The Silk Roads were complex networks of trade routes across Eurasia that connected China with Central Asia and the Mediterranean world from around 200 BCE to 1400 CE. They facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, technologies and religions between civilizations. While silk was an important trade good, many other products like spices, metals, glass and ceramics were also exchanged. The routes were used by nomadic pastoralists, merchants from places like Sogdiana, and travelers like Buddhist monks to transmit Buddhism and other faiths. Over time, different groups like the Xiongnu, Sogdians, Turks, Arabs and Mongols rose to power in Central Asia and controlled sections of the routes, shaping patterns of trade and cultural exchange
1. The document provides an outline for a lecture on the history of China from its earliest dynasties to its last dynasty, the Qing. It summarizes the major political and cultural developments over thousands of years.
2. Key early dynasties that unified China included the Qin, who first unified the empire in 221 BCE, and the Han, who expanded the empire and established the imperial system that lasted until 1911. The Han era saw major cultural and economic growth through the Silk Road.
3. The Tang and Song dynasties between the 7th-13th centuries CE represented a golden age of cultural, economic, and technological advancement. However, the Mongol invasion in the 13th century established
The document provides a summary of Chinese history from the first empires to the Song dynasty. It discusses the major dynasties including the Qin which first unified China, the Han which expanded the empire, the Tang known as a cultural powerhouse, and the Song known for its commercial dominance. Key events, figures, and developments are highlighted such as the civil service system, spread of Confucianism, and technological and artistic achievements during periods of stability and prosperity.
Ancient China spanned from around 1600 BC to 221 BC, beginning with early dynasties like the Shang and Zhou which established bronze age cultures along the Yellow River. This was followed by the imperial era from 221 BC to 1912 AD, consisting of successive dynasties including the Qin which first unified China, the Han which established China's political and cultural influence, and the Tang and Song which were economic and technological golden ages. China then experienced foreign rule under the Yuan and Qing dynasties before the establishment of modern Communist China in 1949.
This document provides an overview of Chinese history from 2200 BC to the present. It outlines the major dynasties and time periods, including the origins of Chinese civilization, early empires, second empire, birth of modern China, and contemporary China. Key topics covered include the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the Qin unification, Han expansion, Tang and Song golden age, Yuan and Ming rule, Qing decline, Republican period, and establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
Ancient China developed major civilizations along river valleys like the Yellow River and Yangtze River. Geographic isolation led the Chinese to believe they were the center of the world. Early dynasties like the Shang and Zhou established social hierarchies and developed writing. The Qin dynasty unified China and built infrastructure like the Great Wall. Subsequent dynasties like the Han expanded the empire and implemented civil service exams. The Tang and Song dynasties represented a cultural golden age with advances in technology, art, and education. China's empires were later conquered by Mongol invaders.
The document provides information on early Chinese history, focusing on the three Sage-Kings - Yao, Shun, and Yu. King Yu is described as having rescued China from flooding by dredging and diverting the Yellow River over 13 years of tireless work. A timeline notes the Xia Dynasty founded by Yu around 2200 BCE and the subsequent Shang Dynasty from 1766-1122 BCE, which developed bronze metallurgy and left oracle bone writings. The document then discusses the Zhou Dynasty from 1122-256 BCE and the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven." It provides details on the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty and First Emperor Qin Shihuangdi from 221-210 BCE.
The document provides a summary of Chinese dynasties from 1500 BCE to 1911 CE. It focuses on details about the Shang Dynasty, which ruled from around 1500 BCE to 1027 BCE. Key points:
- The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty to create a stable government in China, laying the foundations for future dynasties. They developed writing, calendar, arts, and bronze casting.
- Kings ruled as absolute monarchs. Society was divided into classes like nobles, artisans, farmers and slaves. Religion involved ancestor worship and divination rituals using oracle bones.
- The Qin Dynasty unified China's warring states in 221 BCE. The First Emperor standardized laws, currency and measurements. Not
Qin Shi Huang conquered the warring states of ancient China and unified the country under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE. He standardized laws, currency, and writing to promote central control. To protect the new empire, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of a vast wall along China's northern frontier. The Great Wall was built using local materials like stones and rammed earth, with many workers dying during the immense construction project. Later dynasties repaired and expanded sections of the Great Wall to defend against northern invaders.
1. The document provides an outline for a lecture on the history of China from its earliest dynasties to its last dynasty, the Qing. It summarizes the major political and cultural developments over thousands of years.
2. Key early dynasties that unified China included the Qin, who first unified the empire in 221 BCE, and the Han, who expanded the empire and established the imperial system that lasted until 1911. The Han era saw major cultural and economic growth through the Silk Road.
3. The Tang and Song dynasties between the 7th-13th centuries CE represented a golden age of cultural, economic, and technological advancement. However, the Mongol invasion in the 13th century established
The document provides a summary of Chinese history from the first empires to the Song dynasty. It discusses the major dynasties including the Qin which first unified China, the Han which expanded the empire, the Tang known as a cultural powerhouse, and the Song known for its commercial dominance. Key events, figures, and developments are highlighted such as the civil service system, spread of Confucianism, and technological and artistic achievements during periods of stability and prosperity.
Ancient China spanned from around 1600 BC to 221 BC, beginning with early dynasties like the Shang and Zhou which established bronze age cultures along the Yellow River. This was followed by the imperial era from 221 BC to 1912 AD, consisting of successive dynasties including the Qin which first unified China, the Han which established China's political and cultural influence, and the Tang and Song which were economic and technological golden ages. China then experienced foreign rule under the Yuan and Qing dynasties before the establishment of modern Communist China in 1949.
This document provides an overview of Chinese history from 2200 BC to the present. It outlines the major dynasties and time periods, including the origins of Chinese civilization, early empires, second empire, birth of modern China, and contemporary China. Key topics covered include the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the Qin unification, Han expansion, Tang and Song golden age, Yuan and Ming rule, Qing decline, Republican period, and establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
Ancient China developed major civilizations along river valleys like the Yellow River and Yangtze River. Geographic isolation led the Chinese to believe they were the center of the world. Early dynasties like the Shang and Zhou established social hierarchies and developed writing. The Qin dynasty unified China and built infrastructure like the Great Wall. Subsequent dynasties like the Han expanded the empire and implemented civil service exams. The Tang and Song dynasties represented a cultural golden age with advances in technology, art, and education. China's empires were later conquered by Mongol invaders.
The document provides information on early Chinese history, focusing on the three Sage-Kings - Yao, Shun, and Yu. King Yu is described as having rescued China from flooding by dredging and diverting the Yellow River over 13 years of tireless work. A timeline notes the Xia Dynasty founded by Yu around 2200 BCE and the subsequent Shang Dynasty from 1766-1122 BCE, which developed bronze metallurgy and left oracle bone writings. The document then discusses the Zhou Dynasty from 1122-256 BCE and the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven." It provides details on the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty and First Emperor Qin Shihuangdi from 221-210 BCE.
The document provides a summary of Chinese dynasties from 1500 BCE to 1911 CE. It focuses on details about the Shang Dynasty, which ruled from around 1500 BCE to 1027 BCE. Key points:
- The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty to create a stable government in China, laying the foundations for future dynasties. They developed writing, calendar, arts, and bronze casting.
- Kings ruled as absolute monarchs. Society was divided into classes like nobles, artisans, farmers and slaves. Religion involved ancestor worship and divination rituals using oracle bones.
- The Qin Dynasty unified China's warring states in 221 BCE. The First Emperor standardized laws, currency and measurements. Not
Qin Shi Huang conquered the warring states of ancient China and unified the country under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE. He standardized laws, currency, and writing to promote central control. To protect the new empire, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of a vast wall along China's northern frontier. The Great Wall was built using local materials like stones and rammed earth, with many workers dying during the immense construction project. Later dynasties repaired and expanded sections of the Great Wall to defend against northern invaders.
The document provides an overview of the history, geography, landmarks, mythology and ecosystems of ancient China. It discusses the major dynastic periods from the Three Sovereigns to the Qing Dynasty. It describes China's natural barriers including mountains, deserts and seas that protected it. Famous landmarks like the Terracotta Army, Forbidden City and Great Wall are mentioned. Chinese mythology incorporating gods and spirits is briefly outlined. Finally, it provides details on the layers of tropical rainforests and notes the Southeast Asian rainforests are the oldest in the world.
The document provides an overview of Chinese history from 2100 BC to the present day. It discusses the early dynasties including the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It then covers the imperial periods including the Qin dynasty which first unified China, and the Han dynasty which saw the first golden age. Subsequent sections summarize the periods of disunity like the Three Kingdoms period, as well as important dynasties like the Sui and Tang dynasties when China was again united and culturally prosperous. The document touches on many influential figures, political and philosophical developments, and cultural achievements over Chinese civilization.
