In this presentation i tried to explain in detail about cohort studies, their types, how to conduct them, their outcomes, and how to calculate sample size of these studies.
Researchers, as a whole, tend to underestimate the need for power. I'm just now starting to get it.
I recently gave a brief, easy-to-follow presentation on statistical power, it's importance, and how to go about getting it.
Hope you find it useful.
cohort study is clinical study design. particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort group of people. type of panel study.
cohort study represent fundamental designs of epidemiology in field of medicine, social science & psychology.
In this presentation i tried to explain in detail about cohort studies, their types, how to conduct them, their outcomes, and how to calculate sample size of these studies.
Researchers, as a whole, tend to underestimate the need for power. I'm just now starting to get it.
I recently gave a brief, easy-to-follow presentation on statistical power, it's importance, and how to go about getting it.
Hope you find it useful.
cohort study is clinical study design. particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort group of people. type of panel study.
cohort study represent fundamental designs of epidemiology in field of medicine, social science & psychology.
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptxRAHUL PAL
Research Methodology and Biostatistics syllabus:
Medical Research: History, values in medical ethics, autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, double effect, conflicts between autonomy.
Medical research has a long and varied history. It has evolved from rudimentary practices to sophisticated, evidence-based methodologies. Some key milestones include the development of the scientific method, the use of randomized controlled trials, the discovery of antibiotics, and the mapping of the human genome. Ethical concerns have also played a significant role in shaping the history of medical research, especially in response to various ethical violations, such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the Nuremberg Trials.
Resolving conflicts between these principles often requires careful consideration, ethical analysis, and, in some cases, consultation with ethics committees or boards. The specific course of action may vary based on the individual circumstances and ethical frameworks employed by healthcare professionals and researchers. Ethical guidelines and regulations also play a significant role in addressing and preventing these conflicts in medical research.
Methods of randomisation in clinical trialsAmy Mehaboob
Randomization is the process by which allocation of subjects to treatment groups is done by chance, without the ability to predict who is in what group. A randomized clinical trial is a clinical trial in which participants are randomly assigned to separate groups that compare different treatments.
Randomized trials are gold standard of study designs because the potential for bias (selection into treatment groups) is avoided.
This document includes the purpose, types, advantages and disadvantages of each type of randomisation.
: A Research design is a logical and systemic plan prepared for directing research. It specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations.
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptxRAHUL PAL
Research Methodology and Biostatistics syllabus:
Medical Research: History, values in medical ethics, autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, double effect, conflicts between autonomy.
Medical research has a long and varied history. It has evolved from rudimentary practices to sophisticated, evidence-based methodologies. Some key milestones include the development of the scientific method, the use of randomized controlled trials, the discovery of antibiotics, and the mapping of the human genome. Ethical concerns have also played a significant role in shaping the history of medical research, especially in response to various ethical violations, such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the Nuremberg Trials.
Resolving conflicts between these principles often requires careful consideration, ethical analysis, and, in some cases, consultation with ethics committees or boards. The specific course of action may vary based on the individual circumstances and ethical frameworks employed by healthcare professionals and researchers. Ethical guidelines and regulations also play a significant role in addressing and preventing these conflicts in medical research.
Methods of randomisation in clinical trialsAmy Mehaboob
Randomization is the process by which allocation of subjects to treatment groups is done by chance, without the ability to predict who is in what group. A randomized clinical trial is a clinical trial in which participants are randomly assigned to separate groups that compare different treatments.
Randomized trials are gold standard of study designs because the potential for bias (selection into treatment groups) is avoided.
This document includes the purpose, types, advantages and disadvantages of each type of randomisation.
: A Research design is a logical and systemic plan prepared for directing research. It specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations.
This slide contains B.Pharm 8th Sem Biostatistics and research methodology, Unit-3.
Topic covered: Designing the methodology, Sample size determination and Power of a study, Report writing
and presentation of data, Protocol, Cohorts studies, Observational studies, Experimental studies,
Designing clinical trial, various phases.
The research approach indicates the basic procedure for conducting research.
Research approach is the technique which the researcher uses to structure a study in order to gather and analyze information relevant to the research question .
