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Proline is an amino acid that acts as an osmolyte and signaling molecule in plants. It accumulates in plants under salt and drought stress, protecting them from reactive oxygen species damage. Plant species vary in their tolerance to salt, with some tolerating high salinity and others little or no salinity. Proline biosynthesis involves two cycles - the glutamate cycle and ornithine cycle - while its degradation is catalyzed by proline dehydrogenase. Exogenous application of proline can decrease the negative effects of salt stress on plants by reducing sodium and chloride accumulation.
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BCH 803 Part 3.docx
Metabolic pathways (catabolism and anabolism) are controlled / regulated at 2 levels, the modification of enzyme activity and the Regulation of enzyme synthesis/concentration.
1. Modification/regulation of enzyme activity
This involves the stimulation or inhibition of specific enzymes to rapidly change the flow of carbon within a pathway.
(a) Physical separation of enzyme and substrate (Compartmentalization): - It involves the regulation of enzyme activity by controlling the concentration of available substrate and coenzymes. E.g. the control of substrate entry into a cell across the cytoplasmic membrane. This is mediated by specific transport systems. Eukaryotic cells with membrane bound organelles use compartmentalization to control the transport of metabolites and coenzymes between different regions of the cell. Prokaryotes lack organelles, but development of concentration gradients of metabolites and coenzymes, between different regions of the cytoplasmic matrix, may play a similar regulatory role.
NB Compartmentalization: - catabolism & anabolism usually occur in separate cellular locations.
(b) Regulatory enzymes: - Metabolic pathways usually contain regulatory/allosteric enzymes/covalent modification (reversible or irreversible). Regulatory enzyme has catalytic site and other site for regulation that do not follow MichaelisโMenten kinetics. Their activity can be modified by a small molecule called an effector or modulator. This effector molecule binds reversibly through non-covalent forces to the regulatory site on the enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape. As a result, the catalytic site is altered. Positive effectors cause enzyme stimulation and negative effectors cause enzyme inhibition. In addition, some regulatory enzymes are switched on and off by their reversible covalent modification, such as phosphorylation and dephosphorylation.
(c) Feedback inhibition (End-product inhibition / retro inhibition / poisoning: - A negative feedback mechanism in which a distal product of an enzymatic reaction inhibits the activity of an enzyme that functions in the synthesis of this product.
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(ii) Synergistic feedback inhibition: - Feedback inhibition in which 2 (P1 and P2) or more products work together cooperatively such that their combined inhibitory effect is greater than the sum of the effects when either product act alone (Fig. 3.19a).
(iii) Concerted feedback inhibition: - The feedback inhibition of an enzyme that is produced when 2 or more end
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In this ppt the viewer will able to know about DIASTASE Enzyme. It is an amylolytic enzymes present in the saliva (salivary diastase or ptyalin and pancreatic diastase or amylopsin) found in the digestive tract of animals and also in malt extract. Diastase hydrolyses starch, glycogen and dextrin to form in all three instances glucose, maltose, and the limit-dextrin. Salivary amylase is known as ptyalin; although humans have this enzyme in their saliva, some mammals, such as horses, dogs, and cats, do not. Ptyalin begins polysaccharide digestion in the mouth; the process is completed in the small intestine by the pancreatic amylase, sometimes called amylopsin. The amylase of malt digests barley starch to the disaccharides that are attacked by yeast in the fermentation process.
Portion explained:
1. Biological Source of Diastase Enzyme
2. Description of Diastase Enzyme
3. Uses of Diastase Enzyme
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PAPAIN - An digestive enzymes
In this ppt the viewer will able to know about PAPAIN. Papain is the dried and purified latex of the green fruits and leaves of Carica papaya L., belonging to family Caricaceae. The epicarp adheres to the orange-coloured, fleshy sarcocarp, which surrounds the central cavity. This cavity contains a mass of nearly black seeds. The plant is cultivated in Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Hawai, and Florida. The plant is 5โ6 m in height bearing fruits of about 30 cm length and a weight up to 5 kg.