1) Ancient China saw the development of farming, domestication of animals, pottery, weaving, and bronze-working by around 2000 BC. 2) The Shang Dynasty established the first cities in China and practiced ancestor worship between 1300-1000 BC. 3) The Zhou Dynasty ruled from 1000-200 BC and established a feudal system. Major technological advances included the use of iron, the horse collar, and the crossbow. Philosophies like Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism emerged during this period.
Chinese civilization developed along the Huang Ho River beginning around 2200 BCE. Key aspects of Chinese civilization include a powerful central authority, veneration of ancestors, and philosophies like Confucianism and Taoism. Major dynasties like the Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming ruled China over time and established institutions influenced by Confucianism, Legalism, and other philosophies. Chinese civilization reached a cultural peak under dynasties like the Tang and Song but declined in the later Ming period prior to the 1644 establishment of the Qing dynasty.
Chinese civilization originated along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys thousands of years ago. Major early Chinese dynasties included the Xia Dynasty around 2100-1600 BC, the Shang Dynasty around 1700-1046 BC noted for oracle bone writings, and the Zhou Dynasty 1046-256 BC when Chinese culture further developed. Dynasties alternated ruling all of China with periods of regional states and warlordism until the Qin Dynasty first unified China in 221 BC, establishing the imperial system that subsequent dynasties built upon. Chinese history involves cultural influences from surrounding regions and changing political structures.
A brief history of the Chinese Dynasties. It was done on a short notice. I hope you enjoy and please feel free to correct any mistakes I made or comment. if you wish.
1) China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations dating back to around 1500 BC along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys.
2) Early dynasties included the Shang Dynasty which established the first Chinese civilization, and the Zhou Dynasty which expanded Chinese rule and developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven.
3) The Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC was the first to unify China under an emperor, standardizing laws, currency, and language.
4) The long-lasting Han Dynasty expanded China territorially and economically along the Silk Road, though it eventually collapsed due to corruption and loss of control.
The ancient Chinese civilization has a history spanning nearly 4,000 years and was ruled by a succession of dynasties. Key dynasties included the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. The Shang dynasty invented writing, while the Qin dynasty unified laws and built projects like the Great Wall. The long-lasting Han dynasty explored other regions, established the Silk Road for trade, and instituted merit-based government appointments. Chinese philosophy included Confucianism which emphasized social order, Daoism focusing on nature, and Buddhism teaching the path to non-existence through nirvana.
The document discusses the major Chinese dynasties from earliest to most recent. It begins with the Hsia Dynasty established around 2205 BCE by Emperor Yu, followed by the Shang Dynasty noted for its development of a lunar calendar and silk production. The longest ruling Chou or Zhou Dynasty is mentioned for establishing the civil service examination and feudal system. Later dynasties discussed include the Qin which first unified China under Shih Huang Ti, the Han known for establishing Confucianism, the Sui believed to have laid the foundations for China's golden age, and the Tang characterized as China's most powerful period. Later dynasties such as the Song, Yuan, and Ming are also summarized.
The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 CE and was divided into two periods - the Northern Song and Southern Song. The Northern Song ruled most of northern China from 960-1127 CE with its capital in Kaifeng. It collapsed after losing control of northern China to the Jin Dynasty in 1127 CE. The Southern Song ruled southern China from 1127-1279 CE with its capital in Hangzhou. Despite losing territory, the Southern Song was a period of cultural and economic prosperity, with advances in art, literature, technology, and a commercialized economy.
7 SS -- Ancient Chinese Civilizations (Chapter 4.1)Anthony_Maiorano
Ancient Chinese civilization extended back nearly 4,000 years and was ruled by a succession of dynasties. Key dynasties included the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. The Han Dynasty ruled for 400 years and made important contributions such as developing the Silk Road, expanding trade, and establishing a strong central government. Chinese philosophy and religion also developed, with Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism influencing Chinese thought and culture.
China has a long history as one of the oldest civilizations in the world, with written records dating back 4,000 years. It developed from early agricultural societies along the Yellow River into a unified nation under the Yellow Emperor and Fiery Emperor around 5,000 years ago. This early Chinese civilization advanced technologies like pottery, sericulture, and bronze working. From the Xia Dynasty 4,000 years ago through the 19th century, China experienced a long period of imperial rule and was a global leader in many fields of science and innovation until the Middle Ages. Today, China continues to modernize while also drawing on its rich ancient cultural traditions.
The document outlines several important dynasties in Chinese history. It begins with the Xia Dynasty around 2000 BC, considered the first Chinese dynasty, followed by the Shang Dynasty from 1532-1027 BC which left behind early written records. The Zhou Dynasty then overthrew the Shang in 1027 BC and expanded Chinese civilization. Subsequent dynasties included the Sui from 589-618 AD which connected major rivers, the Tang from 618-907 AD which saw imperial expansion, and the Song from 960-1279 AD which was eventually pushed south by northern invaders.
The document provides information on:
1. Geography of China - It is larger than the US with climate varying from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. Important rivers include the Yellow River in the north and Yangtze River in central China.
2. A mapping activity is described where students will identify and mark features on a map of China including the country outline, Great Wall, Beijing, and the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers.
3. A video is referenced that provides information on ancient Chinese civilization from 10,000 BCE to 220 CE including the influence of geography, early developments, and the structure of society.
The document summarizes the discovery of three tombs from the Han Dynasty in Changsha, China. In 1971, troops drilling for a new hospital unearthed flammable gas, which locals believed indicated a "fire tomb". Archaeological excavation from 1972-1973 uncovered three tombs containing well-preserved artifacts. Tomb 1 contained the body of Lady Dai, a noblewoman who died in 163 BC. The tombs held burial goods including philosophy, divination, medicine, and military texts along with maps. One item dated the burial to 168 BC, indicating it belonged to a powerful noble family from that era.
The document discusses the geography of ancient China and how it influenced the locations and development of early Chinese civilizations. It explains that civilizations tended to form along major rivers like the Yellow River, Yangtze River, and Xi River, as they provided water and served as transportation routes for trade. The rugged terrain and arid climate of the Gobi Desert made it unsuitable for supporting civilizations. The document also briefly outlines several important early Chinese dynasties and how geography impacted where they were centered.
This document summarizes major dynasties in ancient China from 3200 BCE to 600 BCE, including the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It discusses important figures like Da Yu who established the Xia dynasty after taming floods, Fu Hao who was an army leader and noble woman in the Shang dynasty, and King Wen who promoted the concept of the Mandate of Heaven and a balanced social structure in the Zhou dynasty. The document also poses questions about the Mandate of Heaven, the role of writing, who Da Yu was, and the role of women in ancient Chinese civilizations.
This document summarizes key aspects of ancient Chinese civilization across 3 sentences:
The document discusses the long history of Chinese civilization spanning nearly 4,000 years, key dynasties that ruled China, and important developments including the origins of writing in China during the Shang Dynasty, agriculture along the Yellow River valley fueling growth, and the Chinese calendar being lunisolar.
This document provides an overview of Chinese and Korean art before 1279 CE. It discusses the major Neolithic cultures in China like Yangshao and Lungshan and the development of painted and black pottery. The Bronze Age dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou are covered along with the introduction of bronze casting. Key periods like the Warring States period, the Qin and Han dynasties, and the Six Dynasties period are summarized. Specific artworks like the Jade Cong, Fang Ding ritual vessel, and Painted Banner are highlighted. The document also discusses Buddhist art, Tang dynasty painting, Song dynasty landscape painting, and the Three Kingdoms period in Korea.
This document provides an overview of ancient Chinese civilization. It covers topics such as the major dynasties that ruled (Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han), geography (rivers, mountains), cities and architecture (Forbidden City, pagodas), art forms (calligraphy, silk, porcelain), inventions (paper, printing, gunpowder), and the economy (silk road trade). It also discusses the social hierarchy, religious beliefs, and the eventual decline of ancient Chinese civilization after the fall of the Han dynasty due to internal turmoil and external invasions.
Gabriela Castillo outlines an effective communication process to ensure that instructions from an important meeting with superiors are properly communicated to all relevant parties. Key steps include:
1) Taking thorough notes during the meeting to capture all instructions.
2) Sending the instructions to subordinates, suppliers, and clients organized by region and area of responsibility. Instructions should be tailored to each target audience.
3) Following up on the instructions by maintaining ongoing communication, such as via email and phone calls, to ensure proper implementation and provide feedback to superiors.
The document provides an overview of the history, geography, landmarks, mythology and ecosystems of ancient China. It discusses the major dynastic periods from the Three Sovereigns to the Qing Dynasty. It describes China's natural barriers including mountains, deserts and seas that protected it. Famous landmarks like the Terracotta Army, Forbidden City and Great Wall are mentioned. Chinese mythology incorporating gods and spirits is briefly outlined. Finally, it provides details on the layers of tropical rainforests and notes the Southeast Asian rainforests are the oldest in the world.
