The document discusses specific capacity, which is a measure of well productivity calculated by dividing pumping rate by drawdown. It provides key information about specific capacity, including that it can be used to identify potential well problems, estimate aquifer transmissivity, and determine maximum pumping rates. The document also outlines best practices for specific capacity testing, such as pumping for at least 24 hours and performing semi-annual tests to monitor changes over time. Rehabilitation is recommended when specific capacity drops by 25% from initial values.
This document discusses groundwater hydrology and various aspects of wells. It defines groundwater and factors that influence its occurrence. There are four main types of geological formations - aquifers, aquitards, aquicludes, and aquifuges. The document describes properties of aquifers like porosity, permeability, and transmissibility. It also discusses Darcy's law, methods to measure soil permeability, and types of wells, well construction, and well development techniques.
Canal & canal types with design of channels by dj sir covered kennedy lacey t...Denish Jangid
This document discusses canals and their classification and design. It describes different types of canals including contour canals, which follow the contour lines of the land to minimize engineering works. The document outlines several steps for determining the depth and bed width of canals based on factors like area and peak discharge. It also lists considerations for aligning canals, such as minimizing costs, serving the intended irrigation area, and balancing cut and fill amounts.
This document discusses principles of groundwater flow. It defines Darcy's law, which governs groundwater movement, and presents the governing equations for confined and unconfined aquifers. It also discusses flow nets, which can be used to graphically analyze groundwater flow, and the Dupuit equation, which approximates unconfined flow between two bodies of water. The document provides an example problem applying the Dupuit equation to calculate groundwater discharge to two rivers separated by 1,000 meters.
This document provides an overview of ground water hydrology. It defines key terms like aquifers, aquitards, the water table, porosity, permeability and discusses the movement and storage of groundwater. It explains that groundwater is an important source of water, especially in arid areas, and outlines the water balance concept and different zones of subsurface water like the saturated and aeration zones.
The document discusses a course on analyzing pumping tests for groundwater aquifers. The course aims to teach participants how to determine aquifer properties through pumping tests. It covers key concepts like drawdown, specific capacity, and transmissivity. Participants will learn how to plan and optimize pumping tests, apply analytical techniques to interpret test data, and use software to analyze projects. The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the course sessions, including aquifer conditions, equations for flow to wells, and methods for analyzing pumping test results.
This document discusses different types of canal lining materials and their advantages. It states that lining canals reduces water losses through seepage and prevents waterlogging of adjacent lands. It allows for smaller canal dimensions since lined canals have lower resistance to flow. Lining also reduces maintenance needs like silt removal and bank repairs. Common lining materials described include cement concrete, shotcrete, precast concrete, brick and various earth linings. Cement concrete lining provides excellent hydraulic properties but has high costs. Shotcrete and cement mortar linings use large amounts of cement. Brick lining allows for easy repair and is hydraulically efficient. Lining improves water conservation and irrigation capacity but requires heavy initial investment.
This is a lecture on well hydraulics. The basics of flow towards the well in confined and unconfined aquifers. Well interactions. Method of images. Flow nets in case of multiple wells. Superposition theory for multiple wells.
This document provides an overview of groundwater flow concepts including:
- Derivation of the Laplace equation and equations for steady and unsteady confined and unconfined groundwater flow from Darcy's law and the continuity equation.
- Definitions of specific yield, specific storage, and storativity and their relationships.
- Expressions for one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and seepage flow.
- Analytical solutions for steady one-dimensional flow in confined and unconfined aquifers with constant and variable thickness.
This document discusses groundwater hydrology and various aspects of wells. It defines groundwater and factors that influence its occurrence. There are four main types of geological formations - aquifers, aquitards, aquicludes, and aquifuges. The document describes properties of aquifers like porosity, permeability, and transmissibility. It also discusses Darcy's law, methods to measure soil permeability, and types of wells, well construction, and well development techniques.
Canal & canal types with design of channels by dj sir covered kennedy lacey t...Denish Jangid
This document discusses canals and their classification and design. It describes different types of canals including contour canals, which follow the contour lines of the land to minimize engineering works. The document outlines several steps for determining the depth and bed width of canals based on factors like area and peak discharge. It also lists considerations for aligning canals, such as minimizing costs, serving the intended irrigation area, and balancing cut and fill amounts.
This document discusses principles of groundwater flow. It defines Darcy's law, which governs groundwater movement, and presents the governing equations for confined and unconfined aquifers. It also discusses flow nets, which can be used to graphically analyze groundwater flow, and the Dupuit equation, which approximates unconfined flow between two bodies of water. The document provides an example problem applying the Dupuit equation to calculate groundwater discharge to two rivers separated by 1,000 meters.
This document provides an overview of ground water hydrology. It defines key terms like aquifers, aquitards, the water table, porosity, permeability and discusses the movement and storage of groundwater. It explains that groundwater is an important source of water, especially in arid areas, and outlines the water balance concept and different zones of subsurface water like the saturated and aeration zones.
The document discusses a course on analyzing pumping tests for groundwater aquifers. The course aims to teach participants how to determine aquifer properties through pumping tests. It covers key concepts like drawdown, specific capacity, and transmissivity. Participants will learn how to plan and optimize pumping tests, apply analytical techniques to interpret test data, and use software to analyze projects. The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the course sessions, including aquifer conditions, equations for flow to wells, and methods for analyzing pumping test results.
This document discusses different types of canal lining materials and their advantages. It states that lining canals reduces water losses through seepage and prevents waterlogging of adjacent lands. It allows for smaller canal dimensions since lined canals have lower resistance to flow. Lining also reduces maintenance needs like silt removal and bank repairs. Common lining materials described include cement concrete, shotcrete, precast concrete, brick and various earth linings. Cement concrete lining provides excellent hydraulic properties but has high costs. Shotcrete and cement mortar linings use large amounts of cement. Brick lining allows for easy repair and is hydraulically efficient. Lining improves water conservation and irrigation capacity but requires heavy initial investment.
This is a lecture on well hydraulics. The basics of flow towards the well in confined and unconfined aquifers. Well interactions. Method of images. Flow nets in case of multiple wells. Superposition theory for multiple wells.
This document provides an overview of groundwater flow concepts including:
- Derivation of the Laplace equation and equations for steady and unsteady confined and unconfined groundwater flow from Darcy's law and the continuity equation.
- Definitions of specific yield, specific storage, and storativity and their relationships.
- Expressions for one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and seepage flow.
- Analytical solutions for steady one-dimensional flow in confined and unconfined aquifers with constant and variable thickness.