โข
Portion explained:
1. Biological Source of Papain
2. Geographical Source of Papain
3. Preparation of Papain
4. Characteristics of Papain
5. Test of Papain
6. Chemical Constituents of Papain
7. Uses of Papain
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Genetic engineering for abiotic stress tolerance
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BCH 803 Part 3.docx
Metabolic pathways (catabolism and anabolism) are controlled / regulated at 2 levels, the modification of enzyme activity and the Regulation of enzyme synthesis/concentration.
1. Modification/regulation of enzyme activity
This involves the stimulation or inhibition of specific enzymes to rapidly change the flow of carbon within a pathway.
(a) Physical separation of enzyme and substrate (Compartmentalization): - It involves the regulation of enzyme activity by controlling the concentration of available substrate and coenzymes. E.g. the control of substrate entry into a cell across the cytoplasmic membrane. This is mediated by specific transport systems. Eukaryotic cells with membrane bound organelles use compartmentalization to control the transport of metabolites and coenzymes between different regions of the cell. Prokaryotes lack organelles, but development of concentration gradients of metabolites and coenzymes, between different regions of the cytoplasmic matrix, may play a similar regulatory role.
NB Compartmentalization: - catabolism & anabolism usually occur in separate cellular locations.
(b) Regulatory enzymes: - Metabolic pathways usually contain regulatory/allosteric enzymes/covalent modification (reversible or irreversible). Regulatory enzyme has catalytic site and other site for regulation that do not follow MichaelisโMenten kinetics. Their activity can be modified by a small molecule called an effector or modulator. This effector molecule binds reversibly through non-covalent forces to the regulatory site on the enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape. As a result, the catalytic site is altered. Positive effectors cause enzyme stimulation and negative effectors cause enzyme inhibition. In addition, some regulatory enzymes are switched on and off by their reversible covalent modification, such as phosphorylation and dephosphorylation.
(c) Feedback inhibition (End-product inhibition / retro inhibition / poisoning: - A negative feedback mechanism in which a distal product of an enzymatic reaction inhibits the activity of an enzyme that functions in the synthesis of this product.
(i) Isozymes/isoenzymes/isofunctional enzymes: - Two or more different enzymes that catalyze the conversion of the same substrate to the same product. Such enzymes may be involved at the first step of a branched metabolic pathway and may be subject to feedback inhibition; the end product of one branch inhibits one of the enzymes while the end product of the second branch inhibits the other enzyme (Fig. 1).
(ii) Synergistic feedback inhibition: - Feedback inhibition in which 2 (P1 and P2) or more products work together cooperatively such that their combined inhibitory effect is greater than the sum of the effects when either product act alone (Fig. 3.19a).
(iii) Concerted feedback inhibition: - The feedback inhibition of an enzyme that is produced when 2 or more end
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The document summarizes the absorption, transport, and metabolism of folate in the human body. It discusses how folate is absorbed in the small intestine through hydrolysis, active transport, and diffusion. It is then transported through the bloodstream, mostly bound to albumin or as monoglutamate derivatives. Tissues take up folate via the same transport mechanisms as absorption. Within cells, folate is polyglutamated and methylated to form various metabolized folate compounds.
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Glycine is a simple amino acid that plays many important roles in the body. It is involved in the synthesis of collagen, creatine, glutathione, heme, purines, and other specialized products. Glycine can be synthesized from carbon dioxide and ammonia in the liver, from glyoxylate, serine, and threonine. It can be broken down through the glycine cleavage complex to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia, or through oxidation to glyoxylate. Glycine participates in many transamination, decarboxylation, and conjugation reactions throughout the body. Excessive consumption of glycine can lead to kidney stones due to oxalate accumulation.
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Protein digestion is a two-step process involving enzymes in the stomach and small intestine. In the stomach, pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides and some amino acids. In the small intestine, proteases like trypsin and peptidases further break down polypeptides into dipeptides and individual amino acids, which are then absorbed. Tests like Biuret can detect the presence of proteins and the completeness of digestion. Factors like pH, temperature, and inhibitors affect the efficiency of protein digestion.
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This document summarizes the enzymatic pathway of purine biosynthesis. Purines are biologically synthesized as nucleotides, particularly as bases attached to ribose-5-phosphate. The key purines synthesized are adenine and guanine. The pathway involves multiple enzyme-catalyzed steps beginning with 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate. Most enzymes involved are transferases or ligases. Amido phosphoribosyltransferase is the rate-limiting enzyme, which is regulated by feedback inhibition by purine nucleotides.
