This document contains excerpts from various sources on the topics of communication, public spaces, and communities. It discusses how new communication technologies have changed interactions both in physical and virtual spaces. Specifically, it mentions how writing ended oral traditions and gave rise to towns, and how modern media like newspapers and magazines allow people to avoid social contact in public. The document also examines local storytelling, social networks, and sense of community in geographical neighborhoods.
This document discusses various concepts and theories of urbanism. It begins by defining urbanism and the study of urban societies and city planning. It then discusses perspectives on how people live in densely populated areas from sociological and other lenses. It outlines different frameworks for urban planning practices around the world. It also discusses concepts like network urbanism, which applies network thinking to urban planning in response to issues with zone-based conceptions. The document also discusses mainstream vs alternative urbanism and outlines various spheres of urban design practice. It proposes new concepts are needed to embrace networks in urban planning and adapt to changing technological and social contexts. Pragmatism is discussed as a philosophical approach to urbanism emphasizing inclusion, experimentation and democracy
This document discusses the concepts of urbanism and urbanization. Urbanism is defined as the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas, as well as the role of cities in societal development. It originated from the work of sociologists like Marx, Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Simmel. The Chicago School further developed sociological theories of urbanism. Urbanization refers to the phenomenon of rural to urban migration and the factors driving this migration. The document examines elements that define an area as "urban" and discusses early urban sociologists' framing of symbolic interaction in urban settings. It provides an overview of sociologist George Simmel's work on the impacts of city life on mental life and
Lewis Mumford provides a definition of what constitutes a city from a sociological perspective, arguing that a city is a collection of social groups and institutions that come together to support a common life and create opportunities for social interaction and cultural experiences. He asserts that limitations on a city's size, density, and area are necessary to support effective social relationships, and advocates for a model of multiple clustered communities rather than massive consolidated urban areas. Mumford's view of the city prioritizes social needs over purely physical planning considerations.
In Donald Barthelme's 1974 short story "I Bought a Little City", the narrator decides one day to purchase Galveston, Texas, where he then tears down some houses, shoots 6,000 dogs, and rearranges what remains into the shape of a giant Mona Lisa jigsaw puzzle visible only from the air. As with much of Barthelme's work, the premise seems so absurd that one cannot help but shake it until a metaphor falls out, and here one might well assume that, in the words of the novelist Donald Antrim, "I Bought a Little City" is "a take on the role that a writer has in writing a story – playing god,
1) The document summarizes key thinkers and concepts in urban studies, beginning with the origins of large cities in Mesopotamia 6000 years ago and outlining major issues and tensions in urbanization.
2) It discusses early sociological thinkers on cities like Simmel, Geddes, Mumford, and Wirth and their concepts of the metropolis, mental life, bottom-up planning, and urbanism as a way of life.
3) Later sections cover Jacobs' work on urban renewal and mixed uses, Lefebvre's production of space and right to the city, and the idea of multiple modernities in urbanization globally.
Lewis Mumford was an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of technology, and literary critic known for his studies of cities and urban architecture. In his influential book The City in History, Mumford explores the development of urban civilizations from their origins. He argues that the structure of modern cities is partially responsible for social problems in western society. Mumford advocates for urban planning that emphasizes an organic relationship between people and their living spaces.
Six And Half Philosophies for Design & InnovationAlex Zhu
The document discusses the concept of design and structure. It defines design as the human activity of inventing a new structure for utility. It discusses different types of structures, including physical, informational, logical, temporal, and social structures. It emphasizes that for a structure to be well-designed, it must have both environmental fitness and internal fitness - fitting with its external context and having coherence between its internal elements.
Slides to go with my lecture on virtual community as an on-going concern in American intellectual life. Tracks the concern from its beginning in Jeffersonian Republicanism to its manifestations in the technological euophorias that accompanied the popularization of a range of technologies (boat canals, railway, telegram, telephone, wireless, automobile, radio, internet, and web 2.0).
This document discusses various concepts and theories of urbanism. It begins by defining urbanism and the study of urban societies and city planning. It then discusses perspectives on how people live in densely populated areas from sociological and other lenses. It outlines different frameworks for urban planning practices around the world. It also discusses concepts like network urbanism, which applies network thinking to urban planning in response to issues with zone-based conceptions. The document also discusses mainstream vs alternative urbanism and outlines various spheres of urban design practice. It proposes new concepts are needed to embrace networks in urban planning and adapt to changing technological and social contexts. Pragmatism is discussed as a philosophical approach to urbanism emphasizing inclusion, experimentation and democracy
This document discusses the concepts of urbanism and urbanization. Urbanism is defined as the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas, as well as the role of cities in societal development. It originated from the work of sociologists like Marx, Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Simmel. The Chicago School further developed sociological theories of urbanism. Urbanization refers to the phenomenon of rural to urban migration and the factors driving this migration. The document examines elements that define an area as "urban" and discusses early urban sociologists' framing of symbolic interaction in urban settings. It provides an overview of sociologist George Simmel's work on the impacts of city life on mental life and
Lewis Mumford provides a definition of what constitutes a city from a sociological perspective, arguing that a city is a collection of social groups and institutions that come together to support a common life and create opportunities for social interaction and cultural experiences. He asserts that limitations on a city's size, density, and area are necessary to support effective social relationships, and advocates for a model of multiple clustered communities rather than massive consolidated urban areas. Mumford's view of the city prioritizes social needs over purely physical planning considerations.
In Donald Barthelme's 1974 short story "I Bought a Little City", the narrator decides one day to purchase Galveston, Texas, where he then tears down some houses, shoots 6,000 dogs, and rearranges what remains into the shape of a giant Mona Lisa jigsaw puzzle visible only from the air. As with much of Barthelme's work, the premise seems so absurd that one cannot help but shake it until a metaphor falls out, and here one might well assume that, in the words of the novelist Donald Antrim, "I Bought a Little City" is "a take on the role that a writer has in writing a story – playing god,
1) The document summarizes key thinkers and concepts in urban studies, beginning with the origins of large cities in Mesopotamia 6000 years ago and outlining major issues and tensions in urbanization.
2) It discusses early sociological thinkers on cities like Simmel, Geddes, Mumford, and Wirth and their concepts of the metropolis, mental life, bottom-up planning, and urbanism as a way of life.
3) Later sections cover Jacobs' work on urban renewal and mixed uses, Lefebvre's production of space and right to the city, and the idea of multiple modernities in urbanization globally.
Lewis Mumford was an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of technology, and literary critic known for his studies of cities and urban architecture. In his influential book The City in History, Mumford explores the development of urban civilizations from their origins. He argues that the structure of modern cities is partially responsible for social problems in western society. Mumford advocates for urban planning that emphasizes an organic relationship between people and their living spaces.
Six And Half Philosophies for Design & InnovationAlex Zhu
The document discusses the concept of design and structure. It defines design as the human activity of inventing a new structure for utility. It discusses different types of structures, including physical, informational, logical, temporal, and social structures. It emphasizes that for a structure to be well-designed, it must have both environmental fitness and internal fitness - fitting with its external context and having coherence between its internal elements.
Slides to go with my lecture on virtual community as an on-going concern in American intellectual life. Tracks the concern from its beginning in Jeffersonian Republicanism to its manifestations in the technological euophorias that accompanied the popularization of a range of technologies (boat canals, railway, telegram, telephone, wireless, automobile, radio, internet, and web 2.0).