This document discusses methods for estimating groundwater potential and balance. It provides an overview of key concepts like the hydrologic cycle, national water policy regarding groundwater, and the groundwater balance equation. The document also outlines data requirements, methodology, and methods for estimating individual components of the groundwater balance like recharge from rainfall, recharge from canals, and evapotranspiration from groundwater. Empirical formulas and norms from expert committees are presented for calculating various recharge coefficients.
Well hydraulics analyzes the drawdown of groundwater levels due to pumping from wells over time and distance. It is important to understand well hydraulics to design effective pumping strategies that can meet water demand by withdrawing adequate amounts of groundwater from aquifers. Basic assumptions are made about steady versus unsteady flow, and models examine steady radial flow of groundwater to wells pumping from both confined and unconfined aquifers.
This document discusses reservoir sedimentation. It begins by defining reservoirs and classifying them. It then explains how sedimentation occurs as rivers carry sediments that are deposited when the river flow is blocked by a reservoir. This leads to a reduction in water storage capacity over time. The document lists indicators of reservoir sedimentation and discusses trap efficiency. It also outlines the different forms of sediment transport in rivers and the impacts of reservoir sedimentation, such as reduced storage and hydroelectric power generation. In conclusion, sedimentation diminishes storage capacity and benefits of the reservoir over the long run.
Non equilibrium equation for unsteady radial flowAbhishek Gupta
This document discusses unsteady radial flow in aquifers and methods for analyzing pumping test data. It describes equations for confined, unconfined, and leaky aquifers. The Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods are presented for analyzing confined aquifer data using type curves. For unconfined aquifers, Neuman's equation and the Penman method are described. The Hantush-Jacob solution and Walton graphical method are provided for analyzing pumping tests in leaky aquifers.
This document discusses two types of sedimentation processes: plain sedimentation and sedimentation with coagulation. Plain sedimentation involves separating impurities from water through natural gravitational forces alone, without chemical additives. This process lightens the load on subsequent treatment steps and reduces costs. Sedimentation occurs as particles heavier than water settle out due to gravity. Sedimentation tanks come in various shapes and sizes, and different zones exist within the tanks. Aeration is discussed as well, including its purposes and different aerator types like cascade, spray, and air diffusers. Design criteria and an example calculation for sedimentation tank sizing is also provided.
Reservoir capacity, Reservoir sedimentation and controldeep shah
This document discusses reservoir capacity, sedimentation, and control of sedimentation. It defines a reservoir as an area developed by dam construction. Reservoir capacity depends on inflow and demand, and can be determined using graphical or analytical methods. Sediment carried by rivers is deposited in reservoirs, reducing capacity over time. Sediment includes suspended and bed loads. Causes of sedimentation are soil/vegetation in the catchment area and rainfall intensity. Control methods include selecting sites carefully, check dams, vegetation screens, and removing deposited sediment.
This document discusses artificial groundwater recharging techniques. It defines groundwater recharging as the hydrological process where surface water moves downward into groundwater. There are several methods for artificially recharging groundwater, including basin spreading, ditch and furrows, and recharge wells. Recharge wells can be either injection wells, where water is pumped into the aquifer, or recharge wells where water flows into the aquifer via gravity. The benefits of artificial groundwater recharging schemes include maximizing long-term water storage, improving water quality, preventing saline water intrusion and land subsidence, and maintaining declining groundwater levels.
Here are the answers to the quiz questions:
1. Groundwater is flowing from Well A to Well B.
2. The hydraulic gradient is (102 m - 105 m) / 1000 m = 0.003
3. The flux is q = K i = 10 m/day * 0.003 = 0.03 m/day
4. The porosity is 250 mL / 1000 mL = 25%
5. The remaining 50 mL of water is held in the material by capillary forces.
6. The porosity would be less for clay than sand.
7. Less water would pour out if we use clay instead of sand.
8. [T/F] An aquiclude is
Spillways are structures constructed near dams to safely discharge surplus water from reservoirs. There are several types of spillways classified by their utility and prominent features. Main spillways are designed to pass the entire design flood volume, while auxiliary spillways supplement the main spillway. Emergency spillways activate only during emergencies. Common spillway types include overflow, which guides water smoothly over a curved crest; side channel, which diverts flow through a parallel channel; and tunnel, which conveys flow through a closed channel around the dam. Shaft spillways similarly direct water vertically then horizontally through a tunnel.
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
Spillways are structures used to release surplus flood waters from a reservoir in a controlled manner. The main types of spillways include ogee or overflow spillways, chute spillways, morning glory spillways, and siphon spillways. To determine spillway capacity, engineers study past flood data and rainfall records to calculate the maximum probable flood, then add a margin of safety like 25%. This establishes the required discharge capacity. Energy dissipators like stilling basins are also important to safely discharge flood waters downstream.
Hydrological cycle- Meteorological measurements – Requirements, types and forms of Precipitation-Rain Gauges-Spatial analysis of rainfall data using Thiessen and Isohyetal methods Infiltration-Infiltration Index-Interception-Evaporation, Watershed, catchment and basin - Catchment characteristics - factors affecting runoff – Runoff estimation using empirical
This document discusses methods for conducting and analyzing aquifer tests. It begins by listing objectives of aquifer tests such as measuring hydraulic parameters and determining aquifer properties. It then covers considerations for planning a test and equipment requirements. The document explains concepts such as drawdown, transmissivity, and storativity. It presents equations for analyzing confined and unconfined aquifers, including Theis, Cooper-Jacob, and Neuman models. Finally, it lists some common programs that can be used to analyze aquifer test data.
Hydrology is the study of water on Earth. The key concepts discussed include:
1. The hydrological cycle which describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
2. Drainage basins which are areas of land where water from rain or snowmelt drains into a body of water.
3. Factors that influence storm hydrographs such as rock types, basin characteristics, precipitation levels, temperature, and vegetation cover.
Groundwater modeling has several purposes including understanding aquifer properties, characteristics, and response. It requires collecting hydrological, physical, and boundary condition data. Common groundwater modeling software includes MODFLOW and Sutra. The modeling process involves defining the problem, collecting data, choosing a code, running simulations, verifying results match field data through calibration, and using the model to inform management decisions.
Henry Darcy developed Darcy's law in 1856 based on experiments studying the flow of water through sand filters. Darcy's law states that for laminar flow through saturated soil or porous media, the discharge rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The law is expressed mathematically as Q=KA(h1-h2)/L, where Q is the flow rate, K is the hydraulic conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, h1 and h2 are the water levels, and L is the distance between them. Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow in saturated, homogeneous, isotropic porous media, but may not apply to turbulent or unsaturated flow conditions. It has wide applications in areas like
Canal fall- necessity and location- types of falls- Cross regulator and
distributory head regulator- their functions, Silt control devices, Canal
escapes- types of escapes.