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In this ppt the viewer will able to know about DIASTASE Enzyme. It is an amylolytic enzymes present in the saliva (salivary diastase or ptyalin and pancreatic diastase or amylopsin) found in the digestive tract of animals and also in malt extract. Diastase hydrolyses starch, glycogen and dextrin to form in all three instances glucose, maltose, and the limit-dextrin. Salivary amylase is known as ptyalin; although humans have this enzyme in their saliva, some mammals, such as horses, dogs, and cats, do not. Ptyalin begins polysaccharide digestion in the mouth; the process is completed in the small intestine by the pancreatic amylase, sometimes called amylopsin. The amylase of malt digests barley starch to the disaccharides that are attacked by yeast in the fermentation process.
Portion explained:
1. Biological Source of Diastase Enzyme
2. Description of Diastase Enzyme
3. Uses of Diastase Enzyme
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This document discusses thiamine (vitamin B1) and riboflavin (vitamin B2), including their sources, daily requirements, roles as coenzymes, and deficiency symptoms. Thiamine acts as thiamine pyrophosphate in key metabolic reactions like the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. Riboflavin acts as FMN and FAD in processes like amino acid oxidation, the respiratory chain, and the citric acid cycle. Deficiencies can cause beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and other conditions, while riboflavin deficiency symptoms include inflammation of the tongue, lips and eyes.
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In this ppt the viewer will able to know about PAPAIN. Papain is the dried and purified latex of the green fruits and leaves of Carica papaya L., belonging to family Caricaceae. The epicarp adheres to the orange-coloured, fleshy sarcocarp, which surrounds the central cavity. This cavity contains a mass of nearly black seeds. The plant is cultivated in Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Hawai, and Florida. The plant is 5โ6 m in height bearing fruits of about 30 cm length and a weight up to 5 kg.
โข
Portion explained:
1. Biological Source of Papain
2. Geographical Source of Papain
3. Preparation of Papain
4. Characteristics of Papain
5. Test of Papain
6. Chemical Constituents of Papain
7. Uses of Papain
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Polysaccharides as building blocks for nanotherapeutics
Polysaccharides as building blocks for nanotherapeutics
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Thiamine (vitamin b1) and riboflavin (vitamin b2) actions as co-enzyme
Thiamine (vitamin b1) and riboflavin (vitamin b2) actions as co-enzyme
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Proline
Proline is an imino acid that accumulates in plants under stress conditions like drought, salt, temperature extremes, and heavy metals. It has multiple protective functions including acting as an osmolyte, maintaining redox balance, and protecting proteins and membranes from oxidative damage. Proline is synthesized through the glutamate and ornithine pathways and regulated by enzymes like P5CS and P5CR. Accumulation of proline helps improve stress tolerance by enhancing antioxidant enzymes and reducing reactive oxygen species levels.
Genetic engineering for abiotic stress tolerance
This document discusses various approaches for improving plant tolerance to abiotic stresses through transgenic methods. It summarizes 7 approaches: 1) Engineering genes for osmolyte biosynthesis like proline and glycine betaine, 2) Engineering genes encoding enzymes that scavenge reactive oxygen species, 3) Engineering genes encoding LEA proteins, 4) Engineering genes encoding enzymes with different temperature optima, 5) Engineering molecular chaperone genes, 6) Engineering transcription factor genes, and 7) Engineering plant cell membrane genes. For each approach, it provides examples of transgenic plants that were developed and their improved stress tolerance performances.
pentosephosphate.ppt
This document provides information about the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), including its role in generating the reducing agent NADPH and producing ribose-5-phosphate. The PPP occurs in the cytosol and begins with the intermediate glucose-6-phosphate from glycolysis. It produces NADPH through glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and provides pentoses to build nucleic acids. The PPP is especially important in red blood cells for maintaining glutathione levels and preventing oxidative damage through NADPH production. Deficiencies in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase can lead to hemolytic anemia upon exposure to oxidative drugs or foods like fava beans.