The document provides an overview of Chinese history from 2100 BC to the present day. It discusses the early dynasties including the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It then covers the imperial periods including the Qin dynasty which first unified China, and the Han dynasty which saw the first golden age. Subsequent sections summarize the periods of disunity like the Three Kingdoms period, as well as important dynasties like the Sui and Tang dynasties when China was again united and culturally prosperous. The document touches on many influential figures, political and philosophical developments, and cultural achievements over Chinese civilization.
1) Ancient China saw the development of farming, domestication of animals, pottery, weaving, and bronze-working by around 2000 BC. 2) The Shang Dynasty established the first cities in China and practiced ancestor worship between 1300-1000 BC. 3) The Zhou Dynasty ruled from 1000-200 BC and established a feudal system. Major technological advances included the use of iron, the horse collar, and the crossbow. Philosophies like Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism emerged during this period.
Chinese civilization developed along the Huang Ho River beginning around 2200 BCE. Key aspects of Chinese civilization include a powerful central authority, veneration of ancestors, and philosophies like Confucianism and Taoism. Major dynasties like the Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming ruled China over time and established institutions influenced by Confucianism, Legalism, and other philosophies. Chinese civilization reached a cultural peak under dynasties like the Tang and Song but declined in the later Ming period prior to the 1644 establishment of the Qing dynasty.
Chinese civilization originated along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys thousands of years ago. Major early Chinese dynasties included the Xia Dynasty around 2100-1600 BC, the Shang Dynasty around 1700-1046 BC noted for oracle bone writings, and the Zhou Dynasty 1046-256 BC when Chinese culture further developed. Dynasties alternated ruling all of China with periods of regional states and warlordism until the Qin Dynasty first unified China in 221 BC, establishing the imperial system that subsequent dynasties built upon. Chinese history involves cultural influences from surrounding regions and changing political structures.
A brief history of the Chinese Dynasties. It was done on a short notice. I hope you enjoy and please feel free to correct any mistakes I made or comment. if you wish.
1) China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations dating back to around 1500 BC along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys.
2) Early dynasties included the Shang Dynasty which established the first Chinese civilization, and the Zhou Dynasty which expanded Chinese rule and developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven.
3) The Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC was the first to unify China under an emperor, standardizing laws, currency, and language.
4) The long-lasting Han Dynasty expanded China territorially and economically along the Silk Road, though it eventually collapsed due to corruption and loss of control.
The ancient Chinese civilization has a history spanning nearly 4,000 years and was ruled by a succession of dynasties. Key dynasties included the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. The Shang dynasty invented writing, while the Qin dynasty unified laws and built projects like the Great Wall. The long-lasting Han dynasty explored other regions, established the Silk Road for trade, and instituted merit-based government appointments. Chinese philosophy included Confucianism which emphasized social order, Daoism focusing on nature, and Buddhism teaching the path to non-existence through nirvana.
The document discusses the major Chinese dynasties from earliest to most recent. It begins with the Hsia Dynasty established around 2205 BCE by Emperor Yu, followed by the Shang Dynasty noted for its development of a lunar calendar and silk production. The longest ruling Chou or Zhou Dynasty is mentioned for establishing the civil service examination and feudal system. Later dynasties discussed include the Qin which first unified China under Shih Huang Ti, the Han known for establishing Confucianism, the Sui believed to have laid the foundations for China's golden age, and the Tang characterized as China's most powerful period. Later dynasties such as the Song, Yuan, and Ming are also summarized.
The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 CE and was divided into two periods - the Northern Song and Southern Song. The Northern Song ruled most of northern China from 960-1127 CE with its capital in Kaifeng. It collapsed after losing control of northern China to the Jin Dynasty in 1127 CE. The Southern Song ruled southern China from 1127-1279 CE with its capital in Hangzhou. Despite losing territory, the Southern Song was a period of cultural and economic prosperity, with advances in art, literature, technology, and a commercialized economy.
7 SS -- Ancient Chinese Civilizations (Chapter 4.1)Anthony_Maiorano
Ancient Chinese civilization extended back nearly 4,000 years and was ruled by a succession of dynasties. Key dynasties included the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. The Han Dynasty ruled for 400 years and made important contributions such as developing the Silk Road, expanding trade, and establishing a strong central government. Chinese philosophy and religion also developed, with Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism influencing Chinese thought and culture.
China has a long history as one of the oldest civilizations in the world, with written records dating back 4,000 years. It developed from early agricultural societies along the Yellow River into a unified nation under the Yellow Emperor and Fiery Emperor around 5,000 years ago. This early Chinese civilization advanced technologies like pottery, sericulture, and bronze working. From the Xia Dynasty 4,000 years ago through the 19th century, China experienced a long period of imperial rule and was a global leader in many fields of science and innovation until the Middle Ages. Today, China continues to modernize while also drawing on its rich ancient cultural traditions.
The document outlines several important dynasties in Chinese history. It begins with the Xia Dynasty around 2000 BC, considered the first Chinese dynasty, followed by the Shang Dynasty from 1532-1027 BC which left behind early written records. The Zhou Dynasty then overthrew the Shang in 1027 BC and expanded Chinese civilization. Subsequent dynasties included the Sui from 589-618 AD which connected major rivers, the Tang from 618-907 AD which saw imperial expansion, and the Song from 960-1279 AD which was eventually pushed south by northern invaders.
The document provides information on:
1. Geography of China - It is larger than the US with climate varying from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. Important rivers include the Yellow River in the north and Yangtze River in central China.
2. A mapping activity is described where students will identify and mark features on a map of China including the country outline, Great Wall, Beijing, and the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers.
3. A video is referenced that provides information on ancient Chinese civilization from 10,000 BCE to 220 CE including the influence of geography, early developments, and the structure of society.
The document summarizes the discovery of three tombs from the Han Dynasty in Changsha, China. In 1971, troops drilling for a new hospital unearthed flammable gas, which locals believed indicated a "fire tomb". Archaeological excavation from 1972-1973 uncovered three tombs containing well-preserved artifacts. Tomb 1 contained the body of Lady Dai, a noblewoman who died in 163 BC. The tombs held burial goods including philosophy, divination, medicine, and military texts along with maps. One item dated the burial to 168 BC, indicating it belonged to a powerful noble family from that era.
The document discusses the geography of ancient China and how it influenced the locations and development of early Chinese civilizations. It explains that civilizations tended to form along major rivers like the Yellow River, Yangtze River, and Xi River, as they provided water and served as transportation routes for trade. The rugged terrain and arid climate of the Gobi Desert made it unsuitable for supporting civilizations. The document also briefly outlines several important early Chinese dynasties and how geography impacted where they were centered.
This document summarizes major dynasties in ancient China from 3200 BCE to 600 BCE, including the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It discusses important figures like Da Yu who established the Xia dynasty after taming floods, Fu Hao who was an army leader and noble woman in the Shang dynasty, and King Wen who promoted the concept of the Mandate of Heaven and a balanced social structure in the Zhou dynasty. The document also poses questions about the Mandate of Heaven, the role of writing, who Da Yu was, and the role of women in ancient Chinese civilizations.
This document summarizes key aspects of ancient Chinese civilization across 3 sentences:
The document discusses the long history of Chinese civilization spanning nearly 4,000 years, key dynasties that ruled China, and important developments including the origins of writing in China during the Shang Dynasty, agriculture along the Yellow River valley fueling growth, and the Chinese calendar being lunisolar.
This document provides an overview of Chinese and Korean art before 1279 CE. It discusses the major Neolithic cultures in China like Yangshao and Lungshan and the development of painted and black pottery. The Bronze Age dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou are covered along with the introduction of bronze casting. Key periods like the Warring States period, the Qin and Han dynasties, and the Six Dynasties period are summarized. Specific artworks like the Jade Cong, Fang Ding ritual vessel, and Painted Banner are highlighted. The document also discusses Buddhist art, Tang dynasty painting, Song dynasty landscape painting, and the Three Kingdoms period in Korea.
This document provides an overview of ancient Chinese civilization. It covers topics such as the major dynasties that ruled (Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han), geography (rivers, mountains), cities and architecture (Forbidden City, pagodas), art forms (calligraphy, silk, porcelain), inventions (paper, printing, gunpowder), and the economy (silk road trade). It also discusses the social hierarchy, religious beliefs, and the eventual decline of ancient Chinese civilization after the fall of the Han dynasty due to internal turmoil and external invasions.
Gabriela Castillo outlines an effective communication process to ensure that instructions from an important meeting with superiors are properly communicated to all relevant parties. Key steps include:
1) Taking thorough notes during the meeting to capture all instructions.
2) Sending the instructions to subordinates, suppliers, and clients organized by region and area of responsibility. Instructions should be tailored to each target audience.
3) Following up on the instructions by maintaining ongoing communication, such as via email and phone calls, to ensure proper implementation and provide feedback to superiors.