This document discusses various methods for artificially recharging groundwater. It begins by defining artificial recharge as augmenting natural groundwater recharge through human methods. The appropriate recharge method depends on local conditions. Direct surface methods include percolation tanks, flooding, stream augmentation, ditches/furrows, and contour bunds. Direct subsurface methods include recharge wells, dug wells, and pits/shafts. Indirect methods are induced recharge, where pumping creates infiltration, and aquifer modification to increase storage/flow.
This document discusses various types of canal regulation works including canal falls, escapes, regulators, and outlets. It describes the necessity and types of canal falls, which are constructed when the natural ground slope is steeper than the designed canal bed slope. The types of falls discussed include ogee falls, stepped falls, vertical falls, rapid falls, straight glacis falls, trapezoidal notch falls, well or cylinder notch falls, Montague type falls, and Inglis or baffle falls. The document also discusses canal escapes, head regulators, cross regulators, silt control devices, and canal outlets/modules. In particular, it explains the functions and construction of head regulators and cross regulators.
Most of the world's population lives near coastal areas and relies on groundwater as a source of freshwater. As populations and water usage increase, aquifers are being depleted, causing issues like saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion occurs when denser saltwater moves into freshwater aquifers due to changes in water pressure. The Ghyben-Herzberg principle states that for every meter of freshwater above sea level, there will be 40 meters below. Remedial measures to control intrusion include monitoring water levels, restricting pumping, using alternative water sources, and artificially recharging aquifers.
10 Revealing Statistics About Compensation & Benefits You should KnowElodie A.
Discover the real secrets to compensation and benefits, and see what employees really want from their companies.
Learn more on Officevibe, the simplest tool for a greater workplace:
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Download this slideshare for later:
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This document discusses methods for estimating groundwater potential and balance. It provides an overview of key concepts like the hydrologic cycle, national water policy regarding groundwater, and the groundwater balance equation. The document also outlines data requirements, methodology, and methods for estimating individual components of the groundwater balance like recharge from rainfall, recharge from canals, and evapotranspiration from groundwater. Empirical formulas and norms from expert committees are presented for calculating various recharge coefficients.
Well hydraulics analyzes the drawdown of groundwater levels due to pumping from wells over time and distance. It is important to understand well hydraulics to design effective pumping strategies that can meet water demand by withdrawing adequate amounts of groundwater from aquifers. Basic assumptions are made about steady versus unsteady flow, and models examine steady radial flow of groundwater to wells pumping from both confined and unconfined aquifers.
This document discusses reservoir sedimentation. It begins by defining reservoirs and classifying them. It then explains how sedimentation occurs as rivers carry sediments that are deposited when the river flow is blocked by a reservoir. This leads to a reduction in water storage capacity over time. The document lists indicators of reservoir sedimentation and discusses trap efficiency. It also outlines the different forms of sediment transport in rivers and the impacts of reservoir sedimentation, such as reduced storage and hydroelectric power generation. In conclusion, sedimentation diminishes storage capacity and benefits of the reservoir over the long run.
Non equilibrium equation for unsteady radial flowAbhishek Gupta
This document discusses unsteady radial flow in aquifers and methods for analyzing pumping test data. It describes equations for confined, unconfined, and leaky aquifers. The Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods are presented for analyzing confined aquifer data using type curves. For unconfined aquifers, Neuman's equation and the Penman method are described. The Hantush-Jacob solution and Walton graphical method are provided for analyzing pumping tests in leaky aquifers.
This document discusses two types of sedimentation processes: plain sedimentation and sedimentation with coagulation. Plain sedimentation involves separating impurities from water through natural gravitational forces alone, without chemical additives. This process lightens the load on subsequent treatment steps and reduces costs. Sedimentation occurs as particles heavier than water settle out due to gravity. Sedimentation tanks come in various shapes and sizes, and different zones exist within the tanks. Aeration is discussed as well, including its purposes and different aerator types like cascade, spray, and air diffusers. Design criteria and an example calculation for sedimentation tank sizing is also provided.
Reservoir capacity, Reservoir sedimentation and controldeep shah
This document discusses reservoir capacity, sedimentation, and control of sedimentation. It defines a reservoir as an area developed by dam construction. Reservoir capacity depends on inflow and demand, and can be determined using graphical or analytical methods. Sediment carried by rivers is deposited in reservoirs, reducing capacity over time. Sediment includes suspended and bed loads. Causes of sedimentation are soil/vegetation in the catchment area and rainfall intensity. Control methods include selecting sites carefully, check dams, vegetation screens, and removing deposited sediment.
This document discusses artificial groundwater recharging techniques. It defines groundwater recharging as the hydrological process where surface water moves downward into groundwater. There are several methods for artificially recharging groundwater, including basin spreading, ditch and furrows, and recharge wells. Recharge wells can be either injection wells, where water is pumped into the aquifer, or recharge wells where water flows into the aquifer via gravity. The benefits of artificial groundwater recharging schemes include maximizing long-term water storage, improving water quality, preventing saline water intrusion and land subsidence, and maintaining declining groundwater levels.
Here are the answers to the quiz questions:
1. Groundwater is flowing from Well A to Well B.
2. The hydraulic gradient is (102 m - 105 m) / 1000 m = 0.003
3. The flux is q = K i = 10 m/day * 0.003 = 0.03 m/day
4. The porosity is 250 mL / 1000 mL = 25%
5. The remaining 50 mL of water is held in the material by capillary forces.
6. The porosity would be less for clay than sand.
7. Less water would pour out if we use clay instead of sand.
8. [T/F] An aquiclude is
Spillways are structures constructed near dams to safely discharge surplus water from reservoirs. There are several types of spillways classified by their utility and prominent features. Main spillways are designed to pass the entire design flood volume, while auxiliary spillways supplement the main spillway. Emergency spillways activate only during emergencies. Common spillway types include overflow, which guides water smoothly over a curved crest; side channel, which diverts flow through a parallel channel; and tunnel, which conveys flow through a closed channel around the dam. Shaft spillways similarly direct water vertically then horizontally through a tunnel.
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
Spillways are structures used to release surplus flood waters from a reservoir in a controlled manner. The main types of spillways include ogee or overflow spillways, chute spillways, morning glory spillways, and siphon spillways. To determine spillway capacity, engineers study past flood data and rainfall records to calculate the maximum probable flood, then add a margin of safety like 25%. This establishes the required discharge capacity. Energy dissipators like stilling basins are also important to safely discharge flood waters downstream.