NUTRACEUTICAL AND FUCTIONAL FOODS
This document discusses lycopene, glucosamine, and isoflavones. Lycopene is a carotenoid pigment found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables that has antioxidant properties. Glucosamine is an amino sugar that plays a role in cartilage formation and is used as a supplement to treat osteoarthritis. Isoflavones are polyphenols produced by legumes that are antioxidants and may protect against certain cancers. The document provides details on the chemical structures, sources, and health benefits of each compound.
2.2 pentose and uronic pathway.pptx
The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate. It consists of oxidative and nonoxidative phases. The oxidative phase generates NADPH through glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in an irreversible reaction. No ATP is directly produced or consumed. The nonoxidative phase rearranges carbon atoms through transketolase and transaldolase, linking back to glycolysis. NADPH is used for biosynthesis like fatty acids and glutathione regeneration, while ribose-5-phosphate is used for nucleotides. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase regulates flux and is feedback inhibited by NADPH. Deficiencies can cause hemolytic anemia upon exposure to oxidizing drugs or foods like f
Abiotic stress
This document provides a summary of a doctoral seminar presentation on metabolomics and the role of primary and secondary metabolites in plant response and adaptation to abiotic stress. The presentation covers different types of abiotic stresses plants face, how plants acclimate and adapt to stress conditions, and the role of various metabolites including amino acids, carbohydrates, polyamines, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and nitrogen-containing compounds in stress tolerance. It also discusses crop adaptations to salinity stress and the mechanisms of salinity tolerance in plants.
02.1 Eicosanoids 111111111 pharmacology 11.pptx
Eicosanoids are a group of autacoids derived from 20-carbon fatty acids that have potent effects throughout the body. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids. Arachidonic acid is the main precursor, which is converted through either the cyclooxygenase pathway to generate prostanoids, or the lipoxygenase pathway to produce leukotrienes. These pathways and the structures, actions, therapeutic uses, and metabolism of the various eicosanoids are described in detail in the document.
Bmm480 Enzymology lecture-8
This document discusses genetic polymorphisms in enzymes. It provides examples of polymorphisms in alcohol dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, glutathione S-transferases, and butyrylcholinesterase. These polymorphisms can result in variations in enzyme activity levels and impact drug metabolism and toxicity. The document also discusses how certain polymorphisms are associated with increased risks of diseases like cancer when combined with environmental exposures like smoking or drinking alcohol.
Genes for salinity resitance in rice
These slides give an overview of the genes responsible for the salinity resistance in the rice plant (Oryzae sativa).
HEXOSE MONOPHOSPHATE SHUNT
The document summarizes the hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP pathway), also known as the pentose phosphate pathway. It has three main functions: 1) supply NADPH, 2) convert hexoses to pentoses, and 3) enable complete oxidation of pentoses. NADPH functions as an electron donor in biosynthetic reactions, unlike NADH which generates ATP. The pathway occurs in the cytosol and is important in tissues that synthesize fatty acids and steroids, as it provides the required NADPH. Glucose utilization via this pathway varies between tissues and is higher in liver, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause
Biotransformation.pptx
This document discusses biotransformation, or the metabolism of drugs in the body. It covers the key topics of:
- Phases of metabolism, including phase 1 reactions like oxidation and reduction mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes, and phase 2 conjugation reactions.
- Important cytochrome P450 enzyme families, specifically CYP3A4 which metabolizes over 50% of drugs.
- Factors that can influence biotransformation like concurrent drug use, genetic polymorphisms, and pathological states.
- The role of biotransformation in drug discovery and development through in vitro and in silico studies.
Pentose phostphate pathway.ppt
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway and uronic acid pathway. The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, adipose tissue and erythrocytes. A defect in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the first step of the pathway, can cause hemolytic anemia. The uronic acid pathway converts glucose to glucuronic acid and is important for conjugating substances like bilirubin for excretion. Disruptions can cause essential pentosuria or oxalosis.
purine metabolism.ppt
Nucleotides play important roles in energy storage, cell signaling, and as monomers for nucleic acids. Organisms synthesize purine and pyrimidine nucleotides through de novo and salvage pathways. Degradation of nucleic acids releases bases and nucleosides that can be reused through salvage pathways. Errors in purine metabolism can lead to disorders like gout, caused by uric acid crystal accumulation from excessive purine breakdown. Lesch-Nyhan syndrome results from HGPRT deficiency, causing excess purine synthesis and uric acid production as well as neurological issues. Some forms of severe combined immune deficiency occur due to lack of enzymes like ADA or PNP, resulting in nucleotide accumulation that inhibits DNA replication in lymphocytes.