Nicholas Casagrande is a Director of Information Technology with over 15 years of experience managing IT for waste and disposal companies. He has expertise in server virtualization using VMWare and desktop virtualization using Citrix. At his current company, he led a successful migration to 100% virtual servers and 90% virtual desktops. He has a proven track record of reducing costs through negotiating contracts, implementing VOIP, and optimizing infrastructure. Casagrande holds several IT certifications and has contributed to industry publications, presentations, and case studies.
The BSN IV J class at CESDEV held an outreach program at Langub Kalunasan, Cebu on February 27, 2007 where they conducted physical assessments in cooperation with UC-ERDA. Mr. Christopher V. Diputado, a clinical instructor, oversaw the program led by Miss Noimie S. TIMTIM, the BSN IV- J class president.
The panel discussion focused on the evolution of the Indian consumer market over the past 10 years. Key points included:
1) The Indian consumer market has grown significantly, with an additional 150 million new voters in the past decade who are young, democratic-thinking and want variety in their purchases.
2) Value for the Indian consumer is now contextual - they will purchase both organic and frozen options depending on need.
3) While consumption growth rates have slowed slightly to 20% annually, this remains a very strong rate compared to other Asian markets, and shows continued growth potential in India.
4) Emerging categories like personal care, beauty, and online retail will drive future growth in India given low market
This document describes a new type of battery that is safer and longer-lasting than current lithium-ion batteries. It works by using sodium ions rather than lithium ions to store and release energy. Sodium is more abundant than lithium, which could make the batteries more affordable to produce. The new batteries maintain most of the energy density of lithium-ion batteries and can charge and discharge thousands of times before showing degradation. They represent a promising alternative battery technology.
The BSN II-L nursing students conducted an outreach program in Sobusteja, Cebu City where they provided various health services to community members and children such as urine testing, teaching proper hand washing, free blood pressure readings, and health teachings on proper waste management. The students also enjoyed playing with the community children and provided snacks before the children reunited with their mothers at the end of the program.
Abul provides various digital marketing services including social media marketing, search engine optimization, website development, and graphic design. He has over 5 years of experience in digital marketing and offers affordable packages for businesses and individuals. Clients will receive a free project evaluation and consultation on how to best meet their goals.
The document discusses the need for multi-channel retailing approaches to meet modern consumer behaviors. It notes that consumers have less time, conduct research across various channels like web and mobile before purchases, and expect high exposure and options from retailers. True multi-channel strategies require adopting an integrated approach across all consumer touchpoints, not just having separate websites or departments. This allows retailers to effectively connect with consumers through reach, engagement, influence and service across channels based on their expectations.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
A Study under Prof. Metin Cakanyildirim to understand the various factors involved in pricing of house and perform a Regression Analysis to understand their impact.
The document provides an overview of database management systems and the relational model. It discusses key concepts such as:
- The structure of relational databases using relations, attributes, tuples, domains, and relation schemas.
- Entity-relationship modeling and the relational algebra operations used to manipulate relational data, including selection, projection, join, and set operations.
- Additional relational concepts like primary keys, foreign keys, and database normalization to reduce data redundancy and inconsistencies.
The summary captures the main topics and essential information about database systems and the relational model covered in the document in 3 sentences.
MMS offers various singing and musical shows including karaoke tracks, religious and spiritual songs, orchestra performances, and poetry recitations. They have a wide collection of karaoke tracks and experienced trained singers. MMS can provide entertainment for occasions like weddings, birthdays, annual functions, religious events, and more.
This document contains a list of Portuguese words including names of foods, family members, numbers and sounds. The words listed are ditongos, pão, mãe, oito which relate to breads, mothers and the number eight in Portuguese.
Billy Jarvis has over 26 years of experience as a machinist and gearbox/hydraulic technician. He is currently employed at H&H Welding and Repair, where he machines various materials, repairs manufacturing and farming equipment, and occasionally supervises up to 12 employees. Prior to his current role, Jarvis held machinist and technician positions at several companies, developing strong skills in quality assurance and manufacturing processes. He also co-owned an auto salvage business for six years, gaining management experience.
The document discusses the use of computers as teaching tools based on constructivist and social constructivist learning frameworks. It explains that constructivism involves students individually constructing knowledge through gathering information, while social constructivism views knowledge as constructed within a social context through idea sharing and discussion. The document then outlines how teachers can use computers as informative tools to provide vast information, communication tools to enable global discussion, constructive tools for students to build new understandings, co-constructive tools for collaborative work, and situating tools to create virtual environments.
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes connecting China and Rome that began in the 2nd century BC during the Han Dynasty. It consisted of northern, central, and southern routes across Central Asia that allowed for the exchange of goods like silk, ivory, gold, food, animals, technology, religion, and ideas between East and West. Recent archaeological studies provide evidence that the Silk Road may have been used for trade even earlier and helped connect diverse populations across Eurasia through an important system of commerce and cultural diffusion.
The document summarizes the history of China and East Asia from prehistory to imperial China. It notes that early Chinese civilizations developed along major rivers like the Huang He and Chang Jiang. The earliest dynasties, like the Xia and Shang, ruled in this region. The Zhou dynasty that followed was the longest lasting in Chinese history. Confucianism and other philosophies like Daoism and Buddhism gained influence during different dynasties. The Qin unified China for the first time and established the imperial system, though their rule was brief. The Han dynasty then ruled China for centuries and saw developments like the Silk Road. Later, China divided during the Three Kingdoms period before reunifying.
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes connecting East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean world from the 2nd millennium BC to the 15th century AD. Jade, nephrite, lapis lazuli, spinel, and other precious goods were traded from mines in modern day Xinjiang, China and Badakhshan, Afghanistan. The expansion of Scythian cultures across Central Asia played an important role in the development of the Silk Road by encouraging long distance trade and enforcing tariffs. Various goods, technologies, and cultural influences were exchanged between Europe, China, and regions in between along these interconnected land and sea routes.
292Part IV East Asian CivilizationChapter 7China291.docxlorainedeserre
This document provides an overview of the history of Southeast Asia from prehistoric times to the present. It discusses four main periods: 1) The prehistoric period from 2500 BC to 150 BC saw the emergence of Neolithic cultures and advances in agriculture and metallurgy. 2) From around 100 AD to 1300 AD, the region came under strong Indian cultural influence, as rulers modeled their kingdoms after Hindu concepts of kingship. 3) From 1300 to 1750, Chinese and Islamic influences grew in significance. 4) From 1750 onwards, Western colonial powers intervened and colonized the region until independence in the mid-20th century. The document provides details on many of the early cultures and states that emerged across mainland and
The document discusses the characteristics and history of art in China and India from early periods through various dynasties. In China, early art included pottery and jade from the Neolithic period. Significant artistic developments occurred during the Shang Dynasty, Zhou Dynasty, Qin Dynasty, Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty, Ming Dynasty. In India, early petroglyphs date back thousands of years, with sculpture, painting, architecture, and other art forms influenced by religion and politics evolving over millennia. Major sites like the Taj Mahal exemplify the pinnacle of each country's artistic heritage.
Ancient Geography of India - Buddhist Period by Alexander CunninghamAjai Singh
1) The document discusses the ancient geography of India during the Buddhist period, from the rise of Buddhism to the conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni.
2) It will use the campaigns of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC and the travels of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hwen Thsang in the 7th century AD as the main guides to illustrate locations from this period.
3) Hwen Thsang spent nearly 15 years in India between 629-645 AD, visiting most major cities and holy places of Buddhism. His detailed travels provide a wealth of geographic information about ancient India.
During the period from 600-1450 CE:
1. Long-distance trade expanded greatly via routes like the Silk Road, increasing interactions and cultural spread.
2. The Pax Mongolia under Genghis Khan's vast empire brought a period of peace and heightened trade.
3. Major political changes included the fall of classical empires and rise of decentralized states, as well as invasions and migrations that altered world regions.
This document provides an overview of art from prehistory through the ancient and medieval periods. It discusses the earliest known representational imagery from 35,000 BCE. During the Neolithic Revolution beginning around 11,500 BCE, art became bigger and pottery was used to store food. Ancient cultures like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece developed distinctive artistic styles in architecture, sculpture, and painting. In the Middle Ages, the capital of the Roman Empire moved to Constantinople and Christianity became the official religion, influencing art with illuminated manuscripts and mosaics. Carolingian art revived classical styles during Charlemagne's rule, while Ottonian art featured dedication portraits in manuscripts.
The document provides instructions for Project #3 which involves creating pictures and a mini-museum representing a country for UN Day. Students must submit 2-3 pictures by October 17th for points. From October 18-21, the classroom will be transformed into a mini-museum using the student pictures. Additional details are provided on submission deadlines and points allocation.
Greek and romans chapter 7 earlychinesejapaneseart 101012153900-phpapp01Karen Owens
This document provides a summary of Chinese history and culture from ancient dynasties through the Ming Dynasty. It discusses early dynasties like the Shang and Zhou that established bureaucracy and bronze working. Confucian classics were developed during this period that emphasized balance and conduct. The Qin Dynasty unified China and began projects like the Great Wall. Subsequent dynasties like the Han spread Chinese influence through technology, art, and religion while the Tang and Song eras saw advancements in landscape painting, calligraphy, and porcelain. Buddhism also grew influential and spread to Japan where Zen Buddhism became popular.
