodrow & Press 2007). Instead, the child is seen as ‘being’
recognised as an intelligent, competent individual capable of active engagement
with the world, whose ‘stage’ in life should not be considered ‘preparatory’ but
significant in its own right (Dahlberg, Moss & Pence 1999).
The construction of ‘the child’ as competent and valid is a new lens which
can be used to view the value of young children’s ‘wellbeing’ in their educational
experiences. The idea of ‘wellbeing’ is now seen as broadly definable and as a
necessary part of a child’s life and learning experiences. The South Australian
government has integrated this concept into the Learner Wellbeing Framework
(Department of Education and Children’s Services (DECS) 2007), an inquiring
approach that “links care and education practices to the wellbeing of learners”
(DECS 2007, p. 4). The defining ideas of wellbeing centre on “… being optimistic
and engaging with life. It means having a sense of purpose, self-acceptance and
positive relationships” (ibid, end page).
2
3. LOOKING BACK TO THE FUTURE
In the last decade, as the redefinition of the child as a ‘being’ not a
‘becoming’ has taken hold, there has been an accompanying resurgence of interest
in the ‘holistic’ education of children and a greater focus on the spiritual dimension
of children’s lives. Roehlkepartain et al. (2006) believe that spirituality can be seen
as
a dimension of human life and experience as significant as cognitive development,
emotional development or social development. All of these dimensions of
development are interrelated. (2006, p. 1)
They elaborate further, placing spirituality in a position of dominant
meaning-maker, central to wellbeing: “it is the spiritual dimension that is most
involved in a person’s effort to integrate the many aspects of development” (p. 1).
In this context, there is a need to see spiritual development as “a quest for
connectedness with self, with others, with the worlds of history and nature, and with
the mystery of being alive” (Palmer cited in Sisk 2008, p. 25). Viewing spirituality
and wellbeing as of pivotal importance to how we live and learn is becoming
integrated into the debate about children’s experiences and their impact on learning.
Education as the mediator between children’s experiences and
wellbeing
As the experiences of childhood and their effect on children’s wellbeing are publicly
debated and discussed, a number of themes are emerging around the physiological
and psychological problems that appear to accompany the contemporary childhood
experience. These include depression, the impact of technology, learning disorders
and obesity. Although the etiologies of these issues are complex, many are seen as
either linked to or redeemable by children’s educational or formal care experience.
The recent report by Dr Fraser Mustard (2008) highlights this nexus between such
experiences and a child’s learning, health and behaviour, particularly in the early
years when development across all areas of human functioning is at its most rapid
and influential.
In our continuing efforts to respond and to improve life outcomes for
children, the public and educational profiles of a number of issues surrounding
childhood have become prominent. This has resulted in some effective identification
and intervention programs and an understanding of the preventative value of
knowledge of children’s developmental needs. Within the South Australian context,
examples of wider community programs include ‘Eat Well, Be Active Community
Programs’ (nutrition and exercise), ‘Auskick’ (sport and exercise) and The
Advertiser’s ‘Little Book Club’ (early literacy). Our eagerness to understand and
improve life outcomes for children has led to consideration of the overall wellbeing
of children, including their spirituality. The State Government of South Australia
has demonstrated it is taking this seriously in developing a ‘Learner Wellbeing
Framework’ (DECS 2007). This incorporates five dimensions of wellbeing,
including spiritual, and was developed to support formal care and education sites in
improving learner wellbeing. The inclusion of spiritual wellbeing in a secular
document reflects the increasingly broad view of what defines ‘spirituality’ and how
it impacts on children’s learning.
3
4. VIRGINIA TREGENZA
Spirituality – definitional and conceptual issues
A groundswell of interest in what defines spirituality, and how it develops in
children’s lives, is emerging in various disciplines. Researchers are exploring
whether spirituality has a biological basis, and are moving to study spiritual
development empirically and place it within mainstream scientific research into
human development (Roehlkepartain et al. 2006). This research suggests that
experiencing spirituality may be inherent and universal in children (Ratcliff & Nye
2006, p. 479). There still appears to be a fear or uneasiness in education around the
term ‘spirituality’, as something not grounded in the ‘real’ world; a testimony
perhaps to the ‘hocus pocus’, new-age cloud that hangs around the term. This
reticence may contribute, at least in education, to the difficulties in attempts to
define the term. Hyde comments that what is important is not defining, but
describing spirituality (2008b, p. 23), a position also supported by Claxton (cited in
Fraser & Grootenboer 2004).