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DISSERTATION on NEW DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF DRUG DISCOVERYNEHA GUPTA
The process of drug discovery and development is a complex and multi-step endeavor aimed at bringing new pharmaceutical drugs to market. It begins with identifying and validating a biological target, such as a protein, gene, or RNA, that is associated with a disease. This step involves understanding the target's role in the disease and confirming that modulating it can have therapeutic effects. The next stage, hit identification, employs high-throughput screening (HTS) and other methods to find compounds that interact with the target. Computational techniques may also be used to identify potential hits from large compound libraries.
Following hit identification, the hits are optimized to improve their efficacy, selectivity, and pharmacokinetic properties, resulting in lead compounds. These leads undergo further refinement to enhance their potency, reduce toxicity, and improve drug-like characteristics, creating drug candidates suitable for preclinical testing. In the preclinical development phase, drug candidates are tested in vitro (in cell cultures) and in vivo (in animal models) to evaluate their safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Toxicology studies are conducted to assess potential risks.
Before clinical trials can begin, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application must be submitted to regulatory authorities. This application includes data from preclinical studies and plans for clinical trials. Clinical development involves human trials in three phases: Phase I tests the drug's safety and dosage in a small group of healthy volunteers, Phase II assesses the drug's efficacy and side effects in a larger group of patients with the target disease, and Phase III confirms the drug's efficacy and monitors adverse reactions in a large population, often compared to existing treatments.
After successful clinical trials, a New Drug Application (NDA) is submitted to regulatory authorities for approval, including all data from preclinical and clinical studies, as well as proposed labeling and manufacturing information. Regulatory authorities then review the NDA to ensure the drug is safe, effective, and of high quality, potentially requiring additional studies. Finally, after a drug is approved and marketed, it undergoes post-marketing surveillance, which includes continuous monitoring for long-term safety and effectiveness, pharmacovigilance, and reporting of any adverse effects.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
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ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Antimicrobial stewardship to prevent antimicrobial resistanceGovindRankawat1
India is among the nations with the highest burden of bacterial infections.
India is one of the largest consumers of antibiotics worldwide.
India carries one of the largest burdens of drug‑resistant pathogens worldwide.
Highest burden of multidrug‑resistant tuberculosis,
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NDM‑1 ( New Delhi Metallo Beta lactamase 1, an enzyme which inactivates majority of Beta lactam antibiotics including carbapenems) was reported in 2008
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Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
1. Types of Research Design
Prepared By:
Abdulhakam Usman
1801020004
PharmD (PB) I year
Faculty of Pharmacy
Integral University Lucknow
2. Introduction
A research design can be defined as a framework of
methods and techniques chosen by researcher to
combine various components in a logical manner so
that research problem can be handled well.
According to Russell Ackoff, research design is the
process of making decisions before a situation has to be
carried out.
4. Purpose of Research Design
1. To minimize the expenditure
2. To collect the relevant data and techniques
3. To provides blue prints for plan
4. To provide an overview for other experts
5. To provides a direction
5. Principles of Research Design
1. Formulating a problem
2. Review of literature
3. Formulating hypothesis
4. Selection of method(s)
5. Collect data
6. Analyse data
7. Interpret and report
6. 1. Define research problem
•Basically, there are 2 types of research problems,
first which relate to states of nature and second
which relate to the relationships between variables.
•The researcher must first decide the general area of
interest that he’d like to inquire into.
7. 2. Literature Review
•There is a conceptual literature which consists
theories and concepts and an empirical one
consisting of studies.
•Once the problem is formulate, the researcher
should take extensive literature survey connected
with the problem.
8. 3. Formulate Hypothesis
•It is a predictive and a tentative statement which
shows the relationship between Dependent and
Independent Variables and which can be tested.
9. 4. Preparing the Research Design
•The preparation of design facilitates research to
be efficient as possible.
•It may draw the conceptual structure of the
problem. There are several research designs, such
as experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing.
10. 5. Collect Data
• The method of collecting data should be selected
considering nature of investigation, objective and
scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available
time and degree of accuracy.
• Its 2 types are : -
• Primary data collection
• Secondary data collection
11. 6. Analyse Data
•Processing is done which includes editing, coding,
classification, tabulation, presentation and
measurement of data.
12. 7. Interpret and Report
• A report should be prepared by the researcher for
which he has done his work and both positive and
negative result should be reported.