The City as a (Informal) Virtual CommunityPiotr Siuda
Piotr Siuda gave a presentation on cities as informal virtual communities. He discussed how the internet blurs boundaries between public and private urban spaces. Various online platforms like official city websites, local businesses, social media, and review sites comprise the virtual urban community. These spaces strengthen local identity and connect physical and subjective experiences of a city. Siuda used the example of Dodgeball, a location-based social app, to show how technology can transform public spaces into more familiar, parochial areas. He advocated for smart cities models that engage citizens through dialogue and creativity rather than being driven solely by technology companies.
A 21st Century Commons: from economic tragedy to reclaiming the streetsJulian Dobson
This presentation, for the Shared Assets '21st Century Commons' event in London on 5 December, explores current thinking about the commons and considers how it challenges conventional views of urban regeneration and development.
Lewis Mumford was an American historian, philosopher, sociologist and prominent writer and critic of the urban planning of the 20th century. He was born in 1895 in New York and studied at City College of New York. He wrote extensively about cities and technology and their impact on society. He received several honors including the Presidential Medal of Freedom and National Medal of Arts. Mumford was a critic of urban sprawl and advocated for organic urban planning. He opposed Robert Moses' highway plans in New York City. Mumford also criticized the World Trade Center and America's overreliance on automobiles.
Lewis Mumford defines the city as a geographic, economic, and social entity where human activities are focused and worked out through cooperation and conflict between individuals, groups, and events. For Sharon Zukin, the city symbolizes both collective unity and division. She argues that culture is used to both lift city dwellers out of everyday life and control cities by establishing who belongs in specific places. Zukin also notes that large numbers of immigrants have put pressure on cities to adopt policies of multiculturalism and that city boosters often redevelop cities through cultural strategies that pit economic interests against local communities.
This document discusses three key thinkers - Georg Simmel, Sigfried Kracauer, and Walter Benjamin - and their analyses of modernity and urban life in the early 20th century. Simmel examined how life in cities led to a more calculative and blasé mentality. Kracauer viewed the city as a place of distractions and analyzed fragments like amusement parks and movies. Benjamin looked at how modern experiences like shock were inherent to crowded cities with their overwhelming external stimulation.
The document discusses how architecture shapes habits of citizenship and civic participation. It argues that voting booths are designed to force focus on voting by isolating the voter. Additionally, the document examines how private voting became standardized through architectural changes in the 19th century. Finally, it explores how occupations of civic spaces and public monuments shape competing views of citizenship and can be sites to reform habits of civic engagement.
"Sustaining Difference during Gentrification: NYC & Berlin Since 2008"
Dr. Jen Jack Gieseking
Digital & Computational Studies
Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME, USA
BUKA 2010-2011, HU im Berlin
jgieseking.org
@jgieseking
Presentation from Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Bundeskanzler-Stipendium (BUKA) / German Chancellor Fellowship Kolloquium in Sankt-Petersburg, Russia.
Do not cite, reprint, or quote this presentation without express permission of Dr. Jen Jack Gieseking.
Lecture (second of three parts) for the 2018 UP Plano Board Exam Review Sessions; content credited to The City Reader (2016) and my Plan 201 learnings.
This document provides a summary of the author's undergraduate thesis analyzing the concept of "cities for people" through a case study of Hanoi, Vietnam. The author conducted observations over four weeks in three streets representing old, redeveloped, and new areas of Hanoi to understand how urban development has impacted public space usage. While initially thinking Hanoi exemplified a people-centered city, the author now believes it problematizes the concept by illustrating complexity not fully accounted for. The thesis draws on urban planning and design scholars like Gehl and Jacobs to critically analyze the implications of building cities for people and its relevance in 21st century urbanization globally and specifically in Hanoi.
Maps of the living neighborhoods - a study of Genoa through social mediaMarna Parodi
The document discusses a proposed study to map neighborhoods in Genoa, Italy using social media check-in data from Foursquare. Specifically, it aims to export the Livehoods urban computing project from Carnegie Mellon University to analyze how Foursquare data generates thematic maps of neighborhoods that sometimes differ from official boundaries. The author believes Livehoods could help understand Genoa's neighborhoods as defined by residents' daily routines and activities, rather than static municipal designations. As a case study, the document suggests mapping the redeveloped Fiumara area to see if Livehoods reveals insights into how people experience this neighborhood compared to its planned design.
Stephen graham remediating cities: ubiquitous computing and the urban public ...Stephen Graham
The document discusses how cities are being "remediated" through information and communication technologies (ICTs). It describes how ICTs were initially viewed as replacing cities, but are now seen as co-evolving with and animating urban places in complex ways. ICTs have become deeply embedded in everyday urban life and are remediating mobilities, consumption, social exclusion, landscapes, bodies, and public realms. The document calls for a new paradigm that views cities as continually brought into being through the remediation of ICTs operating at various scales, and addresses the challenges of shaping ICTs and urban spaces in parallel.
Urban areas in both less economically developed and more economically developed countries are changing in different ways due to factors like population growth and increased car ownership. Problems in towns that have led to solutions like urban decay, with derelict land and buildings, and traffic congestion from poor infrastructure. Urban renewal aims to regenerate urban areas through gentrification, improving appearances and culture, changing populations, reducing crime, and influencing perceptions through media. Suburbanization, decentralization, and urban sprawl affect regeneration, as do concepts like urban consolidation, counterurbanization, new towns, and preventing urban blight and spatial exclusion.
Urban sociology is the sociological study of human interaction and lifestyle changes in metropolitan areas. It examines issues related to population growth, environmental impact, and resource depletion associated with urbanization. The field aims to understand urban institutions and structures to help policymakers address social problems uniquely faced in cities. Georg Simmel is considered the father of urban sociology for his early works analyzing the complex social world of cities and effects on mental life. Urban sociology studies cities and towns, examining problems that arise from industrialization and city organization.
Planners play an important role in building socially sustainable communities through urban consolidation. Urban consolidation allows for more compact, higher-density development near transport and services, with claimed benefits like reduced environmental impact, improved access to opportunities, and more affordable housing. However, critics argue that it can reduce social capital and community cohesion. The social sustainability of urban consolidation depends on embracing change and integrating new and existing communities through quality design, infrastructure, and community participation in the planning process.
Industrialization in the 19th century led to social and moral isolation as relations became based more on business than personal connections. Early community studies found that industrialization, urbanization, and consumerism weakened civic involvement. Researchers found that places seen as "disorganized" often contained diverse lifestyles based on class, ethnicity, gender. Later network analysis found that education level was a stronger predictor of social network size than location. Strong social networks in communities were linked to lower death rates.
Max Weber's modernisation theory and applications, including the case of capoeira in Rio de Janeiro and Salvador, containerisation, and consumer capitalism. (Note: part 1 given by a colleague, so I won't be posting it.)
Time to-migrate-ent-legacy-app-modernisationzslmarketing
This document summarizes a presentation by Zylog Systems Ltd on their approach to modernizing legacy applications. Zylog discusses industry trends driving organizations to modernize, challenges with outdated systems, and Zylog's methodology using tools to analyze code and estimate migration efforts. A case study is presented on Zylog modernizing a point of sale system from PowerBuilder to JEE to support a retailer's growth to over 450 stores. The project delivered cost savings, improved processes, and enabled the client's expansion plans.