Genetic Engineering for drought
Genetic engineering can be used to develop drought tolerant crops. Approaches include engineering genes for organic osmolytes like glycine betaine, trehalose, proline, and mannitol. Genes encoding regulatory enzymes and LEA proteins can also be engineered for drought tolerance. Transgenic crops overexpressing antioxidant enzymes or transcription factors involved in the plant stress response have shown enhanced drought tolerance. Commercially available drought tolerant crops include Monsanto's DroughtGard maize which expresses a cold shock protein from bacteria.
UNIT I: DRUG METABOLISM: S.Y. B. PHARMACY IV SEMESTER
This document provides an overview of drug metabolism. It discusses the phases of metabolism including phase I reactions like oxidation mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes and phase II conjugation reactions. It describes the key cytochrome P450 enzyme families and their role in drug metabolism. First pass metabolism and factors that influence it are also summarized.
Nucleotide chemistry & metabolism
This document discusses nucleotide chemistry and metabolism. It begins by describing the composition and functions of nucleotides, including their role as phosphate donors in phosphorylation reactions. It then details the de novo biosynthesis of purine nucleotides, which involves 11 steps building up to the formation of inosine monophosphate (IMP) from various small molecule precursors. IMP is then converted to other purine nucleotides like AMP and GMP. The synthesis of purine nucleotides is regulated by feedback inhibition. The document also discusses disorders of purine metabolism like hyperuricemia and gout.
Insecticide metabolism: Phases and examples
Normally, lipophilic xenobiotics that enter an animalโs body are rapidly detoxified. Detoxification
can be divided into phase I (primary) and phase II (secondary) processes (Figure 8.1). Phase I reactions consist of oxidation, hydrolysis, and reduction. The phase I metabolites are sometimes polar
enough to be excreted but are usually further converted by phase II reactions. In phase II reactions,
the polar products are conjugated with a variety of endogenous compounds such as sugars, sulfate,
phosphate, amino acids, or glutathione and subsequently excreted. Phase I reactions are usually
responsible for decreasing biological activity of a toxicant, and, therefore, the enzymes involved
are rate limiting with respect to toxicity. The most important function of biotransformation is to
decrease the lipophilicity of xenobiotics so that ultimately they can be excreted. In insects, the
major tissues involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics are the midgut, fat body, and Malpighian
tubules.
Microsomal enzyme induction
Microsomal enzymes like cytochrome P450 and UDP glucoronosyl transferases are important for drug metabolism in the liver and other tissues. Cytochrome P450 enzymes catalyze oxidation, reduction, and other phase I reactions. UDP glucoronosyl transferases catalyze phase II conjugation reactions like glucoronidation. Drug metabolism can be induced or inhibited by other drugs and environmental factors, leading to potential drug-drug interactions. A better understanding of an individual's genetic polymorphisms and environmental factors can help optimize drug therapy and avoid adverse reactions.
Physical & Chemical Classifications of Proteins
The document discusses different types of proteins. It begins by explaining that proteins are the most abundant organic compounds in living systems and are essential to structure and function. It then describes several classifications of proteins, including simple proteins like albumins, globulins, albuminoids, globin, histones, prolamins, protamine, glutelin; conjugated proteins involving glycoproteins, lipoproteins, phosphoproteins, nucleoproteins; and derived proteins. Specific examples are provided for each type as well as details on composition, structure, and properties. The classifications are based on chemical composition, shape, solubility, and use.
HMP SHUNT PATHWAY
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for glucose oxidation. It is more anabolic in nature and concerned with biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses. Approximately 10% of glucose enters this pathway daily, with the liver and RBCs metabolizing around 30% of glucose through this pathway. The HMP shunt occurs in the cytosol and generates NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate, which are important for lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid synthesis. No ATP is directly utilized or produced in the HMP shunt.