Hydrological cycle- Meteorological measurements – Requirements, types and forms of Precipitation-Rain Gauges-Spatial analysis of rainfall data using Thiessen and Isohyetal methods Infiltration-Infiltration Index-Interception-Evaporation, Watershed, catchment and basin - Catchment characteristics - factors affecting runoff – Runoff estimation using empirical
This document discusses methods for conducting and analyzing aquifer tests. It begins by listing objectives of aquifer tests such as measuring hydraulic parameters and determining aquifer properties. It then covers considerations for planning a test and equipment requirements. The document explains concepts such as drawdown, transmissivity, and storativity. It presents equations for analyzing confined and unconfined aquifers, including Theis, Cooper-Jacob, and Neuman models. Finally, it lists some common programs that can be used to analyze aquifer test data.
Hydrology is the study of water on Earth. The key concepts discussed include:
1. The hydrological cycle which describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
2. Drainage basins which are areas of land where water from rain or snowmelt drains into a body of water.
3. Factors that influence storm hydrographs such as rock types, basin characteristics, precipitation levels, temperature, and vegetation cover.
Groundwater modeling has several purposes including understanding aquifer properties, characteristics, and response. It requires collecting hydrological, physical, and boundary condition data. Common groundwater modeling software includes MODFLOW and Sutra. The modeling process involves defining the problem, collecting data, choosing a code, running simulations, verifying results match field data through calibration, and using the model to inform management decisions.
Henry Darcy developed Darcy's law in 1856 based on experiments studying the flow of water through sand filters. Darcy's law states that for laminar flow through saturated soil or porous media, the discharge rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The law is expressed mathematically as Q=KA(h1-h2)/L, where Q is the flow rate, K is the hydraulic conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, h1 and h2 are the water levels, and L is the distance between them. Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow in saturated, homogeneous, isotropic porous media, but may not apply to turbulent or unsaturated flow conditions. It has wide applications in areas like
Canal fall- necessity and location- types of falls- Cross regulator and
distributory head regulator- their functions, Silt control devices, Canal
escapes- types of escapes.
This document discusses various methods for artificially recharging groundwater. It begins by defining artificial recharge as augmenting natural groundwater recharge through human methods. The appropriate recharge method depends on local conditions. Direct surface methods include percolation tanks, flooding, stream augmentation, ditches/furrows, and contour bunds. Direct subsurface methods include recharge wells, dug wells, and pits/shafts. Indirect methods are induced recharge, where pumping creates infiltration, and aquifer modification to increase storage/flow.
This document discusses various types of canal regulation works including canal falls, escapes, regulators, and outlets. It describes the necessity and types of canal falls, which are constructed when the natural ground slope is steeper than the designed canal bed slope. The types of falls discussed include ogee falls, stepped falls, vertical falls, rapid falls, straight glacis falls, trapezoidal notch falls, well or cylinder notch falls, Montague type falls, and Inglis or baffle falls. The document also discusses canal escapes, head regulators, cross regulators, silt control devices, and canal outlets/modules. In particular, it explains the functions and construction of head regulators and cross regulators.
Most of the world's population lives near coastal areas and relies on groundwater as a source of freshwater. As populations and water usage increase, aquifers are being depleted, causing issues like saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion occurs when denser saltwater moves into freshwater aquifers due to changes in water pressure. The Ghyben-Herzberg principle states that for every meter of freshwater above sea level, there will be 40 meters below. Remedial measures to control intrusion include monitoring water levels, restricting pumping, using alternative water sources, and artificially recharging aquifers.
10 Revealing Statistics About Compensation & Benefits You should KnowElodie A.
Discover the real secrets to compensation and benefits, and see what employees really want from their companies.
Learn more on Officevibe, the simplest tool for a greater workplace:
https://www.officevibe.com/
Download this slideshare for later:
http://bit.ly/2mbvfvM
Download your free guide about the ONE perk guaranteed to increase job satisfaction:
http://bit.ly/2mbuId2
The document discusses using riparian restoration to help the City of Medford, Oregon comply with new temperature limits in its NPDES permit. Restoring 10-15 miles of native riparian vegetation along streams would cost $6.5 million, far less than the $16 million option of building a large holding pond. Restoration would create jobs and keep money in the local economy by paying local contractors and providing annual lease payments to farmers. It outlines the process for generating verified ecosystem service credits from restoration projects that could then be purchased by regulated entities to meet compliance obligations.
Standard water quality requirements and management strategies for fish farmin...eSAT Journals
A study on standard water quality requirements and management strategies suitable for fish farming is presented. The water quality criteria studied based on physical, chemical and biological properties of water include temperature, turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solid (TDS), nitrate- nitrogen, pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total hardness. Water samples from Otamiri River in Imo state, Nigeria, were analyzed based on the afore-mentioned criteria to assess its suitability as a source of water for fish farming. The results of the analysis compared with international standards revealed that the river temperature of 26.90C, nitrate-nitrogen value of 0.015 mg/l and total suspended solids of 18.60 mg/l fall within the acceptable range for fish farming. However, the pH of 5.82, total hardness of 5.8 mg/l, total dissolved solids of 13.60 mg/l and biochemical oxygen demand of 0.6 mg/l all differed slightly from the standard recommended values. This study will aid fish farmers on the necessary treatment needed to effectively use water from this source for fish farming.
Keywords: Water quality criteria, Otamiri River, biochemical oxygen demand, total suspended and total dissolved solids.
This document presents a master plan for artificial groundwater recharge in India. It discusses the national groundwater scenario, including the varied hydrogeological setup consisting of porous and hard rock formations. Porous formations include unconsolidated sediments and semi-consolidated rocks, while hard rocks include igneous, metamorphic and volcanic rocks. It notes that over-extraction has led to groundwater depletion in some areas. The plan was created by a group consisting of Central Groundwater Board members to develop recharge techniques using monsoon runoff, in order to sustain groundwater resources in critical areas.
Exel Industrial is ABB partner since 2005 ; it is a company specialized in sales and repairing of frecuency converters, cubicles and PLC and technic service.
Ground geophysical surveys use magnetic, electrical, and gravitational measurements to map subsurface rock properties. Magnetics surveys measure the earth's magnetic field and magnetic responses from rocks to map geology and locate magnetic ore bodies. Resistivity and induced polarization (IP) surveys measure electrical properties to detect disseminated sulfides and map stratigraphy. Time-domain electromagnetics (TDEM) uses electromagnetic induction to identify conductive features like ores, groundwater, and permafrost. Geophysical methods provide non-invasive exploration techniques but their results require careful processing and interpretation.