A broadly accepted working definition of ‘spirituality’ from current literature
appears elusive. The semantic difficulties are accentuated by the use of the
seemingly interchangeable terms of ‘spirit’, ‘spiritual’, ‘spirituality’, ‘spiritual
development’ and ‘spiritual nurturing’. The word ‘spirit’ is derived from the Latin
‘spirare’ to breathe, which may resonate with the view that in our fast-paced,
scheduled world, children currently have very little opportunity to breathe deeply or
‘take a breath’. The Latin origins may, however, be the closest we get to a common
understanding of the term.
Teasing out the distinction between ‘religion’ and ‘spirituality’ is equally
problematic. As Eaude (2005) points out, the historical coupling of the two terms
has dominated discussion of their defining elements. This tension permeates the
literature, and it is not within the scope of this paper to analyse further or add to the
current definitions or debate in this area, but to work within the framework of
existing approaches to definition that are secular and focus on the human dimensions
of connectedness and purpose.
Spirituality can be seen as coupled with ‘student yearnings’ for answers to,
among other things, meaning and purpose in life, and a hunger for joy and delight
(Kessler cited in Sisk 2008, p. 25). For Wagener and Moloney,
Spirituality ... is the essential potentiality for addressing the ultimate questions that are
intrinsic to the experience of being human … (it is) an integrative function that leads
to an experience of personal wholeness and defines the links between the self and the
rest of creation, locating the individual within a transcendent system of meaning.
(2006, p. 139)
The reference to transcendence in considering spirituality alludes to the idea
of ‘the getting of wisdom’ and a focus on the function and role of the individual in
relation to others. Through spiritual development, there can be personal
transformation that benefits individuals and the communities they belong to. Bigger
(2007) argues that a rational way to approach transcendence is to look for external,
natural and rational sources of inspiration. With reference to spirituality in young
children, this promotes consideration of the experiences and environments that may
4
5. LOOKING BACK TO THE FUTURE
provide such opportunities. If spirituality is also seen as innate and observable
(Gisenberg 2000), then it opens up the possibility that ‘spirituality’ is a driving,
transformative ‘life force’ that leads an individual to explore ‘who I am’ and ‘how
do I understand the world’. It is reasonable to consider this as observable in a young
child’s drive to interact with his or her world and the joy and delight shown in
discovery and exploration.
This concept of a driving force, or urge to learn – energy within a child that
guides his or her development – is at the core of Montessori’s approach and her
educational practices, particularly with 3–6 year olds (Montessori 1966, 1967a,
1967b). This ‘inner vitality’ Montessori saw as the unacknowledged, unprotected
and neglected psychic or ‘spiritual state’ of a child’s development (Montessori 1966,
p. 46). Adults who attend to this development are urging a child to “… new insights
and discoveries both in his external environment and in the intimacies of his own
soul” (Montessori 1967b, p. 320). So, as we begin to consider these ideas, we might
ask: who is Maria Montessori?
Montessori – ideas, principles and educational method
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was an innovative Italian educator, and the first
woman to graduate in medicine from the University of Rome in 1886. She was
nominated three times for the Nobel Peace Prize. She is unique in having developed
a pedagogy or method of educational practice to support her philosophy of education
and theory of child development. Her work still flourishes across six continents in
schools that practice her educational method. Montessori herself was an eclectic
borrower of the best ideas available to her at the time, but her strength lay in how
she used the ideas of others in combination with her own “for new purposes and in
new ways” (Kramer 1976, p. 238). Thinkers who preceded and influenced her
include Rousseau, Locke, Itard, Pestalozzi, Froebel and Bergson (Chattin-
McNichols 1998). She lived, wrote and worked over the time when the writings of
Marx, Durkheim and Weber were being transformed into the discipline of sociology.
In the educational arena, there may have been a reciprocal influence with Piaget,
who was well aware of her work (Lillard 2005).