How the silk roads brought together in one indivisible unit the Afro-Eurasian landmass, allowing for the peaceful diffusion of religions, letters, arts and cultures.
This document summarizes key aspects of ancient Chinese civilization across 3 sentences:
The document discusses the long history of Chinese civilization spanning nearly 4,000 years, key dynasties that ruled China, and important developments including the origins of writing in the Shang Dynasty, agriculture along the Yellow River valley, and innovations in calendar, silk, and food storage systems. Major occupations of ancient China included agriculture of crops like rice and wheat, as well as silk production along the Silk Road trading routes.
This document provides an overview of ancient Chinese history from its earliest civilizations to the Mongol conquest. It discusses the geographical influences on China and the earliest Neolithic cultures. The Shang Dynasty established the first Chinese state along the Yellow River from 1500-11 BCE. The longer Zhou Dynasty developed the foundations of Chinese society and introduced Confucianism as a moral and ethical philosophy. The short-lived but powerful Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BCE first unified China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang. The long-lasting Han Dynasty expanded the empire and saw contact with the West along the Silk Road. The Tang and Song Dynasties were periods of economic, cultural, and technological growth before the Mongol conquests of
The Yellow River was the site of the earliest Chinese civilizations beginning around 4000 BC. Known as the "mother river" of China, the Yellow River valley saw the emergence of the Xia and Shang dynasties and was consistently the center of politics, economy, and culture throughout Chinese history. The Yellow River civilization developed over 2000 years and assimilated aspects of other regional civilizations to become the foundation for China's feudal empire civilization.
The document discusses the spread of Buddhism from the 3rd to 7th centuries through major trade routes like the Indian Ocean trading routes and Silk Road. Buddhism slowly moved into China in the 1st century CE, spread by Chinese pilgrims traveling in both directions. It was not heavily promoted by the Harsha or Sui dynasties in China. The spread of Buddhism into Korea is hinted at, while Japan is ignored. Cultural transmission of Buddhist statuary is seen over time in Korea, Japan, and Thailand, showing the religion's influence over the region.
China has a long and rich history spanning thousands of years. Some of the earliest dynasties include the Xia Dynasty around 2100 BC, noted for developing agriculture and early writing, and the Shang Dynasty from 1700-1100 BC, known for using oracle bones for divination. The Zhou Dynasty from 1100-221 BC saw the development of iron tools, money, and written laws. Confucius lived during this period and his teachings became China's dominant philosophy. Later dynasties like the Tang Dynasty from 618-907 AD and Han Dynasty from 206 BC - 220 AD were periods of cultural and economic prosperity, as well as influence on neighboring regions like Japan and introduction of Buddhism to China.
Notes on Central Asian History during 200 BC and its effects on later history, Role of Yuezhi migration in Ancient History of Central Asia, settlement of Yuezhi after migration and various theories about current form of Ancient Yuezhi tribe: (Gurjar/Gujjar/Gujar/Gusar/Gusur/Khazar/Ughar/Gazar/Gusarova)
Since ancient times, people have been exploring unknown lands and foreign countries with customs and traditions different from their own. This eagerness for something new made people travel, discover new territories, create routes and build roads connecting distant parts of the globe. Merchants’ caravans carrying commodities, ambassadors, explorers and travelers walked along these routes.
Trade, being one of the most significant factors of the historical process, encouraged the interaction of different cultures. At the same time, the representatives of different regions exchanged information from different fields of knowledge: inventions, technologies and crops were borrowed and assimilated. Although separated by long distances, civilizations established a dialogue, enriching each other and giving impulse to further development.
The earliest information about trade relations between different countries dates back to the 2nd millennium bc. At that period there were already trade routes which spanned the Ancient East including Bactria, Media, Persia, Armenia, India, Arabia and Western Asia. In antiquity trade was a risky business, but, on the other hand, it guaranteed a considerable profit in case of success. International trade flourished in peacetime and diminished in wartime, but never ceased.
In the Middle Ages a stable and developed system of international trade routes functioned, connecting almost all the civilizations of the Old World: the Silk Road, the Saharan Trade Routes, the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks, etc. New merchants’ commercial confederations like the Hanseatic League and such city-states as medieval Venice and Genoa came into existence, specializing in international trade. Beginning with the Age of Discovery (since 1475), an opportunity to deliver Indian goods to European ports only by sea has become available. The Manila Galleons, which sailed over the Pacific Ocean from Manila (the Philippines) to Acapulco (Mexico) embodied Christopher Columbus’s dream about trading with the East.
Most of those ancient routes are nowadays not more than objects of historical research, however, some of them — for example, the Saharan Trade Routes or the Great Trunk Road — are still in use, keeping up with the modern pace of life. Trade routes continue their everlasting journey through space and time, connecting countries and being the media of the dialogue of civilizations.
This tutorial offers a step-by-step guide on how to effectively use Pinterest. It covers the basics such as account creation and navigation, as well as advanced techniques including creating eye-catching pins and optimizing your profile. The tutorial also explores collaboration and networking on the platform. With visual illustrations and clear instructions, this tutorial will equip you with the skills to navigate Pinterest confidently and achieve your goals.
This document announces the winners of the 2024 Youth Poster Contest organized by MATFORCE. It lists the grand prize and age category winners for grades K-6, 7-12, and individual age groups from 5 years old to 18 years old.
Heart Touching Romantic Love Shayari In English with ImagesShort Good Quotes
Explore our beautiful collection of Romantic Love Shayari in English to express your love. These heartfelt shayaris are perfect for sharing with your loved one. Get the best words to show your love and care.
The cherry: beauty, softness, its heart-shaped plastic has inspired artists since Antiquity. Cherries and strawberries were considered the fruits of paradise and thus represented the souls of men.
1. www.penn.museum/expedition 9
CollectionoftheStateHermitageMuseum,St.Petersburg
The Silk Roads in History
by daniel c. waugh
T
here is an endless popular fascination with
the “Silk Roads,” the historic routes of eco-
nomic and cultural exchange across Eurasia.
The phrase in our own time has been used as
a metaphor for Central Asian oil pipelines, and
it is common advertising copy for the romantic exoticism of
expensive adventure travel. One would think that, in the cen-
tury and a third since the German geographer Ferdinand von
Richthofen coined the term to describe what for him was a
quite specific route of east-west trade some 2,000 years ago,
there might be some consensus as to what and when the Silk
Roads were. Yet, as the Penn Museum exhibition of Silk Road
artifacts demonstrates, we are still learning about that history,
and many aspects of it are subject to vigorous scholarly debate.
Most today would agree that Richthofen’s original concept
was too limited in that he was concerned first of all about the
movement of silk overland from east to west
between the “great civilizations” of Han China
and Rome. Should we extend his concept to
encompass striking evidence from the Eurasian
Bronze and Early Iron Ages, and trace it beyond
the European Age of Discovery (15th to 17th
centuries) to the eve of the modern world? Is
there in fact a definable starting point or conclu-
sion? And can we confine our examination to
exchange across Eurasia along a few land routes,
given their interconnection with maritime trade?
Indeed,theroutesofexchangeandproductswere
many, and the mix changed substantially over
time. The history of the Silk Roads is a narrative
about movement, resettlement, and interactions
across ill-defined borders but not necessarily
over long distances. It is also the story of artistic
exchange and the spread and mixing of religions,
all set against the background of the rise and fall
of polities which encompassed a wide range of
cultures and peoples, about whose identities we still know too
little. Many of the exchanges documented by archaeological
research were surely the result of contact between various
ethnic or linguistic groups over time. The reader should keep
these qualifications in mind in reviewing the highlights from
the history which follows.
The Beginnings
Among the most exciting archaeological discoveries of the
20th century were the frozen tombs of the nomadic pastoral-
ists who occupied the Altai mountain region around Pazyryk
in southern Siberia in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.
These horsemen have been identified with the Scythians who
dominated the steppes from Eastern Europe to Mongolia. The
This detail of a pile carpet, recovered from Pazyryk Barrow 5 and dated 252–238
BCE, depicts an Achaemenid-style horseman.
2. DanielC.Waugh(bothpages)
Pazyryk tombs clearly document connections with China: the
deceased were buried with Chinese silk and bronze mirrors.
The graves contain felts and woven wool textiles, but curi-
ously little evidence that would point to local textile produc-
tion. The earliest known pile carpet, found in a Pazyryk tomb,
has Achaemenid (ancient Persian) motifs; the dyes and tech-
nology of dyeing wool fabrics seem to be of Middle Eastern
origin. Other aspects of the burial goods suggest a connection
with a yet somewhat vague northeast Asian cultural complex,
extending along the forest-steppe boundaries all the way to
Manchuria and north Korea. Discoveries from 1st millennium
BCE sites in Xinjiang reinforce the evidence about active long-
distance contacts well before Chinese political power extended
that far west.