This report summarizes a buckling test conducted on a steel column to evaluate the relationship between load and displacement. The test procedure involved securing the column to a buckling test machine and applying a increasing load while measuring deflection. The results showed a linear relationship at first, until buckling occurred, after which increased load did not increase elongation. Calculations determined the critical buckling load and stress on the column based on its material properties and dimensions. In conclusion, buckling tests are important to characterize materials' mechanical properties for engineering applications.
Groundwater contamination can occur from various point and nonpoint sources. Point sources include storage tanks, landfills, and pipeline releases. Nonpoint sources include agricultural activities. Principal sources of groundwater pollution include municipal sources like sewer leakage and liquid wastes; industrial sources like liquid wastes, tank and pipeline leakage, and mining activities; agricultural sources like irrigation return flows, animal wastes, fertilizers and pesticides; and miscellaneous sources like urbanization, spills, stockpiles, septic tanks, and roadway de-icing. Pollutants can enter groundwater and persist for decades due to the difficulty of detecting and controlling subsurface pollution compared to surface water pollution.
Fixed end moments are moments that occur at the ends of beams or other structural elements. These moments are caused by external forces or reactions that are applied at or very near the ends of the beam. Fixed end moments directly influence the maximum bending stress that will occur within the beam based on the applied loads and how they are transferred into or out of the ends of the beam.
10 Shocking Stats About Disengaged EmployeesOfficevibe
Here are 10 shocking stats about employee engagement that our researchers have found. This infographic shows all that's wrong with disengaged employees.
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Water quality can be assessed through various physical, chemical, and biological indicators. It depends on factors like geology, ecosystem, and human activities. Standards are set based on intended uses like drinking, industrial, or environmental. Water is sampled and tested using on-site or laboratory methods to monitor these indicators. Maintaining adequate water quality is important for public health and ecosystem protection.
1. The document provides formulas for calculating slope, deflection, and maximum deflection for various beam types under different loading conditions. It gives the equations for cantilever beams with concentrated loads, uniformly distributed loads, and varying loads. It also provides the equations for simply supported beams with these different load types and with couple moments applied. The equations relate the beam properties like length, load location, and intensity to the resulting slope and deflection values.
The document discusses the topic of surveying. It provides an overview of the history and evolution of surveying, from its beginnings in ancient Egypt to modern techniques using tools like total stations and GPS. Some key points covered include the various types and categories of surveying work, the traditional equipment used, and how modern digital instruments like total stations integrate distance measurement and angle measurement capabilities into one device.
11 Scary Statistics About Stress At WorkOfficevibe
Stress is a silent killer. There’s plenty of research on the subject that shows that too much stress can have traumatizing health effects.
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We've compiled a list of 10 attributes that make for a great employee. Any of these 10 traits will make you flourish to a better individual.
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The document discusses various methods for analyzing beam deflection and deformation under loading, including:
1) Deriving the differential equation for the elastic curve of a beam and applying boundary conditions to determine the curve and maximum deflection.
2) Using the method of superposition to analyze beams subjected to multiple loadings by combining the effects of individual loads.
3) Applying moment-area theorems which relate the bending moment diagram to slope and deflection, allowing deflection calculations for beams with various support conditions.
38 Employee Engagement Ideas Your Team Will LoveElodie A.
Team building is an important part of making employees happy. Here are 38 employee engagement ideas you can use right away with your team.
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Groundwater is a common problem in mining that requires control through planned dewatering programs. Successful dewatering requires hydrogeological assessment and selecting the appropriate technique, such as in-pit pumping, perimeter dewatering wells, or slope depressurization drains. Dewatering provides benefits like improved safety and efficiency through more stable slopes and dry working conditions.
This document provides an overview of drilling and well construction methods for geothermal wells. It describes the main types of drilling rigs and methods used, including cable tool rigs, rotary drilling rigs, and variations such as downhole hammers and reverse circulation. Cable tool rigs are slower but can drill through difficult formations and produce accurate samples. Rotary methods are more common and faster but require drilling fluids. Proper cementing of wells is also discussed as being important for safety, well productivity, and preventing fluid mixing.
This document provides guidelines for designing drainage systems for earth and rockfill dams. It discusses key considerations like controlling pore pressures, internal erosion, and piping. The guidelines cover selecting appropriate drainage features based on the dam type and materials. Features discussed include inclined/vertical filters, horizontal filters, longitudinal and cross drains, transition zones, rock toes, and toe drains. Filter material criteria and design procedures are also outlined.
This document discusses aquifer testing, which involves pumping a well and measuring the water level response over time. This allows evaluation of the well and aquifer properties, including productivity, efficiency and hydraulic characteristics. A typical test involves constant pumping for 1-30 days while measuring water level changes. Test results indicate aquifer transmissivity and storage, and whether the aquifer can support the intended water demand. Factors like test duration, measurement accuracy, and avoiding interference, are important for properly analyzing results and understanding the aquifer boundaries and properties.
This document summarizes information about aquifer tests, which involve pumping wells and measuring water level responses to determine aquifer properties and well capacity. Key points:
- Aquifer tests typically involve constant rate pumping of a well for 1-30 days while measuring water level changes to evaluate hydraulic properties.
- Tests can determine if there is sufficient groundwater for a proposed use, with important metrics being drawdown and how water levels vary over time and with distance from the pumped well.
- Test results indicate aquifer characteristics like transmissivity and storage, and can reveal the presence of boundaries like impermeable rock that distort the cone of depression.
This document discusses soil exploration methods, including the purpose of soil exploration to determine foundation type and bearing capacity. It describes various investigation methods like probing, geophysical testing, soil borings using augers or wash boring, and sampling techniques to obtain disturbed and undisturbed soil samples. It also discusses determining boring depth and spacing. Methods to evaluate groundwater conditions and field strength tests like the standard penetration test are summarized.
Farhad Orak presented research on optimizing production from a field in South Pars gas field using nodal analysis and multilateral well design. The field contains four producing gas layers separated by anhydrite layers in a reservoir 400 meters thick. Conventional wells risk water coning issues on the flanks where lower layers are water-filled. The study models a dual opposed multilateral well using nodal analysis, finding production could be optimized to 114 million standard cubic feet per day by increasing tubing size to 6.18 inches, setting wellhead pressure to 2000 psi, assuming 5% water cut and a skin factor of +1. Recommendations include further investigating horizontal branch length and angle to increase reservoir exposure and controlling production
This document provides procedures for conducting an instantaneous change in head (slug) test to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a water-bearing zone. Key steps include understanding test design and theory, determining well conditions, selecting appropriate equipment for inducing a slug and measuring water level changes, conducting the test, assessing results, and considering special situations like wells containing floating product or testing in karst aquifers. The goal is to obtain a quick measurement of hydraulic conductivity near the well while minimizing disposal of water.