The City as a (Informal) Virtual CommunityPiotr Siuda
Piotr Siuda gave a presentation on cities as informal virtual communities. He discussed how the internet blurs boundaries between public and private urban spaces. Various online platforms like official city websites, local businesses, social media, and review sites comprise the virtual urban community. These spaces strengthen local identity and connect physical and subjective experiences of a city. Siuda used the example of Dodgeball, a location-based social app, to show how technology can transform public spaces into more familiar, parochial areas. He advocated for smart cities models that engage citizens through dialogue and creativity rather than being driven solely by technology companies.
A 21st Century Commons: from economic tragedy to reclaiming the streetsJulian Dobson
This presentation, for the Shared Assets '21st Century Commons' event in London on 5 December, explores current thinking about the commons and considers how it challenges conventional views of urban regeneration and development.
Lewis Mumford was an American historian, philosopher, sociologist and prominent writer and critic of the urban planning of the 20th century. He was born in 1895 in New York and studied at City College of New York. He wrote extensively about cities and technology and their impact on society. He received several honors including the Presidential Medal of Freedom and National Medal of Arts. Mumford was a critic of urban sprawl and advocated for organic urban planning. He opposed Robert Moses' highway plans in New York City. Mumford also criticized the World Trade Center and America's overreliance on automobiles.
Lewis Mumford defines the city as a geographic, economic, and social entity where human activities are focused and worked out through cooperation and conflict between individuals, groups, and events. For Sharon Zukin, the city symbolizes both collective unity and division. She argues that culture is used to both lift city dwellers out of everyday life and control cities by establishing who belongs in specific places. Zukin also notes that large numbers of immigrants have put pressure on cities to adopt policies of multiculturalism and that city boosters often redevelop cities through cultural strategies that pit economic interests against local communities.
This document discusses three key thinkers - Georg Simmel, Sigfried Kracauer, and Walter Benjamin - and their analyses of modernity and urban life in the early 20th century. Simmel examined how life in cities led to a more calculative and blasé mentality. Kracauer viewed the city as a place of distractions and analyzed fragments like amusement parks and movies. Benjamin looked at how modern experiences like shock were inherent to crowded cities with their overwhelming external stimulation.
The document discusses how architecture shapes habits of citizenship and civic participation. It argues that voting booths are designed to force focus on voting by isolating the voter. Additionally, the document examines how private voting became standardized through architectural changes in the 19th century. Finally, it explores how occupations of civic spaces and public monuments shape competing views of citizenship and can be sites to reform habits of civic engagement.
"Sustaining Difference during Gentrification: NYC & Berlin Since 2008"
Dr. Jen Jack Gieseking
Digital & Computational Studies
Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME, USA
BUKA 2010-2011, HU im Berlin
jgieseking.org
@jgieseking
Presentation from Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Bundeskanzler-Stipendium (BUKA) / German Chancellor Fellowship Kolloquium in Sankt-Petersburg, Russia.
Do not cite, reprint, or quote this presentation without express permission of Dr. Jen Jack Gieseking.
Lecture (second of three parts) for the 2018 UP Plano Board Exam Review Sessions; content credited to The City Reader (2016) and my Plan 201 learnings.
This document provides a summary of the author's undergraduate thesis analyzing the concept of "cities for people" through a case study of Hanoi, Vietnam. The author conducted observations over four weeks in three streets representing old, redeveloped, and new areas of Hanoi to understand how urban development has impacted public space usage. While initially thinking Hanoi exemplified a people-centered city, the author now believes it problematizes the concept by illustrating complexity not fully accounted for. The thesis draws on urban planning and design scholars like Gehl and Jacobs to critically analyze the implications of building cities for people and its relevance in 21st century urbanization globally and specifically in Hanoi.
Maps of the living neighborhoods - a study of Genoa through social mediaMarna Parodi
The document discusses a proposed study to map neighborhoods in Genoa, Italy using social media check-in data from Foursquare. Specifically, it aims to export the Livehoods urban computing project from Carnegie Mellon University to analyze how Foursquare data generates thematic maps of neighborhoods that sometimes differ from official boundaries. The author believes Livehoods could help understand Genoa's neighborhoods as defined by residents' daily routines and activities, rather than static municipal designations. As a case study, the document suggests mapping the redeveloped Fiumara area to see if Livehoods reveals insights into how people experience this neighborhood compared to its planned design.
Stephen graham remediating cities: ubiquitous computing and the urban public ...Stephen Graham
The document discusses how cities are being "remediated" through information and communication technologies (ICTs). It describes how ICTs were initially viewed as replacing cities, but are now seen as co-evolving with and animating urban places in complex ways. ICTs have become deeply embedded in everyday urban life and are remediating mobilities, consumption, social exclusion, landscapes, bodies, and public realms. The document calls for a new paradigm that views cities as continually brought into being through the remediation of ICTs operating at various scales, and addresses the challenges of shaping ICTs and urban spaces in parallel.
Urban areas in both less economically developed and more economically developed countries are changing in different ways due to factors like population growth and increased car ownership. Problems in towns that have led to solutions like urban decay, with derelict land and buildings, and traffic congestion from poor infrastructure. Urban renewal aims to regenerate urban areas through gentrification, improving appearances and culture, changing populations, reducing crime, and influencing perceptions through media. Suburbanization, decentralization, and urban sprawl affect regeneration, as do concepts like urban consolidation, counterurbanization, new towns, and preventing urban blight and spatial exclusion.
Urban sociology is the sociological study of human interaction and lifestyle changes in metropolitan areas. It examines issues related to population growth, environmental impact, and resource depletion associated with urbanization. The field aims to understand urban institutions and structures to help policymakers address social problems uniquely faced in cities. Georg Simmel is considered the father of urban sociology for his early works analyzing the complex social world of cities and effects on mental life. Urban sociology studies cities and towns, examining problems that arise from industrialization and city organization.
Planners play an important role in building socially sustainable communities through urban consolidation. Urban consolidation allows for more compact, higher-density development near transport and services, with claimed benefits like reduced environmental impact, improved access to opportunities, and more affordable housing. However, critics argue that it can reduce social capital and community cohesion. The social sustainability of urban consolidation depends on embracing change and integrating new and existing communities through quality design, infrastructure, and community participation in the planning process.
Industrialization in the 19th century led to social and moral isolation as relations became based more on business than personal connections. Early community studies found that industrialization, urbanization, and consumerism weakened civic involvement. Researchers found that places seen as "disorganized" often contained diverse lifestyles based on class, ethnicity, gender. Later network analysis found that education level was a stronger predictor of social network size than location. Strong social networks in communities were linked to lower death rates.
Max Weber's modernisation theory and applications, including the case of capoeira in Rio de Janeiro and Salvador, containerisation, and consumer capitalism. (Note: part 1 given by a colleague, so I won't be posting it.)
Time to-migrate-ent-legacy-app-modernisationzslmarketing
This document summarizes a presentation by Zylog Systems Ltd on their approach to modernizing legacy applications. Zylog discusses industry trends driving organizations to modernize, challenges with outdated systems, and Zylog's methodology using tools to analyze code and estimate migration efforts. A case study is presented on Zylog modernizing a point of sale system from PowerBuilder to JEE to support a retailer's growth to over 450 stores. The project delivered cost savings, improved processes, and enabled the client's expansion plans.
Modernisation Strategy for Science at RBG Kew. The presentation is part of a "toolkit" delivered to help Kew to rationalise, consolidate and integrate disparate & legacy Science Applications and Data.