While it is difficult to locate the Pazyryk pastoralists within
any larger polity that might have controlled the center of
Eurasia, the Xiongnu—the Huns—who emerged around the
beginning of the 2nd century BCE, established what most con-
sider to be the first of the great Inner Asian empires and in
the process stimulated what, in the conventional telling, was
the beginnings of the Silk Roads. Evidence about the Xiongnu
supports a growing consensus that Inner Asian peoples for-
merly thought of as purely nomadic in fact were mixed soci-
eties, incorporating sedentary elements such as permanent
settlement sites and agriculture into their way of life. Related
to this fact was a substantial and regular interaction along the
permeable boundaries between the northern steppe world
and agricultural China. Substantial quantities of Chinese
goods now made their way into Inner Asia and beyond to the
Mediterranean world. This flow of goods included tribute the
Han Dynasty paid to the nomad rulers, and trade, in return
for which the Chinese received horses and camels. Chinese
missions to the “Western Regions” also resulted in the open-
ing of direct trade with Central Asia and parts of the Middle
East, although we have no evidence that Han merchants ever
reached the Mediterranean or that Roman merchants reached
China. The cities of the Parthian Empire, which controlled
routes leading to the Mediterranean, and the emergence of
prosperous caravan emporia such as Palmyra in the eastern
Syrian desert attest to the importance of interconnected over-
land and maritime trade, whose products included not only
silk but also spices, iron, olive oil, and much more.
The Han Dynasty expanded Chinese dominion for the first
time well into Central Asia, in the process extending the Great
Wall and establishing the garrisons to man it. While one result
of this was a shift in the balance of power between the Xiongnu
10 volume 52, number 3 expedition
Xiongnu tombs contained various types of grave goods.
Objects in this late 1st century BCE to middle 1st century
CE burial from Mongolia included a bronze cauldron
containing the remains of a ritual meal, pottery, and a Han
Dynasty lacquer bowl with metal rim.
3. www.penn.museum/expedition 11
The Qizilqagha beacon tower, northwest
of Kucha, Xinjiang, dates from the Han
Dynasty. It is located near an important
Buddhist cave temple complex and
stands approximately 15 m tall.
4. DanielC.Waugh,EmilyToner(map)
12 volume 52, number 3 expedition
and the Chinese in favor of the latter, Xiongnu tombs of the late
1st century BCE through the 1st century CE in north-central
Mongolia contain abundant Chinese lacquerware, lacquered
Chinese chariots, high-quality bronze mirrors, and stunning
silk brocades.There is good reason to assume that much of the
silk passing through Xiongnu hands was traded farther to the
west. Although Richthofen felt that the Silk Road trade ceased
to be important with the decline of the Han Dynasty in the 2nd
century CE, there is ample evidence of very important interac-
tions across Eurasia in the subsequent period when—both in
China and the West—the great sedentary empires fragmented.
The Silk Roads and Religion
During the 2nd century CE, Buddhism began to spread vigor-
ously into Central Asia and China with the active support of
local rulers. The earliest clearly documented Chinese transla-
Right, the 19 m high Tang period statue of Maitreya, the Buddha of the
Future, is located at Xumishan Grottoes, Ningxia Hui Antonomous Region,
China. The cave temples here were first carved in the Northern Wei peri-
od. Below, this map charts major routes and sites of the Silk Road.
5. www.penn.museum/expedition 13
Maijishan or “Wheatstack Mountain,” in
eastern Gansu Province, is a Buddhist
cave site first established under the
Northern Wei Dynasty in the 5th century.
DanielC.Waugh
tions of Buddhist scriptures date from this period, although
the process of expanding the Buddhist canon in China and
adapting it to Chinese religious traditions extended over sub-
sequent centuries. Understandably, many of the key figures in
the transmission of the faith were those from Central Asia who
commanded a range of linguistic skills acquired in the multi-
ethnic oasis towns such as Kucha. Buddhism also made its way
east via the coastal routes. By the time of the Northern Wei
Dynasty in the 5th and early 6th centuries, there were major
Buddhist cave temple sites in the Chinese north and extending
across to the fringes of the Central Asian deserts. Perhaps the
best known and best preserved of these is the Mogao Caves
at the commercial and garrison town of Dunhuang, where
there is a continuous record of Buddhist art from the early
5th century down to the time of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty
in the 14th century. One of the most famous travelers on the
Silk Roads was the Chinese monk Xuanzang, whose route to
the sources of Buddhist wisdom in India took him along the
northern fringes of the Tarim Basin, through the mountains,
and then south through today’s Uzbekistan and Afghanistan.
When he returned to China after some 15 years, stopping at
Dunhuang along the way, he brought back a trove of scrip-
tures and important images.
Many of the sites that we connect with this spread of
Buddhism are also those where there is evidence of the
Sogdians: Iranian speakers who were the first great merchant
diaspora of the Silk Roads. From their homeland in Samarkand
and the Zerafshan River Valley (today’s Uzbekistan and
6. DanielC.Waugh
14 volume 52, number 3 expedition
Tajikistan), the Sogdians extended their reach west to the
Black Sea, south through the mountains of Kashmir, and to
the ports of southeast Asia. Early 4th century Sogdian letters,
found just west of Dunhuang, document a Sogdian network
extending from Samarkand through Dunhuang, and along the
Gansu Corridor into central China. Sogdians entered Chinese
service and adopted some aspects of Chinese culture while
retaining, it seems, their indigenous religious traditions (a
form of Zoroastrianism). Their importance went well beyond
commerce, as they served not only the Chinese but also some
of the newly emerging regimes from the northern steppes,
the Turks and the Uyghurs. The Turks for a time extended
their control across much of Inner Asia and were influential
in promoting trade into Eastern Europe and the Byzantine
Empire. The Uyghurs received huge quantities of Chinese silk
in exchange for horses. Sogdians played a role in the transmis-
sion of Manichaeism—another of the major Middle Eastern
religions—to the Uyghurs in the 8th century, by which time
both Islam and Eastern Christianity had also made their way
to China. With the final conquest of the Sogdian homeland
by Arab armies in the early 8th century, Sogdian influence
declined. Muslim merchants of various ethnicities would
replace the Sogdians in key roles controlling Silk Road trade.
Tombs of the 5th to 8th century, along the northern routes
connecting China and Central Asia, contain abundant evi-
dence of east-west interaction. There are numerous coins
from Sasanian Iran, examples of Middle Eastern and Central
Asian metalwork, glass from the eastern Mediterranean, and
much more. By the time of the Tang Dynasty (618–906),
which managed once again to extend Chinese control into
Central Asia, foreign culture was all the rage among the
Chinese elite: everything from makeup and hair styles to
dance and music. Even women played polo, a game imported
from Persia.
The Impact of the Arabs
and the Mongols
By the second half of the 8th century—with the consolida-
tion of Arab control in Central Asia and the establishment of
the Abbassid Caliphate, with its capital at Baghdad—western
Asia entered a new period of prosperity. Many threads made
up the complex fabric of what we tend to designate simply as
“Islamic civilization.” Earlier Persian traditions continued,
and the expertise of Eastern Christians contributed to the
This view of the southern portion of the Mogao oasis, Dunhuang,
includes a temple façade (on the right) that was restored in 1936.
The façade covers a 30 m high statue of Maitreya commissioned
at the end of the 7th century by the female usurper of the Tang
throne, Wu Zetian. Fences added in recent years to reduce wind
erosion are visible on the plateau above the cliff.
7. www.penn.museum/expedition 15
400 BCE 200 BCE 0 200 CE 400 CE 600 CE 800 CE 1000 CE 1200 CE 1400 CE 1600 CE
Mediterranean
Persia
Northen India
Pakistan
Afghanistan
Central Asia
East Asia
Macedonians
Roman Empire
Byzantine Empire
Seleucids Sassanians
Parthians Islamic Dynasties
Mauryans
Kushans
Guptas
Sogdians
Mughals
Sakas UyghursHephthalites Timurids
Xiongnu Juan-juan Khitans Mongols
Han Dynasty Sui Song Dynasty Ming
Hu Peoples Northern Wei Tang Dynasty Tanguts (Xi Xia)
136–125, 119–115 BCE. Zhang Qian, emissary sent by Han
Dynasty Emperor Wu Di to the “Western Regions,” who sup-
plied important commercial and political intelligence.
629–645 CE. Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang), Chinese Buddhist
monk who traveled through Inner Asia to India, studied there,
and once back in the Chinese capital Chang’an (Xian) was an
important translator of Buddhist texts.
821. Tamim ibn Bahr, Arab emissary, who visited the impres-
sive capital city of the Uyghurs in the Orkhon River valley in
Mongolia.
1253–1255. William of Rubruck (Ruysbroeck), Franciscan
missionary who traveled all the way to the Mongol Empire
capital of Karakorum and wrote a remarkably detailed account
about what he saw.