This document proposes an alternative design for constructing the foundations of a new pedestrian bridge across a harbour. It suggests using a temporary sheet pile wall cofferdam that would allow workers to build the pile group and pile cap at the riverbed level, avoiding the need for divers. The cofferdam design is sized at 10x10m and embedded 10m deep. Calculations are presented to check for piping, heaving, and structural failure. A finite element model is also used. It is determined that drains will be needed to reduce water pressures and piping risks. The design of the internal bracing structure and construction sequence are also considered. The cofferdam is concluded to be a feasible alternative construction method for the bridge
This document discusses parameters for constructing breakwaters, including conducting hydrographic surveys, geotechnical investigations of the seabed, wave hindcasting to determine wave heights, assessing material needs, and designing the cross-section. It describes basic and advanced methods for geotechnical investigations and outlines three methods for wave hindcasting - using wave rider buoys, statistical computer models, or manual observation with a theodolite. The key parameters that must be determined before breakwater construction can begin are also listed.
This document discusses the challenges of production logging in complex wells and how new techniques are helping to better understand fluid flow. It provides examples of how production logging combined with other tools can identify fluid sources, crossflows, and remaining mobile hydrocarbons when used over time in both vertical and deviated wells. Production logging is most useful for optimizing new well performance, diagnosing declines, and periodically monitoring for problems like water or gas breakthrough.
This document summarizes information about ground hydrology and well completion. It discusses the different types of wells, including shallow and deep wells. It also describes various well construction methods, such as digging, boring, and drilling. Additionally, it covers topics like well casing, cementing, gravel packing, and screen placement. Proper well completion is emphasized as being important for maximizing well yield and longevity.
Pumping Tests are conducted to examine the aquifer response, under controlled conditions, to the abstraction of water. Hydrogeologists determine the hydraulic characteristics of water-bearing formations, by conducting pumping tests. A pumping test is a practical, reliable method of estimating well performance, well yield, the zone of influence of the well and aquifer characteristics. There is a procedure for conducting pumping tests in wells. This lesson highlights the prevailing methods adopted while conducting pumping tests.
Once a well is drilled and cased, completion engineers optimize production by inserting equipment into the wellbore. Completion involves perforating the casing near productive formations, installing tubing and other equipment like packers and valves, and performing operations like fracturing or sand control to facilitate hydrocarbon flow. The goal is to recover the maximum amount of oil and gas possible at a reasonable cost. Engineers consider formation evaluation data, expected production rates and conditions, and may install equipment like pumps or gas lift systems as needed to optimize each individual well completion.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow for excavation and construction in dry conditions below the water table. It is done through various techniques like sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and eductor systems. The main purposes of dewatering are to provide a dry excavation area, improve stability, and allow for efficient construction. Proper planning and techniques are needed to safely lower the water table and discharge water without causing erosion or other issues.
This document discusses well completion, which involves all post-drilling operations necessary for hydrocarbon production. It describes how completion planning must consider reservoir characteristics, fluid properties, and production forecasts to optimize equipment selection and well design. The document outlines different types of completions, including open hole, cased hole, tubingless, packerless, single string, selective, and multiple string configurations. Factors that influence completion design are also summarized such as reservoir pressure, permeability, fluid chemistry, temperature, and long-term production.
This document establishes minimum standards for sedimentation tanks used at construction dewatering sites that discharge wastewater to the King County sanitary sewer system. It summarizes literature on sedimentation tank design principles and reviews two common portable sedimentation tank models. Minimum standards are selected for hydraulic retention time (1.5 hours), overflow rate (800-3,000 gallons per day per square foot), aspect ratio (3:1 to 5:1 length to width), and maximum sediment accumulation (18.75-37.5% of tank height). Tanks meeting these criteria along with proper monitoring of sediment levels are deemed the minimum treatment required for construction dewatering wastewater containing settleable solids.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow excavation work to be done safely and efficiently below the water table. There are several reasons why dewatering is needed, including providing a dry work area, improving stability, and increasing safety. Common dewatering techniques include sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and trenches. Each method has advantages and disadvantages depending on the site conditions and depth of water lowering required. Proper planning and design of a dewatering system is important to effectively control groundwater and allow construction work to progress smoothly.
Ground water development involves preparing a drilled well for production or injection. This includes preparing the bottom of the borehole to specifications, installing production tubing and downhole tools, and perforating and stimulating the well screen as needed to extract groundwater from aquifers. Well completion makes the well ready for its intended use after drilling is completed.
Mail merging allows you to use data from an Excel spreadsheet to automatically generate multiple personalized documents in Word. The process involves linking a Word document to an Excel data source, then Word will pull information from the spreadsheet and insert it into placeholder fields in the document. This allows you to quickly and easily create form letters, labels, or other documents tailored to each recipient using just their data from the spreadsheet.
This document provides instructions on how to combine text from multiple cells into a single cell. It discusses merging text from two or more cells into one cell. The author of this document is Keyur J Pansara and it is aimed at teaching how to consolidate cell contents.
MANY TIME WHEN NO. OF ROWS ARE MORE AND THE PROCESS OF MERGING CELLS IS TOO IRRITATING AND CONSUME LOTS OF TIME.
MERGE ACROSS CAN REDUCE YOUR TIME BY MERGING THE CELLS YOU HAVE SELECTED
Excel provides many shortcuts to help users work more efficiently. Some common shortcuts include Ctrl + S to save a workbook, Ctrl + C to copy data, and Ctrl + V to paste data. These shortcuts allow users to perform frequent tasks more quickly without using the mouse or menus.
Consolidate data from multiple worksheets into a single worksheet in Excel. To consolidate, select the cells with the data you want to combine, go to the Data tab, and click Consolidate. Choose the function (sum, average, count, etc.), reference style (absolute or relative), and cells to consolidate. Excel will combine the data from the selected worksheets into one area for easy viewing and analysis.