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UNIT I: DRUG METABOLISM: S.Y. B. PHARMACY IV SEMESTER
UNIT I: DRUG METABOLISM: S.Y. B. PHARMACY IV SEMESTER
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Ubaid afzal (28)
This document discusses somaclonal variation, which is genetic variation seen in plants produced through plant tissue culture. Chromosomal rearrangements cause this variation. Somaclonal variation can be used by plant breeders to generate genetic diversity and develop plants with useful traits like stress tolerance or herbicide resistance. However, selected variants may be unstable or have undesirable side effects. The document provides examples of applying somaclonal variation to improve rice, wheat, maize, potato, tomato and sugarcane by selecting variants with traits like increased yield, disease resistance, or altered plant properties.
Ubaid afzal (35)
The document provides instructions for properly sterilizing work areas and equipment used for cell culture. Key steps include sterilizing the work area with 70% ethanol before and after use, sterilizing reagents and equipment via autoclave or sterile filters, and wearing proper protective equipment like gloves and masks to reduce contamination. Autoclaves use steam heat or dry heat to sterilize items at temperatures between 121-132C for 15-60 minutes depending on packaging. Sterile filters with a 0.2 micron pore size can sterilize heat-labile chemicals. Culture media can also be sterilized via microwaving.
Ubaid afzal (34)
1. Callus is an unorganized, dividing mass of cells that forms in plant tissues in response to wounding or tissue culture conditions.
2. The process of callus culture involves dedifferentiating explant cells so they begin rapidly dividing to form a callus, which then undergoes further differentiation and organization.
3. The document outlines the steps for inducing and maintaining carrot callus culture, including sterilizing and culturing explants on auxin-supplemented medium to induce callus formation over 4 weeks.
Ubaid afzal (33)
This document summarizes key developments in plant tissue culture from 1922 to 1983, including the first long-term culture of isolated plant tissues and organs, discoveries of nutrients necessary for growth, techniques for culturing single cells and tissues from various plant species, and the first production of transgenic tobacco plants through cell transformation.
Ubaid afzal (32)
Potato plants can be propagated in vitro using two methods: single node cuttings or shaken liquid culture. For single node cuttings, stem segments with a single node are placed on propagation medium and incubated to allow new plantlets to grow. Liquid shaken culture is more rapid, producing more plantlets in less time, by placing stem segments with axillary buds in a flask of liquid medium on an electric shaker. Tissue culture allows for the mass production of healthy potato plantlets for farmers and the testing of grower samples for pathogens.
Ubaid afzal (31)
Transgenic plants are plants that have been genetically engineered using recombinant DNA techniques to create plants with new characteristics. The process involves artificially inserting a gene or genes known as transgenes to provide advantages like improved yield, quality, pest resistance, and tolerance to stresses. Common methods are used to insert genes from bacteria like Agrobacterium and Bacillus thuringiensis to impart herbicide and insect resistance. This allows for benefits like longer shelf life, higher production, and protection from viruses and pests.
Ubaid afzal (30)
Somaclonal variation refers to genetic variations that can occur in plants produced through tissue culture. Chromosomal rearrangements are a major source of this variation, which can be genotypic or phenotypic. To minimize somaclonal variation, one should select high-quality parent material, minimize the number of transfers in culture, investigate stable families for micropropagation, keep subcultures to a minimum, regularly reinitiate clones from new explants, avoid long term culture, use axillary shoot systems, and regularly reinitiate clones from new explants. Avoiding the plant growth regulator 2,4-D in culture media can also help since it is known to introduce variation.
Ubaid afzal (29)
Plant tissue culture techniques involve two main methods: static culture using solid agar medium, which is easier for initial cell line maintenance and investigation of organ formation; and suspension cultures using liquid medium, which allows for higher growth rates and superior biomass control as cells are fully surrounded by nutrients. Key tools and techniques for plant tissue culture include sterilization using autoclaves, pH meters to monitor medium pH, laminar airflow benches for aseptic work, and various analytical tools like colorimeters and chromatography for biochemical analysis. Plant growth chambers are also used to control environmental factors like light, temperature, and humidity.