Montessori’s educational method was developed through her observations of
what children are deeply interested in and capable of doing by and for themselves
when internally motivated and supported to do so. Recognising the experiences of
children from 0–6 years as crucial in their development, Montessori saw that the
environment can be an effective facilitator of change, and that the relationships
children develop with the environment are where they connect their ideas and
deepen their general knowledge and understanding. Her educational philosophy
reveals a focus on understanding the needs, development and potentialities of the
child. Montessori (1965) saw children and adults as distinct and separate entities,
and that the rights of children needed greater recognition compared with the rights
of adults because children ‘create humanity’ but are without voice (1966, p. 214).
Concerned about the perception and social status of children, Montessori wrote that
A child … is condemned by adults to … places of exile until he reaches an age when
he can live in an adult world without causing others distress. It is only then that a
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child is admitted to society. Prior to this he has to obey adults like a person deprived
of civil rights. (1966, p. 193)
She spoke of liberating children by providing education that suits the
developing soul of the child and by respecting a child’s developmental pace and his
or her need and ability to work, concentrate and exercise choice (Chattin-McNichols
1998). Montessori believed that our attitudes as adults towards children will only
change when the rights and needs of children are accorded deeper respect. Then, she
argued, we may be able to move away from educating children in ways that suit us
(Montessori 1965). In understanding this, her principles may be seen as pre-empting
concepts and thinking that are considered ‘cutting edge’ today; principles that place
a child’s wellbeing as central to her or his experience.
Montessori’s ideas for an education system that aimed to develop
independent-thinking individuals led to her schools being closed and her books
burned by German and Italian Fascists in the1930s. Her ideas have never been far
from controversy, misunderstanding and misinterpretation but, intriguingly, they
have not infiltrated the mainstream of education and related disciplines, nor have
they had the exposure of Piaget’s or Vygotsky’s theories for example, despite
current research that supports her psychological theories (Lau 2008; Lillard 2005).
Lillard (2005) considers that this may be because Montessori herself was foremost a
practitioner, lacking interest in theory and an experimental rigor in developing her
educational ideas, and also because of the impact of the influential criticism of
William Kilpatrick (1915) in the United States at the time her method was receiving
international attention.
Montessori’s ideas and principles and current relevance
However, Montessori’s unique approach to children’s learning experiences and her
deep commitment to education as a means of positively transforming society and the
environment has seen her principles and the application of her method continue for
more than a century. Montessori’s approach has been described as a humane
educational theory that actively opposes seeing education as a way of preparing
children for employment and moves to, among other things, “nourish the souls of
students” (Postman 1999, p. 131). These principles, embodied in her philosophy, are
considered innovative even now. It is the range of principles that Montessori
articulates about how we view education, learning and the child that can be seen to
still hold their value in this century. They have value because they are capable of
informing contemporary issues and knowledge. Addressing the current challenges in
early childhood may need alternative ways of thinking, acting and accommodating,
and it is argued here that Montessori’s ideas can contribute meaningfully to this
process.
It is not the purpose of this paper to outline the breadth and complexities of
Montessori’s philosophy, theory and educational method, as a number of authors
have skillfully attended to this (see for example: Chattin-McNichols 1998; Lillard
2005). However, we are at a time when the idea of ‘spirituality’ as a part of student
wellbeing is a concept of increasing scholarly and pedagogical interest. The
consideration of ‘spirituality’ in education is now entering mainstream thought. As
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7. LOOKING BACK TO THE FUTURE
Hyde states, however, it is “a relatively new field of exploration” (2008, p. 13).
Questions about the defining qualities of spirituality, its role in young children’s
development and wellbeing, and how it may be recognised and supported in the
early years, are being actively debated. Montessori’s principles and pedagogy may
assist to inform and problematise this questioning, and her writings are deserving of
closer scrutiny at a time when the ideas of spirituality, wellbeing and educational
practices for the under 6s are all receiving serious and significant attention.