If you have a worksheet with data in columns that you want to rotate so it’s rearranged in rows, you can use the Transpose feature. It lets you quickly switch data from columns to rows, or vice versa.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Introduction, Modeling Concepts...Prakhyath Rai
Introduction, Modeling Concepts and Class Modeling: What is Object orientation? What is OO development? OO Themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO modeling history. Modeling
as Design technique: Modeling, abstraction, The Three models. Class Modeling: Object and Class Concept, Link and associations concepts, Generalization and Inheritance, A sample class model, Navigation of class models, and UML diagrams
Building the Analysis Models: Requirement Analysis, Analysis Model Approaches, Data modeling Concepts, Object Oriented Analysis, Scenario-Based Modeling, Flow-Oriented Modeling, class Based Modeling, Creating a Behavioral Model.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoring
Well Hydraulics
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4.5 Specific Capacity
The Specific Capacity of a well is simply the pumping rate (yield) divided by the
drawdown . It is a very valuable number that can be used to provide the design
pumping rate or maximum yield for the well. It can be used to identify potential
well, pump, or aquifer problems, and accordingly to develop a proper well
maintenance schedule. It can also be used to estimate the transmissivity of the
aquifer(s) tapped by the well's perforations. Transmissivity is the rate water is
transmitted through an aquifer under a unit width and a unit hydraulic gradient. It
equals the aquifer's hydraulic conductivity (permeability) times the aquifer
thickness. The higher the transmissivity, the more prolific the aquifer and the less
drawdown observed in the well.
Typically, a well should run continuously for at least 24 hours at a constant yield
before recording the drawdown. The same time frame should be used for each
subsequent test for equal comparisons to the initial test. Shorter time frames are
sometimes used from electric company pump efficiency tests or Step-Drawdown
tests, but these shorter times may not sufficiently allow the water levels to
stabilize for a reliable Specific Capacity calculation.
The Specific Capacity obtained just after a well is drilled and properly developed is
typically the highest value that will be produced and is the benchmark with which
to compare all future values. As time goes by, the Specific Capacity will decline as
plugging of the well's perforations or filter pack occurs, as the pump starts to fail,
or as static water levels change. Specific Capacity tests should be performed at
least semi-annually and water levels (static and pumping) should be collected
monthly to provide early detection of potential well problems. Rehabilitation
work should be initiated when a well's Specific Capacity drops by 25% (Driscoll,
1986).
The initial value can also be used to estimate the maximum pumping rate for the
well. Using the above example and assuming that only 50 feet of drawdown is
available in the well, the maximum yield is calculated as the Specific Capacity
times the maximum drawdown, or 119 gpm/ft * 50 ft, = 5,950 gpm. This should
be verified with an actual field test.
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4.10 Method of construction of wells
The initial investment for a properly designed and constructed well pays off by
ensuring:
A reliable and sustainable water supply consistent with your needs and the
capability of the aquifer
Good quality water that is free of sediment and contaminants
Increased life expectancy of the well
Reduced operating and maintenance costs
Ease of monitoring well performance.
Steps considered in Well Construction
1. Choosing a drilling contractor
2. Choosing a well site
3. Well design considerations
4. Well completion
1. Choosing a Drilling Contractor
Choose a licensed water well contractor who has experience in your
area and knows the local geology. Provincial regulation requires that
drilling companies have an approval to drill water wells and their
drillers must be certified journeyman water well drillers. A list of
approval holders is available through Alberta Environment and
Sustainable Resource Development (AESRD). You can also contact the
Alberta Water Well Drilling Association for a list of approval holders in
your area. Refer to Module 11 “Contacts for More Information”.
Either you or the licensed water well contractor should complete a
survey of existing wells in your area. It will provide important
information about:
Typical yields and water quality
Which aquifer to tap into
Trends in well design and construction
Prior drilling success rates
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2. Choosing a Well Site
Your choice of well site will affect the safety and performance of your
well. As you examine various sites, remember to consider any future
development plans for your farm or acreage such as barns, storage
sheds and bulk fuel tanks. You must also consider provincial
regulations that dictate well location.
Most contaminants enter the well either through the top or around
the outside of the casing. Sewage or other contaminants may
percolate down through the upper layers of the ground surface to the
aquifer. The following criteria are intended to prevent possible
contamination of your well and the aquifer. It is both your and the
driller’s responsibility to
ensure that:
The well is accessible for cleaning, testing, monitoring,
maintenance and repair
The ground surrounding the well is sloped away from the
well to prevent any surface run off from collecting or
ponding
The well is up-slope and as far as possible from potential
contamination sources such as septic systems, barnyards or
surface water bodies
The well is not housed in any building other than a bona
fide pump house.
3. Well Design Considerations
Well design and construction details are determined after a test hole
has been completed and the geological zones have been logged. There
are many components to well design the driller must take into
account. Decisions will be made about:
Type of well
Intended use
Well depth
Casing material, size and wall thickness
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Intake design
Annular seal
Monitoring and preventive maintenance provisions.
Well Depth
During the test hole drilling, the licensed water well contractor will complete a
lithologic or formation log. Soil and rock samples are taken at various depths
and the type of geologic material is recorded. This allows the driller to identify
zones with the best potential for water supply. Some drillers also run a
geophysical (electric) log in the test hole to further define the geology. This
gives them more accurate information about aquifer location. Generally a well
is completed to the bottom of the aquifer. This allows more of the aquifer to be
utilized and ensures the highest possible production from the well.
Types of Wells
There are two main types of wells, each distinguished by the diameter of the
bore hole. The two types are bored wells and drilled wells.
Bored wells
Bored wells are constructed when low yielding groundwater sources are found
relatively close to the surface, usually under 30 m (100 ft.). Bored wells are
constructed using a rotary bucket auger. They are usually completed by
perforating the casing (also called cribbing) or using a sand screen with
continuous slot openings (see Figure 1, Bored Well). One advantage of bored
wells is the large diameter of the casing, from 45-90 cm (18-36 in.). It provides
a water storage reservoir for use during peak demand periods. A disadvantage
of utilizing a shallow groundwater aquifer is that it generally relies on annual
precipitation for recharge. Water shortages may occur following long dry
periods in summer and extended freeze up during winter months. It can also be
more susceptible to contamination from surface land-use activities.
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Drilled wells
Drilled wells are smaller in diameter, usually ranging from 10-20 cm (4-8 in.),
and completed to much greater depths than bored wells, up to several hundred
metres. The producing aquifer is generally less susceptible to pollution from
surface sources because of the depth. Also, the water supply tends to be more
reliable since it is less affected by seasonal
weather patterns.
There are two primary methods of drilling:
Rotary
Cable tool.