Ubaid afzal (27)
This document discusses plant tissue culture, which involves growing plant cells, tissues, or organs under sterile conditions using a nutrient culture medium. Plant tissue culture is used to produce clones of plants through a process called micropropagation. It describes how callus formation is induced from plant tissue samples by growing unorganized plant cells. The key equipment used includes conical containers, forceps, agar, sucrose, plant growth regulators, and an autoclave for sterilizing explants and equipment prior to culturing plant cells and tissues to form callus or entire new plants.
Ubaid afzal (26)
Somaclonal variations refer to genetic or phenotypic variations that arise in plants produced through tissue culture. These variations can be heritable or non-heritable. Heritable variations are caused by pre-existing mutations in somatic cells or new mutations during tissue culture. Non-heritable variations are temporary phenotypic changes caused by epigenetic effects. Somaclonal variations can arise due to physiological, genetic, or biochemical causes like exposure to plant growth regulators, changes in chromosome number or structure, gene mutations, changes in DNA or protein levels, or alterations in metabolic pathways. While somaclonal variations can help crop improvement, selected variants may be genetically unstable and require extensive testing.
Ubaid afzal (25)
Plant tissue culture involves growing plant cells or tissues separately from the original plant, typically using liquid, solid, or semi-solid mediums. There are two main types of bud cultures used: single node culture and axillary bud culture. In single node culture, a bud with a small piece of stem is removed and cultured to develop into a new plantlet without added cytokinin. In axillary bud culture, a shoot tip containing axillary buds is cultured with high cytokinin levels, which stops apical dominance and promotes axillary bud growth. The optimal cytokinin to auxin ratio for axillary bud subculturing is typically around 10:1, but can vary depending on plant species and explant developmental stage
Ubaid afzal (24)
Root regeneration from callus can be achieved through tissue culture techniques. The process requires a callus formation from plant cells on nutrient-rich media supplemented with the appropriate phytohormones, especially auxins which play a central role in root regeneration. Upon the addition of auxins and cytokinins in precise concentrations, the callus undergoes de novo organogenesis to develop new roots through a process where adventitious roots regenerate from detached plant tissues.
Ubaid afzal (23)
Plant tissue culture is a technique to grow plant cells, tissues or organs in a sterile nutrient medium. It allows for cloning plants with desirable traits, rapid plant production without seeds, genetically modifying plants, and reducing disease. Explants are placed on solid culture media containing inorganic salts, organic nutrients, vitamins and plant hormones. Specific protocols describe sterilizing and culturing rice, sugarcane and cotton plant materials.
Ubaid afzal (22)
Heavy metals can cause toxicity and stress in plants. Some heavy metals like zinc and copper are necessary for plant growth, while others like cadmium, lead, and mercury have unknown biological functions. Heavy metals induce oxidative stress in plant cells, disrupting metabolism and growth. Plants can activate anti-oxidative enzymes to counteract reactive oxygen species and minimize the impacts of oxidative stress. Tissue culture is used to rapidly propagate genetically identical plants that can be grown in small spaces and used for phytoremediation strategies like phytoextraction and phytostabilization to reduce heavy metal levels or leaching in soil. Factors like plant species, soil pH, addition of chelators, and root zone absorption influence phyt
Ubaid afzal (21)
Plant tissue culture, also known as micropropagation, is the rapid multiplication of plant material using sterile tissue culture techniques. It allows for the production of many exact genetic copies of plants with desirable traits quickly and without the need for seeds or pollinators. However, it is an expensive and labor-intensive process, and there is a risk that diseases or abnormalities could infect or appear in the cloned plants.
Ubaid afzal (20)
In vitro propagation involves studying organisms or their components in artificial environments outside of their natural biological context. This allows scientists to isolate specific parts of an organism like cells or proteins to explore their basic functions. Some key advantages of in vitro studies are that they provide simplicity by removing complexity, allow for convenience through automation and high-throughput screening, and enable the mass production of cloned plants that are disease-free and genetically uniform.
Ubaid afzal (19)
Transgenic plants are created using genetic engineering processes to introduce genes from other species into a plant's genome. The tissue culture process is used because it allows a single transformed cell to be regenerated into an entire plant containing the transgene. A new gene is delivered into the nucleus of a plant cell and integrated into its chromosome. The transformed cell is then regenerated through tissue culture into a whole plant where the transgene becomes a permanent part of its genome, passing to its progeny.