The document summarizes Banuazizi's analysis of the Iranian Revolution of 1977-1979. Banuazizi argues that the revolution was a mass-based social revolution involving both modern and traditional forces. It was driven by structural factors like cultural divisions produced by modernization, as well as the unique nature of Shi'ite religion. Banuazizi also critiques views that see Islamic resurgence as extremist, noting the revolution drew on multiple Islamic ideologies and values can adapt to different groups' interests. The revolution shows tradition is not an obstacle to change and modernization does not necessarily lead to secularization.
Teori-teori sosial terkemuka meliputi teori struktural-fungsional yang menekankan stabilitas dan fungsi setiap bagian masyarakat untuk mempertahankan sistem, teori konflik yang menekankan konflik dalam masyarakat, dan teori-teori lain seperti interaksi simbolik, pertukaran sosial, feminis, dan pemodenan. Teori struktural-fungsional menggambarkan masyarakat sebagai sistem yang terdiri dari
1. Modernization theory proposed that societies progress through evolutionary stages from traditional to modern.
2. Theorists like Rostow described these stages as traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.
3. Modernization theory has been criticized for being overly simplistic, ethnocentric, and promoting Western capitalist values over traditional ones.
The document discusses the topic of modernization. It defines modernization as the process of industrialization, urbanization, and other social changes that transform people's lives. It then covers some key aspects of modernization including social change brought about by new inventions and discoveries, cultural diffusion, characteristics such as the decline of traditional communities and increased bureaucratization. The document also provides a history of modernization, touching on developments in global communication technologies, the roles of industrialization, colonialism, and the spread of ideologies in the modernization process.
This document discusses modernization theory, which posits that societies progress through stages from "traditional" to "modern". It is criticized for privileging markers like urbanization, literacy, and industrialization to define modernity. Key questions are raised around who defines modernity and whether all societies truly progress in the same linear way. The theory is also examined in the context of its origins in post-World War 2 United States as a way to promote capitalism over communism and analyze newly decolonized nations. Functionalism, which views society as analogous to a biological organism, is discussed as an influence on modernization theory.
Modernization Theory posited that societies progress through predictable and universal stages of development from traditional to modern. It was influenced by evolutionary and functionalist theories. Relatively modernized societies are characterized by specialization, rational cultural norms, and emphasis on markets, while relatively non-modern societies emphasize tradition, particularism, and self-sufficiency. Late industrializers have advantages like learning from others but also challenges converting resources and disappointing expectations. Theories assumed modernization was systematic, transformative, phased, and brought countries closer to Western models through diffusion, but critics argue it ignored foreign influence and need for indigenous values.
Dependency theory posits that peripheral, less developed nations are dependent on core countries for their economic development, which hinders their ability to develop and benefits core nations. It was developed by Raul Prebisch in response to global disparities and argues that the structure of the world economy favors core countries over peripheral ones. The theory is illustrated through Haiti's history as a peripheral nation dependent on France during colonial rule, which left it impoverished despite producing valuable exports.
The document discusses the concept development model, which involves building general understandings from specific examples. It describes concept development as acquiring vocabulary through concepts and extending knowledge by refining information in "filing cabinets" that represent concepts. The key steps in concept development are listing associated items, grouping like items, labeling groups, regrouping items under other concepts, and forming generalizations. Teachers can structure and implement concept development lessons flexibly based on student groupings and pacing.
The document discusses key concepts related to economic development. It defines development as a multidimensional process aimed at improving people's well-being and opportunities rather than just economic growth. Development is measured using economic, social, and demographic indicators like GDP, literacy rates, and life expectancy. Core values of development include meeting basic needs, improving self-esteem, and increasing freedom. The objectives are raising living standards, enhancing well-being and economic choices. Countries are classified by levels of development from least to most developed. Factors like poverty, population growth, and exploitation have hampered development in less developed countries.
The document discusses different perspectives on what constitutes development. It is defined as a multidimensional process involving transformation in structures, attitudes, and institutions to accelerate economic growth, reduce inequality, and eradicate poverty. Development aims to increase access to basic necessities and raise living standards. It also extends economic and social choices available to individuals and nations. The document outlines various scholars' views on development in economic, social, political, and institutional contexts.
Presentation on Dependency Theory for PS 212 Culture and Politics in the Third World at the University of Kentucky, Summer 2007. Dr. Christopher S. Rice, Instructor.
The document discusses several theories that attempt to explain disparities in development levels between countries:
- Resource endowment theory suggests development depends on a country's natural and human resources. European development was aided by coal, iron, fertile land, and climate.
- Rostow's model proposes countries progress through the same linear stages of growth, but some fail to "take off" industrially.
- Dependency theory argues 500 years of European colonial exploitation of resources in Africa, Asia, and the Americas led to continued domination of rich over poor nations.
Jacobs had no professional training in the field of city planning, nor did she hold the title of planner. Instead, she relied on her observations and common sense to show why certain places work, and what can be done to improve those that do not
What is a City”Architectural Record (1937)Lewis Mumfor.docxphilipnelson29183
“What is a City?”
Architectural Record (1937)
Lewis Mumford
Editors’ Introduction
Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) has been called the United States’ last great public intellectual – that is, a scholar
not based in academia who writes for an educated popular audience. Beginning with the publication of his first
book The Story of Utopias in 1922 and continuing throughout a career that saw the publication of some twenty-
five influential volumes, Mumford made signal contributions to social philosophy, American literary and cultural
history, the history of technology and, preeminently, the history of cities and urban planning practice.
Born in Brooklyn and coming of age at a time when the modern city was reaching a new peak in the history of
urban civilization, Mumford saw the urban experience as an essential component in the development of human
culture and the human personality. He consistently argued that the physical design of cities and their economic
functions were secondary to their relationship to the natural environment and to the spiritual values of human
community. Mumford applied these principles to his architectural criticism for The New Yorker magazine and his
work with the Regional Planning Association of America in the 1920s and 1930s, his campaign against plans to
build a highway through Washington Square in New York’s Greenwich Village in the 1950s, and his lifelong
championing of the environmental theories of Patrick Geddes and the Garden City ideals of Ebenezer Howard.
In “What is a City?” – the text of a 1937 talk to an audience of urban planners – Mumford lays out his fundamental
propositions about city planning and the human potential, both individual and social, of urban life. The city, he writes,
is “a theater of social action,” and everything else – art, politics, education, commerce – serve only to make the
“social drama . . . more richly significant, as a stage-set, well-designed, intensifies and underlines the gestures of
the actors and the action of the play.” The city as a form of social drama expressed as much in daily life as in
revolutionary moments – it was a theme and an image to which Mumford would return over and over again. In The
Culture of Cities of 1938, he rhapsodized about the artist Albrecht Dürer witnessing a religious procession in
Antwerp in 1519 that was a dramatic performance “where the spectators were also communicants.” And in “The
Urban Drama” from The City in History of 1961, he reflected on the ways that the social life of the ancient city
established a kind of dramatic dialogue “in which common life itself takes on the features of a drama, heightened
by every device of costume and scenery, for the setting itself magnifies the voice and increases the apparent
stature of the actors.” Mumford was quick to point out that the earliest urban dialogue was really a one-way
“monologue of power” from the king to his cowering subjects. Such an absence of true dialogue, he wrote, was
“bound to have a fat.
Reading Resources/References
Sociology, Urban
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr.. Vol. 8. 2nd ed. Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. p15-17.