Montessori and spirituality
For anyone interested in children’s spirituality and wellbeing, Montessori has much
to offer. For Montessori, nurturing the child’s spirit is critical to a child’s whole
development. She wrote that
There are some who still cling to the mistaken conviction that a child’s natural
education should be wholly physical; but the spirit also has its nature, and it is the life
of the spirit that should dominate human existence at every stage. (1967b, p. 320)
The spiritual dimension of young children’s development, and its critical
importance in their education, are foundational to her philosophy, theory of
development and pedagogical practice. Montessori lived and worked much of her
life in Italy, where the dominant religion was Catholicism, and she was brought up
as a Roman Catholic. In the historical context of Montessori’s writing and practice
in Catholic Italy, her views on spirituality could arguably be seen as inextricably
integrated with religion. She wrote about religious teaching at various times in her
life. Her methodology and principles concerning religious teaching have been
developed further; the work of Sophia Cavaletti (1983) is one example. Cavaletti’s
‘Catechesis of the Good Shepherd’ is based on Montessori’s principles, and focuses
on providing a carefully prepared environment for children that supports and
encourages their spiritual relationship with God. Children are provided with
materials such as religious figures and an environment where they can reveal the
qualities that Montessori saw: a capacity to deeply concentrate, a joy in engagement
and the ability to thoughtfully reflect within and respond to an atmosphere of still
and quiet (Hyde 2004; May 2008). These ideas on the religious education of young
children have been applied by educators developing religious education programs in
diverse faiths.
In light of this, we need to consider whether Montessori’s spirituality
principles have ‘universality’, that is, whether her ideas can contribute to the debate
about spirituality as a secular experience. However, it is not just her religious
education writings that are dominated by principles of spirituality: spirituality is
central to her educational method. Thus we need to consider these principles and
reflect on them in the broader context of representing a spirituality that is not
defined by religion. Montessori’s view on spirituality was that all children have the
capacity for spirituality and can and do experience it. Spirituality is holistic and
innate in the sense that there is an inner, spiritual force that drives a young child’s
development. This aspect needs to be further considered.
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Spiritual foundations – children’s ‘work’, interests and the
environment
Montessori saw a child’s relationship with the environment as the key to his or her
self-understanding. The quality of this relationship was thus both paramount and
central to a child’s physical and mental health and development because
Education … is not acquired by listening to words, but in virtue of experiences in
which the child acts on his environment. (1967a, p. 8)
This sentiment is echoed by Ratcliff and Nye (2006), who suggest that any
framework for examining children’s spirituality needs to focus those children’s own
experiences. The environment can be viewed as having a profound influence on a
child’s experiences by the limitations and possibilities it contains. Kennedy sees that
for the child, the environment “… forms and instructs lived experience” (2006, p.
170). The environment and what it affords a young child’s experiences is arguably
where we should also start when considering, recognising and supporting young
children’s spirituality.
The crucial aspect for consideration is Montessori’s view that children have
an inner spiritual drive for development. This idea is fundamental to a child’s active
engagement with the environment, which is then seen as the spiritual process of
self-construction – and that this is a child’s ‘work’. ‘Working’ in this sense, is
defined by Montessori as a child’s efforts and experiences of interacting with the
environment (1967a, p. 88). The idea of a child ‘working’ is not a concept exclusive
to Montessori’s thinking, but is one that has attracted significant criticism, as it
challenges the notion of a childhood as a period of ‘play’. Kennedy (2006, p. 271)
raises ideas that echo this in exploring the relationship between ‘play’ and ‘work’
for children, and the transformative nature of task engagement and mastery.
According to Montessori, for ‘work’ to successfully occur, the environment needs to
be “rich in motives which lead interest to activity and invite the child to conduct his
own experiences” (1967a, p. 92). This can be achieved if the tasks available “arouse
such an interest that it engages the whole personality” (1967a, p. 206). The adults in
a child’s life are able to provide this if they are attuned to that child’s interests.
This was something Montessori believed was recognisable when a child
shows intense interest in aspects of the environment. Referred to as ‘sensitive
periods’, these interests are marked by intense energy, are internally motivated,
propel a child’s development and are the times when learning is optimal. She
identified, among others, sensitive periods for language. For Montessori, the adult’s
role is to not only follow the young child’s interests in the immediate, but to also see
these interests as catalysts for deeper knowledge and understanding. The adult needs
to provide ways for children to freely but purposefully engage with their
environment in a way that will bring their initial contact to a different, deeper level,
as this is the means by which children can experience concentration. Concentration
then, is the visible spiritual force that leads to optimal development and wellbeing,
where a child is “… in communication with himself and opens up his soul”
(Montessori 1967b, p. 179).