1271–1295. Marco Polo, Venetian who accompanied his
father and uncle back to China and the court of Yuan Emperor
Kublai Khan. Marco entered his service; after returning to
Europe dictated a romanticized version of his travels while in
a Genoese prison. Despite its many inaccuracies, his account
is the best known and arguably most influential of the early
European narratives about Asia.
1325–1354. Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Battuta,
Moroccan whose travels even eclipsed Marco Polo’s in their
extent, as he roamed far and wide between West Africa and
China, and once home dictated an often remarkably detailed
description of what he saw.
1403–1406. Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo, Spanish ambassador to
Timur (Tamerlane), who carefully described his route through
northern Iran and the flourishing capital city of Samarkand.
1413–1415,1421–1422,1431–1433. MaHuan, Muslim inter-
preter who accompanied the famous Ming admiral Zheng He
(Cheng Ho) on his fourth, sixth, and seventh expeditions to
the Indian Ocean and described the geography and commer-
cial emporia along the way.
1664–1667, 1671–1677. John Chardin, a French Hugenot
jeweler who spent significant time in the Caucasus, Persia,
and India and wrote one of the major European accounts of
Safavid Persia.
Chronology of Selected Travelers
silk road timeline
Timeline:AnneMarieKane,afterDanielC.Waugh
8. emergence of Baghdad as a major intellectual center. Even
though Chinese silk continued to be imported, centers of
silk production were established in Central Asia and north-
ern Iran. Considerable evidence has been found regarding
importation of Chinese ceramics into the Persian Gulf in the
8th through the 10th century. The importance of maritime
trade for the transmission of Chinese goods would continue
to grow as Muslim merchants established themselves in the
ports of southeast China. The Chinese connection had a
substantial impact on artistic production in the Middle East,
where ceramicists devised new techniques in order to imitate
Chinese wares. Conversely, the transmission of blue-and-
white pottery decoration moved from the Middle East to
China. The apogee of these developments came substantially
later in the period of the Mongol Empire, when in the 13th
and 14th centuries much of Eurasia came under the control
of the most successful of all the Inner Asian dynasties whose
homeland was in the steppes of Mongolia.
DanielC.Waugh
Left, Timurid tile work may have been influenced by Chinese lacquerware. This example of tile work is from the Mausoleum of Shad-i
Mulk, ca. 1372, Shah-i Zinda, Samarkand. Right, a gilded silver Tocharian or Bactrian ewer from the 5th or 6th century CE depicts the story
of Paris and Helen of Troy. The ewer was found in the tomb of Li Xian (d. 569) near Guyuan, Ningxia Hui Antonomous Region, China.
From the Collection of the Guyuan Municipal Museum.
16 volume 52, number 3 expedition
9. www.penn.museum/expedition 17
˘
The Mongol Ilkhanid palace at Takht-i Suleyman in northwestern Iran
(1270–1275) was probably the source of this lusterware tile with a
Chinese dragon motif. From the Collection of the Victoria and Albert
Museum (no. C.1970-1910).
DanielC.Waugh
This modern sculpture, shown with the Registan monuments,
Samarkand, in the background, is evocative of the Silk Road. The
buildings are the 15th century medrese (religious school) of Ulugh
Beg and the 17th century Shir Dor medrese.
Under the Mongols, we can document for the first
time the travel of Europeans all the way across Asia, the
most famous examples being the Franciscan monks John
of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck in the first half
of the 13th century, and Marco Polo a few decades later.
Genoese merchant families took up residence in Chinese
port cities, and for a good many decades there was an
active Roman Catholic missionary church in China. The
reign of Kublai Khan in China and the establishment of
the Mongol Ilkhanid regime in Iran in the second half of
the 13th century was a period of particularly extensive
exchange of artisans (granted, most of them probably
conscripted) and various kinds of technical specialists.
While their long-term impact may have been limited,
the exchanges included the transmission of medical and
astronomical knowledge. There is much here to temper
the view that the impact of the Mongol conquests was
primarily a destructive one.
Despite the rapid collapse of the Mongol Empire in
the 14th century, under their Ming Dynasty successors
in China and the Timurids in the Middle East, active
commercial and artistic exchange between East and
10. West continued into the 16th century. Timurid Samarkand
and Herat were centers of craft production and the caravan
trade. The early Ming sponsored the sending of huge fleets
through the Indian Ocean, which must have flooded the mar-
kets in the West with Chinese goods, among them the increas-
ingly popular celadon (pale green) and blue-and-white porce-
lain. The centers of Chinese ceramic production clearly began
to adapt to the tastes of foreign markets, whether in Southeast
Asia or the Middle East. The legacy of this can be seen in the
ceramics produced in northern Iran, which decorated palaces
and shrines, and in the later collections of imported porcelain
assembled by the Ottoman and Safavid rulers in the 16th and
17th centuries. Persian painting, which reached its apogee in
the 15th and 16th centuries, was substantially influenced by
Chinese models.
Conventional histories of the Silk Roads stop with the
EuropeanAgeofDiscoveryandtheopeningofmaritimeroutes
to the East in the late 15th century. Of course, there had already
long been extensive maritime trade between the Middle East,
South Asia, Southwest Asia, and East Asia. Undoubtedly the
relative value of overland and sea trade now changed, as did
the identity of those who controlled commerce. Yet, despite
growing political disorders disrupting the overland routes,
many of them continued to flourish down through the 17th
century. New trading diasporas emerged, with Indian and
Armenian merchants now playing important roles. Trade in
traditional products such as horses and spices continued, as
did the transmission of substantial amounts of silver to pay
for the Eastern goods. Among the Chinese goods now much
in demand was tea, whose export to the Inner Asian pastoral-
ists had grown substantially during the period of the Yuan and
early Ming dynasties. Trade along the Silk Roads continued,
even if transformed in importance, into the 20th century.
Re-discovery of
the Silk Roads
An important chapter in the history of the Silk Roads is the
story of their re-discovery in modern times. Over the centu-
DanielC.Waugh
18 volume 52, number 3 expedition
On the left is a Ming porcelain dish created in the Jingdezhen kilns, dated 1403–1424. It was donated to the shrine of Shaykh Safi al-Din at Ardebil
(northwestern Iran) by Safavid Shah Abbas I in 1611. On the right is a blue and white ceramic imitation of Chinese porcelain, probably from
Samarkand, dated 1400–1450, which was produced by craftsmen conscripted in 1402 in Damascus. Both dishes from the Collection of the Victoria
and Albert Museum (no. 1712-1816; no. C.206-1984).
11. ries, many of the historic cities along the Inner Asian routes
declined and disappeared as a result of climate change (where
water supplies dried up) or changes in the political map. Only
episodically did the ancient sites attract the attention of local
rulers; at best, oral tradition preserved legends which bore
little relationship to the earlier history of the ruins. In Europe,
it was travel accounts such as that of Marco Polo which
helped to alert early explorers of Central Asia to the possibil-
ity of unearthing traces of Silk Road civilizations now buried
beneath the desert sands.
The foundation for modern Silk Road studies was laid
between the late 1880s and the eve of World War I. Somewhat
by accident, the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin discovered sev-
eral of the ruined towns along the southern Silk Road, includ-
ingDandanUiliq,northofKhotan,andLoulan,nearthedried-
up bed of Lake Lop Nur. Inspired by such information and
the trickle of antiquities that was now coming out of Central
Asia, the Hungarian-born Aurel Stein, an employee of the
British Indian government, inaugurated serious archaeologi-
cal exploration of the sites in western China. His most famous
accomplishment was to purchase from the self-appointed
keeper of the Mogao cave temples near Dunhuang in 1907 a
significant part of a treasure trove of manuscripts and paint-
ings discovered there only a few years earlier. A year later, the
French sinologist Paul Pelliot shipped another major portion
of this collection back to Europe. In the meantime, pursuing
leads suggested by earlier Russian exploration, German expe-
ditions had been active along the northern Silk Road. There
they removed large chunks of murals from the most impor-
tant Buddhist cave temples in the Turfan and Kucha regions
and sent them back to Berlin. The Germans also found manu-
script fragments and imagery from Christian and Manichaen
temples. Such was the quantity and range of the textual and
artistic materials obtained by these early expeditions that their
analysis is still far from complete. Part of the challenge was
to decipher previously unknown languages and scripts. The
MarcoPolofromTheSilkRoadonLandandSea,1989.ChinaPictorialPublications,p.37,#20.
www.penn.museum/expedition 19
I
n his own lifetime and even today, Marco Polo’s account of his travels has
been branded a falsification. A late medieval reader might have asked how it is
that there could be such wonders about which we have never heard. Why is it,
the modern critic muses, that Marco so often seems to get the facts wrong or fails to
mention something we think he should have included such as the Great Wall or foot-
binding? Of course in any age, the first descriptions of the previously unknown are
likely to engender skepticism. Accuracy in reporting may be conditioned by precon-
ceived notions, the degree to which the traveler actually saw something or perhaps
only heard about it secondhand, and the purpose for which an account was set down.