Ubaid afzal (18)
Plant tissue culture provides a means to produce pathogen-free plants by eliminating contaminating bacteria. Bacteria that contaminate plant tissue cultures can originate from the explant tissue, the lab environment, operators, or ineffective sterilization techniques. Contaminants are identified and characterized using biochemical tests and purification methods to determine the source. Producing aseptic cultures involves indexing explants for contaminants, identifying and eliminating the contaminants, and maintaining pathogen-free plant stocks through tissue culture.
Ubaid afzal (17)
Limitations of plant tissue culture include: requiring sophisticated facilities and greater skill than conventional techniques; genetic instability and chromosomal abnormalities in some shoot-tip derived plants; expensive equipment costs for large-scale production; and variability in productivity dependent on species without trial experiments. The procedures also require special attention, infections may continue through generations, and decreased genetic diversity is possible if all plants are genetically similar.
Ubaid afzal (16)
This document discusses methods for screening plant tissue cultures for virus resistance. It introduces that plant viruses cause crop losses and that current protection methods are limited. It then describes that putative virus-resistant transgenic plants are usually screened in greenhouses but that the authors developed mechanical and graft inoculation methods suitable for tissue culture screening to reduce costs and time. The in vitro methods were validated by comparing results to greenhouse screens, finding two transgenic potato lines showed strong resistance to potato virus Y infection with both methods. The in vitro methods were also used to infect other plant species with different viruses.
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๐๐ฑ๐ฉ๐ฅ๐๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ญ๐ฎ๐ซ๐ ๐๐ง๐ ๐๐๐จ๐ฉ๐ ๐จ๐ ๐๐ง ๐๐ง๐ญ๐ซ๐๐ฉ๐ซ๐๐ง๐๐ฎ๐ซ:
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- 1. Proline and salt tolerance
- 2. Proline and its function โข Proline is multifunctional amino acids and also a signalling molecule acting as a plant growth regulator by triggering cascade signalling processes. โข Proline preferred as a common osmolyte in plants and get up- regulated against different stresses. โข Its accumulation in plants provides protection against salinity and drought stress.
- 3. โข Exogenous application of proline improves the crop tolerance against various abiotic stresses particularly salinity by protecting them from the severe effects of ROS . โข Plants tend to enhance its endogenous level with continuously increasing levels of salinity.
- 4. Salt tolerance โข Plant species vary in how well they tolerate salt-affected soils. Some plants will tolerate high levels of salinity while others can tolerate little or no salinity. The relative growth of plants in the presence of salinity is termed their salt tolerance.
- 5. Biosynthesis and degradation of proline โข The biosynthesis and degradation of proline, and its accumulation in plants is regulated by different abiotic stresses and salinity has the great concern. โข Proline synthesis in plants consists two different cycles. โข Glutamate cycle โข Ornithine cycle
- 6. Glutamate cycle โข In this , glutamate is phosphorylated to ฮณ-glutamyl phosphate and reduced to glutamate-ฮณ- semialdehyde (GSA), which is spontaneously cyclized to ฮ1-pyrroline- 5-carboxylate (P5C).
- 8. ornithine cycle โข In which ornithine is transaminated to GSA by ornithine ฮณ- aminotransferase (OAT) . โข Proline biosynthesis from glutamate consist two enzyme reactions involving ฮ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). โข On the other hand, the proline accumulation depends on its degradation rate, which is catalysed by the mitochondrial enzyme proline dehydrogenase (PDH) .
- 9. โข In plants, both PDH and ฮ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH) are attached to the matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane. โข Proline synthesis initiates the generation of NADP+, which acts as the backbone for ribose 5-phosphate required for the purines synthesis, and proline oxidation yields the reduced electron carriers, which provide energy for the numbers of biochemical reaction such as nitrogen fixation .
- 10. โข Exogenous application of proline may be a good approach to decrease the undesirable effects of salinity stress on plants and metal stress . โข It was also reported that, the exogenous application of proline alleviates the adverse effects of salt by reducing the accumulation of Na+ and Clโ in plants.