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9. LOOKING BACK TO THE FUTURE
Writing in 1912, Montessori observed that concentration in young children
was the key to self-mastery (1912/1964) central to a sense of self. Concentrating
(described in her writings as an intense focus of mental energy on an object or
activity in the environment) leads children to engage in the world with different
motives and a different level of understanding. She believed that concentration feeds
a ‘spiritual hunger’ (1917/1965, p. 153) and fulfils the spiritual need for self-
development in young children. Children experience a spiritual repletion when they
engage in the environment in ways that bring about their development; that is,
through an initial portal of deep concentration.
Concentration as a spiritual force
For concentration to occur, adults need to prepare the environment and “provide
‘motives for activity’ so well adapted to the child’s interests that they provoke his
deep attention” (1967a, p. 206). This deep attention is the necessary precursor to
concentration.
One thing certain is that no child concentrates just by making an effort of will …
nature … gives the child special interests, interests of exceptional intensity. (1967a, p.
217)
Concentration, Montessori believed, was a key to all pedagogy.
I studied with great care how to produce that environment that would include the most
favourable conditions to arouse this concentration, and it was in this fashion that I
began to create my method. Certainly, here is the key to all pedagogy: to know how to
recognize the precious instinct of concentration in order to make use of it in (the)
teaching. (1987, p. 18)
She saw that children who have deeply concentrated appeared deeply rested
and ‘intimately strengthened’: “It seems almost that in their soul a path has been
opened” (1987, p. 18). Concentration then becomes a spiritual pathway to a new
consciousness; that of a child’s own individuality and the unlocking of his or her
true development.
When he comes out of his concentration, he seems to perceive the world as a
boundless field for fresh discoveries … The spiritual process is plain: he detaches
himself from the world in order to attain the power to unite himself with it. (1967a, p.
272)
There is an argument that wellbeing is established through self-understanding
and finding purpose in life (Cohen 2006), and that this is a key to supporting
spiritual wellbeing in young children. If this is so, providing a supportive
environment is important for the fulfillment of children’s capacity and need for
spiritual expression. If it is also accepted that the capacity to concentrate and the
requirement to engage in it are of spiritual value, then the challenge facing educators
is to provide opportunities for this to not only occur, but be protected when it does
(Cossentino 2006).
Exploring the conditions for spirituality through concentration
For Montessori, the spiritual dimensions of a child’s life and experiences go well
beyond the focus of this paper, and are integrated into the complex layers of her
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10. VIRGINIA TREGENZA
overall educational method. However, the grounding considerations for an
environment that supports and protects concentration have already been stated here.
Children need an environment that is rich in activities that are meaningful for them
and have the potential to fully engage their attention. Children also need the
opportunity to freely choose such activities. Many would argue that pre-school
environments already exist that achieve this. But there is a cultural and philosophical
shift needed to achieve conditions for a child to not only fully engage in a way that
brings deep concentration into being, but allows him or her to continue
uninterrupted. We need to shift our focus from viewing early learning experiences as
being quintessentially social, and see and respect the need for very young children to
engage deeply with activities in private and without interruption. Young children of
3 and 4 years have the will and the capacity to deeply concentrate for lengthy
periods of time, given an environment that values and supports it.
Children need spaces that allow and encourage this to happen: places where
they can engage with activities on their own if they so choose. A place chosen by a
child for this purpose might be represented by just one chair at a small table, or may
be in some other way delineated. In Montessori environments, the rolling out of a
small rug on the floor is a signal to others that this is just such a place. Children may
choose to have others join them, but they also need the license and the language to
ask that adults and other children allow and accept their need to be on their own. To
do this, we need to acknowledge that children to have the right to say ‘I’d rather be
engaged with this activity on my own right now’, and that sometimes they don’t
wish to share what they are doing with others. Periods of time are needed where
interruptions by adult-driven agendas are minimised, and where other children
understand that someone who is deeply engaged is not to be interrupted
Spirituality – a new ‘curriculum’
For Vialle, Walton and Woodcock (2008), how to approach spirituality in a
mainstream curriculum is a new frontier. A number of authors have touched on
practical considerations for supporting spirituality that echo the ingredients for
concentration in Montessori’s writings. Bone (2005) and Bone, Cullen and
Loveridge (2007) have explored the idea of ‘everyday spirituality’; something that
arises from the social experiences and practices children have in the course of their
daily living which enable them to become attuned to their ‘inner life’ or rhythms.