Marco had his biases—he was an apologist for Kublai Khan and, it seems, really did
work for the Mongols. As an official in their administration, he would not necessarily
have mixed with ordinary Chinese. When he was in China, much of the Great Wall
was in ruins and thus might simply not have seemed worthy of comment. Where
he reports on Mongol customs and certain aspects of the court, he can be very precise. If his descriptions of cities seem
stereotyped, the reason may have been that they indeed appeared equally large and prosperous when judged by European
standards. In any event, to convey the wonders of the Great Khan’s dominions required a certain amount of hyperbole.
It seems unlikely that Marco took notes along the way. Mistakes can thus easily be attributed to faulty memory as well as
the circumstances in which a professional weaver of romances, Rusticello of Pisa, recorded and embellished Marco’s oral
account while the two were in a Genoese prison. Even if Marco’s account still challenges modern scholars, there can be no
question about its impact in helping to transform a previously very limited European knowledge of Asia.
Marco Polo’s Travels: Myth or Fact?
12. belated Chinese response to what they came to
characterize as a plundering of their antiquities
finally put a stop to most foreign exploration
by the mid-1930s.
In recent decades, new excavations have
added substantially to our knowledge of this
part of Asia. One focus of Chinese archaeol-
ogy has been on the very early cultures of Inner
Asia, which antedate the traditional “begin-
ning of the Silk Roads.” The ongoing discover-
ies from locations such as the Astana cemetery,
dating from the Tang period, are enabling us
to now write a serious social and economic
history of some of the flourishing oasis com-
munities, in a time when silk was still a major
currency that fueled commerce.
Our knowledge of the cultures in the
northern steppes commenced with the work
of Russian archaeologists beginning at the
end of the 19th century. Russian expeditions
organized by the famous Orientalist Wilhelm
Radloff documented sites in southern Siberia
and northern Mongolia, providing some of the
first evidence about “cities in the steppe” and
helping to publicize the earliest texts in a Turkic
language. Russian-Mongolian expeditions
revealed the richness of Xiongnu elite burials at
the site of Noyon uul (Noin Ula) in the moun-
tains of north-central Mongolia, and were
responsible for the first serious excavation of
the 13th century capital of the Mongol Empire,
Karakorum. Archaeology at sites throughout
the Eurasian steppes has resulted in dramatic
discoveries, and forced us to question many
of our assumptions about when meaningful
exchange across all of Eurasia began.
Yet this is only part of the story, for equally
dramatic discoveries have been made in recent
years regarding maritime trade. From the
East China Sea to the Mediterranean, nauti-
cal archaeology is documenting the cargoes of
everything from scrap metal to fine porcelain.
Excavations along the Red Sea and the East
African coasts have expanded our knowledge
O
ur knowledge of the mechanisms for commercial
exchange along the Silk Roads is still limited. Most com-
merce was “short-haul” between one oasis or town and
the next, and probably never generated any written records. There
were also long-distance caravans and merchant diasporas often
located far from the “home office.” The Sogdians were involved in
long-distance trade, documented first in Sogdian letters written by
members of that diaspora in the early 4th century, and later from
documents unearthed in the Turfan oasis, among them a famous
example of a contract for the purchase of a slave. Religious affilia-
tion may have bound communities of entrepreneurs who were oth-
erwise isolated minorities in larger population groups. Thus Eastern
Christians (Nestorians) played important roles in trade from the
Middle East to India and beyond. With the rise of Islam, it was not
long before Muslim merchants were resident in the ports of south-
east China and in the Chinese capital of Chang’an. A vast repository
of Hebrew documents preserved in Cairo describes the activities of a
far-flung Jewish community all across the Mediterranean world into
Eastern Europe and through the Middle East. Italian merchants were
active all along the Silk Roads, even sending their representatives to
China in the time of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.
Although Middle Eastern silk production was by now very sub-
stantial, imports of Chinese raw silk were significant in the emergence
of Italy as a major center of silk weaving. One of the most valuable
sources about products and prices is a commercial handbook com-
piled by the Florentine agent Pegalotti in Constantinople in the 14th
century. In it, he reports that the routes to China are generally safe for
travel. By the late 16th and 17th centuries, Armenian Christians were
placed in charge of the Safavid (Persian) silk trade. One of the most
remarkable documents from this late period in the history of the Silk
Roads is an account book by an Armenian, Hohvannes, who started
at the home office in a suburb of Isfahan, traveled south to Shiraz,
then on to the Indian Ocean coast, where he boarded a ship to India.
Once he arrived in the Mughal Empire, he continued his buying and
selling, aided by a mechanism for cashing in letters of credit and for
shipping goods back home even as he went on, ultimately spending
time in Lhasa before returning to India. Surprisingly, Hohvannes
used double-entry bookkeeping and thus has left us an invaluable,
detailed account of goods and prices.
20 volume 52, number 3 expedition
Merchant
Diasporas and
Our Knowledge of
Silk Road Trade
13. of contacts with India and the Far East. Although long
known from Classical texts, the archaeological evidence of
Roman trade with India continues to grow. Overall there
is now a much greater appreciation of the importance of
long-distance trade through the Middle East starting in the
Bronze Age and continuing well into the era when first the
Portuguese and then the Dutch and English began to dom-
inate the Indian Ocean. Maritime trade throughout history
has been an integral part of Eurasian exchange.
So the “Silk Roads” did not begin when Han Emperor
Wu Di sent his emissary Zhang Qian to the West in the
2nd century BCE any more than they ended when Vasco
Da Gama pioneered the route to India around the Cape
of Good Hope. Our current “Age of Discovery” concern-
ing the history of the Silk Roads, employing sophisticated
www.penn.museum/expedition 21
DanielC.Waugh
A mural of donors (Tocharian princes?) from Kizil Grottoes, Cave
8 (“Cave of the Sixteen Swordbearers”), has been C-14 dated
to 432–538 CE. Note the red hair on the men and the intentional
defacement of the mural. From the Collection of the Museum of
Asian Art, Berlin (MIK III 8691).
A mural brought back to Berlin by German archaeologists depicts
Uyghur Buddhist devotees. It was found in Bezeklik, Temple 9, in
the Turfan region, and dates to the 8th to 9th century CE. From the
Collection of the Museum of Asian Art, Berlin (MIK III 6876a).
14. analytical tools such as DNA testing and remote sensing from
satellites, at the very least should persuade us that the study of
this history is still young. Who knows what secrets remain to
be uncovered from the desert sands?
daniel c. waugh is Professor Emeritus in History,
International Studies, and Slavic Languages and Literatures at
the University of Washington in Seattle. He is the current direc-
tor of the Silk Road Seattle Project and editor of the journal of the
Silkroad Foundation.
For Further Reading
Baumer, Christoph. Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel
Stein and Sven Hedin. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2000.
Hulsewé, F. P., and M. A. N. Loewe. China in Central Asia: The Early
Stage: 125 B.C.–A.D. 23. An Annotated Translation of Chapters 61
and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Leiden: Brill, 1979.
Jackson, Peter, and David Morgan, trans. and eds. The Mission of
Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of the Great
Khan Möngke 1253–1255. London: Hakluyt Society, 1990.
Juliano, Annette L., and Judith A. Lerner. Monks and Merchants:
Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China: Gansu and Ningxia,
4th–7th Century. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., with The Asia
Society, 2001.
Komaroff, Linda, and Stefano Carboni. The Legacy of Genghis
Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256–1353.
New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2002.
Qi, Xiaoshan, and Wang Bo. The Ancient Culture in Xinjiang along
the Silk Road. Ürümqi: Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, 2008.
Tucker, Jonathan. The Silk Road: Art and History. London: Art
Media Resources, 2003.
Whitfield, Roderick, Susan Whitfield, and Neville Agnew. Cave
Temples of Mogao: Art and History on the Silk Road. Los Angeles:
Getty Institute and Museum, 2000.
Whitfield, Susan. Life along the Silk Road. London: John Murray,
1999.
Whitfield, Susan, and Ursula Sims-Williams. The Silk Road: Trade,
Travel, War and Faith. Chicago: Serindia Publications, 2004.
Websites
Digital Silk Road (http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/).
Silk Road Seattle (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad).
The International Dunhuang Project (http://idp.bl.uk).
The Silkroad Foundation (http://silkroadfoundation.org).
22 volume 52, number 3 expedition
DanielC.Waugh
About 130,000 ceramic vessels were
recovered from a shipwrecked Chinese
junk near Ca Mau, Vietnam. The tea bowls
and saucers are from the Jingdezhen kilns
and were made around 1725, apparently
the year that the ship sank en route from
Guangzhou to Batavia (Jakarta). From
the Collection of the Victoria and Albert
Museum (nos. FE.49:2 to 179:1, 2-2007).