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning
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Page 15
Sociology, Urban
· BIBLIOGRAPHY
As the cutting edge of change, cities are important for interpreting societies. Momentous changes in nineteenth-century cities led theorists to explore their components. The French word for place (bourg), and its residents (bourgeois), became central concepts for Karl Marx (1818–1883). Markets and commerce emerged in cities where “free air” ostensibly fostered innovation. Industrial capitalists thus raised capital and built factories near cities, hiring workers “free” from the feudal legal hierarchy. For Marx, workers were proletarians and a separate economic class, whose interests conflicted with the bourgeoisie. Class conflicts drove history. Max Weber’s (1864–1920) The City (1921) built on this legacy but added legitimacy, bureaucracy, the Protestant ethic, and political parties in transforming cities. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) similarly reasoned historically, contrasting traditional villages with modern cities in his Division of Labor (1893), where multiple professional groups integrated their members by enforcing norms on them.
British and American work was more empirical. British and American churches and charitable groups that were concerned with the urban poor sponsored many early studies. When sociology entered universities around 1900, urban studies still focused on inequality and the poor. Robert Park (1864–1944) and many students at the University of Chicago thus published monographs on such topics as The Gold Coast and the Slum (1929), a sociological study of Chicago’s near north side by Harvey Warren Zorbaugh (1896–1965).
The 1940s and 1950s saw many efforts to join these European theories with the British and American empirical work. Floyd Hunter published Community Power Structure (1953), an Atlanta-based monograph that stressed the business dominance of cities, broadly following Marx. Robert Dahl’s Who Governs? (1961) was more Weberian, stressing multiple issue areas of power and influence (like mayoral elections versus schools), the indirect role of citizens via elections, and multiple types of resources (money, votes, media, coalitions) that shifted how basic economic categories influenced politics. These became the main ideas in power analyses across the social sciences.
Page 16 | Top of Article
Parisian theorists like Michel Foucault (1926–1984), Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002), and Henri Lefebvre (1901–1991) suggested that the language and symbols of upper-status persons dominated lower-status persons. Others, such as Jean Baudrillard, pushed even further to suggest that each person was so distinct that theories should be similarly individualized. He and others labeled their perspective postmodernism to contrast with mainstream scie.
Spatial Justice and the Right to the CityRoberto Rocco
Lecture prepared to the MADE course at AMS (Amsterdam Advanced Metropolitan Solutions course "Metropolitan Innovators" http://www.ams-institute.org/education/msc-made/
This document discusses the principles of New Urbanism and its goal of reintroducing urban centers and qualities to city planning. It begins by describing how post-World War II development led to isolated, car-centric communities that lacked the mixed-use, walkable neighborhoods characteristic of traditional urban planning. New Urbanism began in the 1970s-80s to address this by creating neighborhoods and urban centers with human-scale design. The document then outlines some of New Urbanism's key design principles, such as creating walkable communities with a mix of uses and civic spaces embedded within neighborhoods.
The phenomenon of urbanisation, especially suburbanisation, is observed monolithically worldwide, but in a rippling wave like vogue. It trickles down vertically and diffuses out horizontally from the developed to the developing areasand from central to the peripheral regions, respectively. No economically progressing country has ever been able to avert its occurrence, which is inevitable and challenging. The daunting task of intelligently designing and confirming sanity and sustainability for an urban canvas is a multidimensional and multi / cross disciplinary endeavour. This demands retrospective understanding of the place and its people; anticipatory sense to forecast and strategize; and awareness about the practices worldwide and indigenous. Civilizations have always been civilized because of their informed and active citizens, who have come forth to the rescue of theirlands of origin and fellow natives. Representation of this kind can be cited in the Garden City and City Beautiful movements of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, followed by many similar smaller and bigger experiments to the formal school of thought of urbanism, called “New Urbanism”.Many experiments happened under the wide umbrella of New Urbanism and garden city movement across the globe. From Great Britain, to the USA, Abu Dhabi and India, all have witnessed and / or are undergoing the sweeping dynamism in thought and action, for the pursuit of urban revamp and sustainability. This piece of research is an attempt towards compiling and evaluating such utopian models, taking cases from different countries, from different time periods, that have aimed at urban amelioration. The paper considers four cases of Masdar City (Abu Dhabi), Letchworth City (U.K), Disney Celebration Community (U.S.A.) and Magarpatta City (India) to showcase people’s experiments with truth for urban sustainability.
This document discusses the evolution of the internet from traditional web 1.0 to modern web 2.0. It explores how the internet has transitioned from being primarily a source of text and information to a cultural artifact and institution. With the rise of web 2.0 technologies like social media, wikis, and file sharing, the internet has become more about user-generated content and interaction between users. This has shifted authority online from websites to readers and audiences, and challenges traditional notions of property and ownership with the rise of open source platforms and the "produser" model where audiences both produce and organize content.
This document discusses how social media has turned people's online activities and interactions into a form of art. It explores the concept of a "total work of art" or Gesamtkunstwerk where all of society is sculpted through human interactions and media. Some view social media as a threat to traditional art, but it has opened new opportunities for artists by providing an open platform and the ability to reach vast audiences. The document examines several social media art projects and argues that if online data and social networks stimulate emotions or intellect, then social media can be considered a new canvas for art.
The Myth of Participation, or how participation will deliver the Right to the...Roberto Rocco
Despiste the provocative title, this lecture delivers an account of how the idea of Active Citizenship has evolved in history and how this idea is related to the Right to the City. True citizen participation has the potential to deliver the right to the city. In this lecture, I explore a very old line of thought that goes from Aristotle and Plato, to Rousseau, Hannah Arendt, Henri Lefebvre and David Harvey, all of whom affirm the power of active or engaged citizenship in shaping the city while simultaneously shaping us.
Cities and Memory - Construction of Social Spaces and the Mnemonics of the Bu...Hunter Reinhardt
This document provides a summary of a research paper titled "Cities and Memory: Construction of Social Space and the Mnemonics of the Built Environment" by Hunter Reinhardt. The paper examines how cities imbue physical spaces with cultural and social meaning through architecture and monuments. It analyzes three books that look at this topic through different lenses: social geography, architectural history, and archaeology. The summary focuses on Dolores Hayden's book "The Power of Place" which argues urban landscapes can convey public history when they incorporate marginalized groups. It describes Hayden's case study of memorializing "Grandma" Biddy Mason, an influential African American leader in late 19th century LA. The summary concisely
How can architects and planners help to create cities fit for the future? This presentation, created for the international conference on Cities, People and Places organised by the University of Moratuwa in Sri Lanka in October 2013, argues that people-centred policies that encourage sociability and civic participation are needed in response to global issues such as climate change and urbanisation.
This document summarizes and discusses the current issue of the journal (dis)Location. It begins by providing context on the uncertainties and changes occurring in 2016 that the issue aims to examine. The introduction describes how the issue seeks to present experiences in cities' awkward spaces and examine concepts like power, materiality, and positionality in planning. It then provides a table of contents summarizing several essays and articles in the issue. These include pieces on parking, grids, gentrification, and reflections on practicing planning across different community contexts. In underlining the ever-changing nature of cities and calling for greater reflection, the introduction sets out the overarching themes of examining urban changes and realities that the issue addresses.
C.A Doxiadis was a Greek architect and town planner known for developing the theory of Ekistics and designing the new capital city of Islamabad in Pakistan. Some key points of his work:
- He founded the science of Ekistics to study human settlements of all scales, from villages to cities to regions, and how they evolve over time. This aimed to build optimized cities for humans.