Part of this includes the ability to freely choose activities, which Bone describes as
having “the power to awaken the soul” (2005, p. 312).
Fraser and Grootenboer (2004) explore the characteristics of environments
that enhance the spiritual dimensions of children’s lives, including making provision
for “deeply meaningful events and activities that initiate a transcending experience”
(p. 312). Zohar and Marshall (cited in DECS 2006, p. 9) raise the idea of a ‘natural
spirituality’ in children as an impetus for their creation of a ‘metaphysical
framework for their lives’ that is grounded in their deep interest and curiosity about
their world. Nye and Hay (1996), in reflecting on children’s spiritual experiences,
maintain that concentrated attention, which can arise through mastery of new skills,
can have long-lasting spiritual significance. The concepts considered here again
10
11. LOOKING BACK TO THE FUTURE
raise the point of looking back to past ideas, as we reflect on where we are going
with spiritual concepts and curriculum with young children.
Provoking current educational thinking with past ideas
Concern about young children’s wellbeing is not new. Tucked away in writings
from the 19th and 20th century are ideas and reflections relating to the rights,
wellbeing and spiritual health of children. Postman (1999), in exploring the
possibilities of meaningful ideas from the 18th century having value in this century,
states that,
in order to have an agreeable encounter with the twenty-first century, we have to take
into it some good ideas. And in order to do that, we need to look back to take stock of
the good ideas available to us. (p. 13)
The question is not whether we should be unquestioningly embracing ideas
from earlier times, but whether these ideas have the capacity to problematise the
discourses of this century. This concept is not a new one in education, where past
theories and ideas continue to influence the rethinking, redefinition and reevaluation
of educational pedagogy and philosophy. Writers such as philosopher and educator
John Dewey (1859–1952), for example, continue to have a powerful influence on
early childhood thinking in relation to, amongst many areas, the role of direct and
relevant experience in young children’s learning and the democratic potential that
exists in children’s social experiences (see for example Fraser 2006; Hedeen 2005).
The Reggio Emilia approach may reasonably be seen as a product of a process,
where multiple and diverse theories and ideas, including those of Montessori,
Vygotsky, Dewey, Erikson and Brofenbrenner, have influenced and inspired new
ways of approaching and implementing young children’s educational experiences
(Edwards, Gandini & Forman 1998), and have been instrumental in provoking a
critical approach to many assumptions of what is considered ‘best practice’ in early
childhood education (Fraser 2006). It is in this context that the ideas of Maria
Montessori (1870 –1952) are worth considering; not as a panacea, but as “a
provocative approach that can fit into current educational reforms” (Wakin 1974, p.
29).
Conclusion
In this paper I have argued that the care and education of children in the 21st century
faces unique challenges, and that Montessori’s ideas and principles have
contemporary validity in informing, understanding and responding to these. Her
foundational principles are grounded in viewing children as capable, intelligent and
active learners who are significant in their own right. These concepts are at the
forefront of current educational thinking. In addition, there is now a groundswell of
interest in the spiritual dimension of children’s lives and its role in their wellbeing
and education. I have argued that Montessori’s views on spirituality have validity in
the current debate. Montessori saw the primary driving force in all children’s
development as spiritual in nature, and it is this spirituality that gives children a
capacity for joyful and deep engagement with their environment. Children’s
capacity and ability to concentrate deeply is a spiritual pathway to a new level of
individual consciousness and connection to the environment, enabling a ‘spiritual
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12. VIRGINIA TREGENZA
life’ which is “… built upon the fundamental basis of a unified personality, well
attuned to the outer world” (Montessori 1967a, p. 266). The conditions to bring
about, support and protect young children’s concentration should be considered in
responding to their spiritual needs.
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