Rotary drilled wells are constructed using a drill bit on the end of a rotating drill
stem. Drilling fluid or air is circulated down through the drill stem in the hole
and back to the surface to remove cuttings. Rotary drilling rigs operate quickly
and can reach depths of over 300 m (1000 ft.), with casing diameters of 10-45
cm (4-18 in.).
Cable tool drilled wells are constructed by lifting and dropping a heavy drill bit
in the bore hole. The resulting loose material, mixed with water, is removed
using a bailer or sand pump. This method, also called percussion drilling,
reaches depths up to 300 m (1000 ft.). Well diameters can range from 10-45 cm
(4-18 in.). The drilling rate is typically much slower than for a rotary rig, but
when aquifers are low yielding, they may be more easily identified using this
method.
4. Well Completion
Once the well has been drilled and the equipment is in place, there are
several procedures the licensed water well contractor must complete
before the well is ready to use. The driller is responsible for:
Developing the well
Disinfecting the well
Conducting a yield test.
Well Development
Well development is the process of removing fine sediment and drilling fluid
from the area immediately surrounding the perforations. This increases the
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well’s ability to produce water and maximize production from the aquifer. If the
aquifer formation does not naturally have any relatively coarse particles to form
a filter, it may be necessary for the driller to install an artificial filter pack. This
pack is placed around the screen or perforations so the well can be developed.
For example, this procedure is necessary when the aquifer is composed of fine
sand and the individual grains are uniform
in size. It is important to match the grain size of the filter pack material with the
size of the slot openings of the screen to attain maximum yield from the well.
Typically the slot size of the screen is selected so that 85 percent of the artificial
pack material will remain outside of the screen after well development.
Yield Test
A yield test is important because the information gathered during the test
assists the driller in determining the:
Rate at which to pump the well
Depth at which to place the pump.
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4.11 Selection of pump sets
Plunger pump
A plunger pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure
seal is stationary and a smooth cylindrical plunger slides through the seal. This
makes them different from piston pumps and allows them to be used at higher
pressures. This type of pump is often used to transfer municipal and industrial
sewage.
Piston pumps and plunger pumps are reciprocating pumps that use a plunger or
piston to move media through a cylindrical chamber. The plunger or piston is
actuated by a steam powered, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric drive.
Rotary piston and plunger pumps use a crank mechanism to create a reciprocating
motion along an axis, which then builds pressure in a cylinder or working barrel to
force gas or fluid through the pump. The pressure in the chamber actuates the
valves at both the suction and discharge points. Plunger pumps are used in
applications that could range from 70 to 2,070 bar (1,000 to 30,000 psi). Piston
pumps are used in lower pressure applications. The volume of the fluid
discharged is equal to the area of the plunger or piston, multiplied by its stroke
length. The overall capacity of the piston pumps and plunger pumps can be
calculated with the area of the piston or plunger, the stroke length, the number of
pistons or plungers and the speed of the drive. The power needed from the drive
is proportional to the pressure and capacity of the pump.
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Seals are an integral part of piston pumps and plunger pumps to separate the
power fluid from the media that is being pumped. A stuffing box or packing is
used to seal the joint between the vessel where the media is transferred and the
plunger or piston. A stuffing box may be composed of bushings, packing or seal
rings, and a gland.
Plunger pumps component materials are chosen for wear and contact with the
media type. Component materials include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel,
iron, nickel alloy, or other material. For example, plunger pumps that function in
general service or oil service applications often have an iron cylinder and plunger.
The plunger, discharge valves, and suction valves come in contact with the media
type transferred, and material choices are based on the fluid transferred. In
power applications where continuous duty plunger pumps are needed, solid
ceramic plungers may be used when in contact with water and oil, but may not be
compatible for use with highly acidic media types.
Submersible pump
A submersible pump is a device which has a
hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the
pump body. The whole assembly is submerged
in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage
of this type of pump is that it prevents pump
cavitations, a problem associated with a high
elevation difference between pump and the
fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to
the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to
pull fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than
jet pumps.
The submersible pumps used in ESP
installations are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Although their
constructional and operational features
underwent a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational
principle remained the same. Produced liquids, after being subjected to great
centrifugal forces caused by the high rotational speed of the impeller, lose their
kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion
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Of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism
of radial and mixed flow pumps.
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a
mechanical coupling at the bottom of the pump. When fluids enter the pump
through an intake screen and are lifted by the pump stages. Other parts include
the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the shaft providing
radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An optional
thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of
those forces are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.
Submersible pumps are found in many applications. Single stage pumps are used
for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping.
They are also popular with pond filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are
typically lowered down a borehole and most typically used for residential,
commercial, municipal and industrial water extraction (abstraction), water wells
and in oil wells.
Other uses for submersible pumps include sewage treatment plants, seawater
handling, firefighting (since it is flame retardant cable), water well and deep well
drilling, offshore drilling rigs, artificial lifts, mine dewatering, and irrigation
systems.
Special attention to the type of submersible pump is required when using certain
types of liquids. Pumps used for combustible liquids or for water that may be
contaminated with combustible liquids must be designed not to ignite the liquid
or vapors.
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Air lift pump
An airlift pump is a pump that has low
suction and moderate discharge of liquid and
entrained solids. The pump injects
compressed air at the bottom of the
discharge pipe which is immersed in the
liquid. The compressed air mixes with the
liquid causing the air-water mixture to be
less dense than the rest of the liquid around
it and therefore is displaced upwards
through the discharge pipe by the
surrounding liquid of higher density. Solids
may be entrained in the flow and if small enough to fit through the pipe, will be
discharged with the rest of the flow at a shallower depth or above the surface.
Airlift pumps are widely used in aquaculture to pump, circulate and aerate water
in closed, recirculating systems and ponds. Other applications include dredging,
underwater archaeology, salvage operations and collection of scientific
specimens.
The only energy required is provided by compressed air.[citation needed] This air
is usually compressed by a compressor or a blower. The air is injected in the lower
part of a pipe that transports a liquid. By buoyancy the air, which has a lower
density than the liquid, rises quickly. By fluid pressure, the liquid is taken in the
ascendant air flow and moves in the same direction as the air. The calculation of
the volume flow of the liquid is possible thanks to the physics of two-phase flow.
Airlift pumps are often used in deep dirty wells where sand would quickly abrade
mechanical parts. However airlift wells must be much deeper than the water
table to allow for submergence. Air is generally pumped at least as deep under
the water as the water is to be lifted. (If the water table is 50 ft below, the air
should be pumped 100 feet deep).It is also sometimes used in part of the process
on a wastewater treatment plant if a small head is required (typically around 1
foot head).