- His theory analyzed factors like geography, growth, organization, and internal/external structures that influence human settlements. It also established a hierarchy of rural villages up to larger urban areas.
- Doxiadis designed Islamabad as the new capital of Pakistan in the 1950s based on Ekistic principles
Citizens, Journalists and User-Generated ContentNick Jankowski
This document summarizes research on user-generated content and citizen journalism. It discusses how user-generated content has long been central to community media. It reviews previous research on whether community media "mattered" and if it gave citizens a voice. It argues this research missed how community media has changed in the digital age. It provides the example of OhmyNews, a site where citizens and journalists collaborate to provide news. It suggests more study is needed on how such collaboration between citizens and journalists can flourish.
Lewis Mumford was an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of technology, and writer known for his studies of cities and urban architecture. He believed that the chief function of cities is to convert resources into culture. Mumford was influenced by Patrick Geddes' concept of regional planning and worked to establish cities planned sustainably on a human scale with residential, cultural, commercial, and industrial areas surrounded by agricultural greenbelts. He criticized projects like Robert Moses' highways in New York for prioritizing cars over communities. Mumford's work promoted organic, sustainable urban development and influenced environmental and appropriate technology movements.
Stephen graham lucy hewitt cities and verticality pptStephen Graham
The document discusses the need for critical urban research to adopt a more three-dimensional, "vertical" perspective in line with the radical vertical extensions of modern built environments. It highlights four main themes: 1) the cultural politics of the aerial view in urban planning, 2) the vertical dimensions of building up and down through structures like skyscrapers and underground complexes, 3) the new "military urbanism" dominated by vertical surveillance technologies, and 4) possibilities for vertical forms of counterpolitics and democratic urbanism. The document calls for connecting analyses of the vertical dimensions of cities to broader social, political, and ecological contexts of urban life.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Community pharmacy- Social and preventive pharmacy UNIT 5
Urban Communications: making things public
1.
2. “The new urban design task is not one of
configuring buildings, streets, and public spaces
to meet the needs and aspirations of the civitas,
but one of writing computer code and deploying
software objects to create virtual places”
CITY OF BITS
5. THE BIAS OF COMMUNICATION
BABYLONIAN
TABLET
britishmuseum.org
EGYPTIAN
PAPYRUS
britishmuseum.org
6. "Until writing was invented, men lived in acoustic
space: boundless, directionless, horizonless...
The goose quill put an end to talk. It abolished
mystery; it gave architecture and towns"
THE MEDIUM IS THE MASSAGE
7. “Merchants outgrew the confining framework of
the towns and in the form of companies linked
themselves directly with the state"
THE PUBLIC SPHERE
11. Civil inattention: “the slightest of interpersonal
rituals, yet one that constantly regulates the
social intercourse of persons in our society”
Newspapers and magazines "[allow] us to carry
around a screen that can be raised at any time to
give ourselves and others an excuse for not
initiating contact"
BEHAVIOUR IN PUBLIC PLACES
12. Civil inattention: “the slightest of interpersonal
rituals, yet one that constantly regulates the
social intercourse of persons in our society”
Newspapers and magazines "[allow] us to carry
around a screen that can be raised at any time to
give ourselves and others an excuse for not
initiating contact"
BEHAVIOUR IN PUBLIC PLACES
16. STAGED COMMUNICATIONS
SPACES
LOCAL STORYTELLING
“The presence of others who see what we see and hear what we
hear assures us of the reality of the world and ourselves”
Hannah Arendt (1958)
The key element is that the neighbourhood is the referent. They
are stories about ‘us’ in ‘this geographical space’. Such stories are
the building blocks of the ability to ‘imagine’ an area as a
community
Yong-Chan Kim and Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach (2006)
21. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arendt, H., 1987. The Public Realm: The Common, in: Lilla, M.,
Glazer, N. (Eds.), The Public Face of Architecture. The Free
Press, London & New York, pp. 4–12.
Cairncross, F., 2001. The Death of Distance 2.0: How the
Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Texere,
London & New York.
Converse, P.E., 1967. The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass
Publics, in: Apter, D.E. (Ed.), Ideology and Discontent. Free Press,
New York, pp. 206–261.
Cooper, D., 2006. “ Sometimes a community and sometimes a
battlefield”: from the comedic public sphere to the commons of
Speakers’ Corner. Environ. Plan. D 24, 753.
Couldry, N., 2002. Media Rituals: A Critical Approach. Routledge,
Abingdon.
De Sola Pool, I., 1977. The Social impact of the telephone. MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Glaeser, E., Scheinkman, J., 2000. The Future of Urban
Economics: Non-Market Interactions. Brook.-Whart. Pap. Urban
Aff. 101–150.
Goffman, E., 1966. Behavior in Public Places. Simon and
Schuster, New York City.
Habermas, J., 1991. The Structural Transformation of the Public
Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of Bourgeois Society. MIT
Press.
Hillier, B., 1997. Cities as movement economies. Intell. Environ.
Spat. Asp. Inf. Revolut. North Holl. Amst. Neth. 295–342.
Innis, H.A., 1951. The Bias of Communication, 2nd ed. University
of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Law, J., Williams, K., Sukhdev, J., 2014. From Publics to
Congregations (No. 138), CRESC Working Papers. CRESC,
Manchester & Milton Keynes.
McLuhan, M., Fiore, Q., 1967. The Medium is the Massage: an
inventory of effects. Penguin, London.
Mitchell, W.J., 1996. City of bits : space, place, and the infobahn.
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA & London.
Pearlman, N., 2010. Downloading and Uploading: the foundations
of public space, in: Boullet, V. (Ed.), The Sound of Downloading
Makes Me Want to Upload. Lauren Monchar.
Zook, M., 2005. The Geography of the Internet. Blackwell, Oxford.
Zukin, S., 1996. The Cultures of Cities. Wiley.
Editor's Notes
It was popular in academic commentary in the late 1990s to suggest that communication technology and particularly the internet would dramatically reformulate urban materiality by removing the need for the city to create physical proximity in order for information to be produced and shared. In the most extreme version of this, William Mitchell argued that the new urban design task is not one of configuring buildings, streets, and public spaces to meet the needs and aspirations of the civitas, but one of writing computer code and deploying software objects to create virtual places.
The specter of this viewpoint regularly rears its head in the popular media in various forms. We are constantly reminded that the mobile phone is destroying “real” life, and therefore either implicitly or explicitly the “real” city. Academic approaches have largely moved on from here, and more usually now treat communication technologies with various strains of optimism. These range from the more cautious, in which new communication forms like social media could re-invigorate democratic and community-building processes, to the fetishistic – in which every aspect of the city is predicted to become smart through the constant collection and communication of data. In my view, though, there is something missing in both of these lines of thinking, and that is the understanding that communication in cities is by no means something new. I wish to argue for a greater appreciation of the inextricable relationship between urban form and communication throughout history. People in this room have rightly shown that we can better understand the future development of urban form by looking at its past. I would say the same is true for communication, that by understanding better the past relationship between place, community and changing forms of communication we might have a more grounded approach to the current and future effects of technology on cities. This isn’t by any means a fully formed argument, and its something I’m developing as part of the background to my research into hyperlocal blogging and social media in Brockley in London. So I want to share with you some theories and examples that illustrate what I mean in the hope that this kind of research can find more of a natural home within the school and lab.
The development of urban concentration has always been closely bound up with communication infrastructure. The city, as a concentration of conflicting demands, is a generator of public and civic law that requires codification and storage in media. Information also flows alongside trade. Knowledge of paper production spread west from China along the silk roads and trading nodes at their intersections, like Baghdad, became early centres for the production of paper in the 8th Century. The famous Library of Ancient Alexandria arguably became the first undertaking to gather together the world’s knowledge in the 3rd Century BCE, and it was able to do so because of the city’s position as a hub for trading routes across the Mediterranean. Still now, when a large portion of our economy is generated by the flow of information and money both in the form of data, cities are the spatial nodes in this network of exchange. Matthew Zook showed that most of the content of the Worldwide Web is produced in cities,
and they also contain the key physical junctures of the Internet in the form of giant cable interchanges known in the USA as telecom carrier hotels.
So urban conurbations have long held control over the means of communication. But the relationship is also more nuanced.
Harold Innis has described a history of communication in relation to the spatial form of societies, showing how dominant modes of communication shape socio-spatial relations. In the most abstract terms, the oral tradition perpetuates small, local societies that are stable throughout time, whereas the introduction of conquest through armed force necessitated the development of writing to support the expansion of society across space. Innis also gives more specific examples. The Egyptian and Roman empires encoded written law on papyrus and scroll, meaning urban centres of power flourished and held sway over a large and changing empire through a flexible and constantly updated code of law. Ancient Babylonia, on the other hand, communicated using cuneiform script engraved in stone requiring huge skill and physical effort to be produced. Consequently, power was decentralized and focused around monastery communities across the empire where cuneiform engraving was practiced, and the laws they literally set in stone became stable and deified.
Innis was a senior colleague of the young Marshall MacLuhan and his ideas were formative for the popular text The Medium is the Massage, in which MacLuhan re-asserted that writing itself brought architecture and towns and popularized the idea that the structure of communication has greater implication than its content.
Jurgen Habermas credits communication not only with shaping society but with the emergence of the nation as a spatial unit. In the 17th century, great merchants "outgrew the confining framework of the towns and in the form of companies linked themselves directly with the state". National communication infrastructure such as the establishment of a postal service in the 16th century, supported these changes. Burghers, or individual traders whose status was linked to a specific town saw downwards social mobility while the social stratum of a bourgeoisie concerned with state regulation of trade emerged as a national public. In this newly mediated public realm of letters, taste, opinion and politics were diffused in written, linguistic forms. In the 17th century the press was beginning to establish itself as the natural vehicle for this national public opinion. For the first time the private royal court had to legitimize itself as a public institutions before this media voice. In Habermas’ telling the public is not itself something spatial but at its very core created by mediated communication. The revered 17th century coffee houses, for example, were not actually places of unstructured and unmediated encounter, but where this new “reading public” as Habermas calls it, came together to pore over and discuss the latest national or foreign issues framed by newspapers.
The next great technological shift in communication came loosely with the invention of the telegraph and telephone, meaning messages could be communicated using light and electricity, allowing the separation of the infrastructure of travel and communication, and for symbols to move independently of geography as James Carey has put it. But history has shown that the overcoming of geography through communication did not lead inexorably to deconcentration but was in fact simultaneous with the birth of the super-dense highrise downtown. As Ithiel de Sola Pool put it “being up there on the 20th floor without a telephone would be an intolerable burden to communication”. Modern economist Ed Glaeser has noticed that the paradox of the modern metropolis is that as communication technology makes it easy for workers and companies to operate anywhere, the concentrate in large conurbations. In 2001 Frances Cairncross heralded modern communication as the death of distance, but rather than predicting the dissolution of cities rightly suggested that the spatial flexibility of work would in fact allow once again the use of the home as a workshop and the re-invigoration of local centres and communities as a result.
So why, then, is it so often felt that the newest forms of communication technology are some kind of affront to the public? We will all have seen headlines heralding the death of the public and the real in the face of smart phones or social media, for example. And whilst urban designers are now often working with communication technologies, the aim is so often to increase “interaction” in public space, as if this is the only home that a legitimate public life has in our cities.
In fact, older images suggest that phones are not the first form of media to come between people in public spaces. The relationship between ummediated interpersonal interaction in public space and participation in a wider public sphere through media should be much better understood within urbanism if we are to really appreciate the source of social vitality in our cities.
Sociologist Nick Couldry sees media as a shared reality through which we imagine social collectivities and learn how to structure everyday life. Something like the “description retrieval” described in the social logic of space as the learning of society by reading the built environment. Media enable communications, human society exists in communications. As Ricouer has said, substituting signs for things is the essence of the social.
John Law explains this further. Publics do not exist a priori, but comes into being when a particular issue is framed by media. Publics then are as multiple and overlapping as issues. Issues help perform geographical entities as coherent territories. For example, he says, "GDP projections coincidentally help to perform that patch of territory we call the UK as a social and economic reality. Rolled into a narrative ‘the UK’ becomes something that we can relate to and retell" (Law, Williams, and Sukhdev 2014). This works too, of course, at more local scales and as I will touch upon later the city or neighbourhood can also be imagined as a coherent reality through issue framing in media.
So mediated communications can also be the place that a public comes into being. And their work to frame issues and connect is in fact explicitly not something that public space does. This is something we can probably relate to more clearly by stepping out of our roles as theorists and designers of the urban and reflecting on our day-to-day use of public space.
Myself, on the underground very recently I heard a lone man quite calmly but audibly verbalizing some pretty eloquent views on the British monarchy, pointing out to everyone and no-one in particular that he was a citizen and not a subject who had not voted for a Queen and therefore refused to recognize her authority. A fair point well made I thought. But I also asked myself why this spectacle was causing such discomfort to me and everyone else on the train, as far as I could tell by their uncomfortable shifting and averted eyes?
Because, perhaps, the framing and constructing of a specified setting for communication is essential in preparing us to encounter opinions or issues. Erving Goffman describes this in detail in Behaviour in Public Places. For him, all social relations are communicative actions, including the entirely unfocused and non-verbal forms of communication that are required for the physical navigation of bodies in public space. He goes so far as to suggest that the mutually agreed avoidance of verbal communication, or “civil inattention”, is an essential communicative ritual that regulates public space and allows the smooth co-existence of the crowd in public space. Hannah Arendt acknowledges a similar effect when she say that public space should “relate and separate” – it does not work as a direct communicative medium but is instead something we are mutually aware of witnessing. We engage in public life by using space rather than by communicating in it. In order to transgress this separation and inattention, we create communication settings. Goffman describes many ways this can be achieved, through spatial delineation or bodily strategies, temporarily and permanently. Public furniture can often create a temporary communication setting – it is not untoward to talk to someone sharing a park bench or café table for example. People wearing certain kinds of uniform or in “exposed positions” such as being lost or injured are also endowed with the right to engage with the unacquainted, as Goffman puts it. His examples assume the fairly normative behavioural codes of civil society, but they do serve to highlight the fact that communication in public space is an exception rather than a norm and must be set up spatially or behaviourally. In fact, writing in the 1960s, Goffman celebrated newspapers and mahazines for allowing us to “carry around a screen that can be raised at any time to give ourselves and others an excuse for not initiating contact", in difficult situations where civil inattention is hard to maintain, like on public transport. I wonder whether Goffman would have seen the mobile phone as an inevitable extension of this.
And just like forms of media, that have their limitations and affordances, communication settings do too. Architecturally-defined settings are perhaps the clearest. This seminar room, for example, contains a set of actors who have knowingly entered into semi-private co-presence within an architectural enclosure allowing unmediated interpersonal verbal and non-verbal communication, but also contain devices for mediated forms of communication. The language is to a degree specified by the institutional setting and the limitations on access that implies. In this setting I have been handed a license to be the main producer of information, for now at least, but structurally we are all equally able to be both transmitters and receivers.
So thinking again about my pro-Republican fellow traveller on the tube, what did he fail to understand about communication settings? His partisan stance on a national political issue would fit more comfortably in the comment section of a broadsheet newspaper, as an issue framing. But a newspaper produces an asymmetric, one-directional relationship between participants in which only those professionally qualified and paid by the newspaper are allowed to produce information. The readers, on the receiving end of this one-directional flow of information, are physically disconnected from one another. However they do have a mediated connection with one another through membership of the virtual community of an “issue public”, gaining a transpatial label as pro- or op-ponents of the issue of de-monarchisation in the UK.
Nina Pearlman has put this another way, using the terminology of digital technology to suggest that when a common material is put into the public realm by an uploader a potential set of partakers – downloaders - are linked and form into what we could call a public over the shared experience of the common material available in that mediated setting (Pearlman 2010). Of course the implications of the newspaper’s structure as a setting is that it reinforces the communicative privilege of the educated middle classes over those with weaker positions in society, and because we pre-filter the incoming signal through our choices of media product. Hence we have more recent additions to the spectrum of communication settings including social media, forums and blogs, which are lauded for allowing the de-professionalization and democratization of opinion-production and a media landscape that more closely resembles the unstructured and unfiltered encounters of public space. But there is a key distinction. Public space is not a setting in which we will easily accept the verbalization of political opinion.
Whether professionalized and asymmetrical or de-professionalized and more even, public opinion, or issue framing, seems to belong comfortably in the mediated realm of the image and the written word where opinions do not have to be attached to bodies. So the verbal framing of issues in public, even if those issues may be of public concern, disrupts the essential and delicate regulation of public space and therefore is to be avoided, at the cost of becoming a pariah. Members of issue publics may be co-present in space but their connection remains virtual because the discourse of public opinion is, within that space and that communication setting, subservient to the upkeep of public order. Because we do not carry our transpatial identities as issue publics visibly the negotiation of other kinds of transpatial difference that are often visible on the body or through physical performance – ethnicity, religion, gender, sexuality – becomes easier.
As we learn from the social logic of space, interiors are highly enculturated containers of identity with strong constraints on entry and create the patterns of socio-spatial distribution that make social structure, whilst public space brings these identities back together in an unstructured realm of generic use. We could extend this distinction, though, to describe our communicative behaviours as well as our spatial ones. Through mediated communication settings that are specific to the types of content we use them for we can verbalize and specify issues that define us. Public space, on the other hand, supports generic functions such as movement from one location to another (Hillier 1997). By suppressing our communicative subjectivity in service of the successful performance of these functions along with many diverse others, the categorical divides that are framed through the making explicit of issues in media are overcome by the successful co-negotiation of public space. Therefore what we speak of as the “public” in the urban discourse, usually thought of as the crowd of bodies moving through and occupying urban spaces, is too limited a concept…
In fact, I would say, the city is a machine for creating the kind of mediated public I’ve described. As a dense web of overlapping and conflicting claims on space and resources it constantly generates issues, and as a byproduct becomes a concentration of media sources that frame and disseminate these issues. Without issues that bring publics into being, the populations of space would simply be crowds, furrowed in individualized pursuits without awareness of the network of effects and the capacity for knowing others categorically. And without public space, we would not encounter the others that bring physical reality to the virtual communities of issue publics. Communication technologies are an absolutely intrinsic part of the conversion of crowds to publics.
Sometimes though, these virtual publics do come together in time and space, in what John Law calls a congregation. In special forms of ritual we mark out events and places in the city to stage issue framing in discursive communication.
Protest – not just a physical gathering but an opportunity for opinions to be voiced in public space. A form of what John Law would call a congregation – the coming together in space and time of an issue public.
Speaker’s Corner – a place legally marked out for the expressing of opinion and in which criticism of the state is protected. Regularly occupied though by the mentally ill, who can take refuge in this specialized form of public space.
So how could we look syntactically at how and where communication happens?
My current research investigates the use of communication technology in a London neighbourhood. I don’t want to go into full depth on this here, but highlight a couple of aspects that potentially show interesting relationships between communication patterns and space.
I spoke to readers of a local news blog. Respondents didn’t report coming into direct contact with one another, but simply reading stories about their own locality enabled them to imagine it as a place. Communications weren’t instrumental – for example political organization – but as important simply because they were specific to place. I asked them to draw out their locality, and rather than having a defined outline it was a concentration of placeness around the locations that the blog frames as issues.
It didn’t matter whether they came into direct communication. The important thing was to know that other people in the area were witnessing the same stories. Sandra Ball-Rokeach has described this perfectly. "The key element is that the neighbourhood is the referent. They are stories about ‘us’ in ‘this geographical space’. Such stories are the building blocks of the ability to ‘imagine’ an area as a community".
Local businesses though had a different kind of connection. They are visible in space and embedded in location. They regularly engage with one another in discussion about Brockley, becoming sources of local information for their customers, as much as they are providers of local services. For them, location was important in community-forming at a highly granular level, following patterns in the built environment.
This is the network of following relationships between followers of the blog’s Twitter feed. Network analysis software groups people into sub-communities according to concentrations of following relationships.
When these are mapped onto space, they turn out also to be spatial communities. An idea that I haven’t followed up in full yet is how these links might relate to the network of space.
When these are mapped onto space, they turn out also to be spatial communities. An idea that I haven’t followed up in full yet is how these links might relate to the network of space.
Sharon Zukin says public culture is “produced by the many social encounters that make up daily life in the streets, shops, and parks – the spaces in which we experience public life in cities” (Zukin, 1996, p. 11). But I would argue this is too limited a view. Public life is only partially, and arguably minimally, produced by the unfocused encounters of the crowded public space. Even before media became the platform for a large proportion of our public debate it was institutions – guilds, societies and trading corporations – that were the loci of public life. The peasant in the street was excluded from these publics and limited to purely spatial forms of society. So whilst Castells defines the information era as one in which the disadvantaged are trapped in space whilst the global communication elite engage in transnational flows of culture and commerce, this is only an expansion of the spatial scale of privilege. Power has always meant access to institutions that span space through control over the means of communication, be it the medieval guild that created value by acting as gatekeeper to a citywide network of tradesman or the stock exchange that now creates value by controlling global economic communication routes. We do not yet know fully what power will be held by the owners of communication media like Facebook and Twitter, who are currently in a process of negotiating their relationship to public law through such legal issues as freedom of information and eavesdropping. Essentially, though, the important thing to recognize is that communication is not inherently anti-urban, as has become implicit in the rhetoric that would suggest that media erode the quality of the “true” public life of the streets. Cities are where both the gatekeepers and the participants of communication networks are located, and they are the sources from which the content of communications are derived. They are intense and successful generators of transactions – economic, informational, physical and social. Using the framework of communication settings, we can describe the limitations and affordances of places and media in comparable terms, and no longer need to see public space and public communication as antithetical and in competition with one another.