13. Types of Research Design
1. Observational
a) Descriptive
i. Cross-sectional study
ii. Case reports
iii. Case series
b) Analytical
i. Case control
ii. Cohort studies
2. Interventional
a) Randomized
b) Non-randomized
14.
15. 1. Observational Research Design
• Observational studies are those where the researcher is
documenting a naturally occurring relationship between the
exposure and the outcome that he/she is studying.
• For example, looking at the incidence of lung cancer in
smokers versus nonsmokers.
• Observational studies can be either descriptive or
analytical
16. A. Descriptive Research Design
• It is theory-based method of design which is created by gathering,
analyzing, and presenting of data.
• In descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing
the case under study.
Examples: Do customers of company X prefer product A or product
B?
How prevalence is disease A in population B?
17. I. Cross-sectional Studies
•In medical research, and biology, a cross-sectional
study is prevalent.
•This study approach examines data from a
population or a representative sample of the
population at a specific point in time.
18. II. Case reports/Case-series
•A case report is a detailed report of the diagnosis,
treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up
after treatment of an individual patient. A case
series is group of case reports involving patients who
were given similar treatment.
19. Case reports/Case-series cont’d
• case series (also known as a clinical series) is
a type of medical research study that tracks subjects
with a known exposure, such as patients who have
received a similar treatment, or examines their
medical records for exposure and outcome.
• Case series may be consecutive or non-
consecutive.
20. B. Analytical Research Design
• Analytical studies attempt to test a hypothesis and
establish causal relationships between variables. In these
studies, the researcher assesses the effect of an exposure
(or intervention) on an outcome.
21. I. Case Control Study
• Is an analytical observation study, which has a
comparison (control) group.
• Case control studies are retrospective, and the main
objective is to determine whether or not an association
exists between a disease and a particular risk factor.
22. Case-control Study
Advantages
1. Is the most efficient design
in terms of time, money,
and effort.
2. Are also efficient in the
investigation of diseases
that have long latency
period.
3. Are useful to study rare
diseases.
4. Can study multiple risk
factors/exposures.
Disadvantages
1. If the frequency of exposure
is low, case-control studies
quickly become inefficient.
2. Many methodological
issues affect the validity of
the results of case-control
studies.
3. Are prone to selection and
recall bias.
4. It can be difficult to choose
an appropriate control
23. II. Cohort Studies
• Cohort is an analytical study which undertaken to obtain additional
evidence for or support the existence of association between
suspected cause and disease.
FEATURES OF COHORT STUDIES
• Cohort are identified prior to appearance of disease under
investigation.
• Study groups are observed over a period of time.
• The study usually proceeds from cause to effect
25. Types of Cohort Studies
1. Prospective Cohort Study
2. Retrospective Cohort Study
26. Difference between Case-Control and Cohort Study
Case-control study
1. Proceed from effect to cause
2. It produces results very quickly
3. It includes less subjects
4. It’s first approach for testing
hypothesis
5. CCS is less expensive and less
time consuming
6. Is used to study rare diseases
Cohort study
1. It proceeds from cause to effect
2. Results gets delayed
3. Required large number of subjects
4. Used for testing formed hypothesis
5. More expensive and more time
consuming
6. Not used in studying rare diseases
27. 2. Interventional Research Design
• An interventional trial is specifically designed to evaluate
the direct impacts of treatment or preventative measures
on disease.
• They are used to determine the effectiveness of an
intervention or the effectiveness of a health service
delivery. They can also be used to establish the safety, cost-
effectiveness and accceptability of an intervention.
28. • There are two types of intervention studies:
a) Randomised controlled trials and
b) Non-randomised or quasi-experimental trials.
29. Randomized controlled trials
• In an RCT, a group of participants fulfilling certain inclusion
and exclusion criteria is “randomly” assigned to two
separate groups, each receiving a different intervention.
• Random assignment implies that each participant has an
equal chance of being allocated to the two groups.
30. Advantages of Randomised Controlled Trials
1. Its study design eliminates confounding bias.
2. If properly designed and conducted, an RCT is likely to be
able to determine small to moderate effects.
31. Disadvantages of Randomised Controlled Trials
1. They are not always ethical.
2. Sample size can be too small.
3. Significant tests can be misleading.
4. They can be expensive.
5. RCTs may not have external validity.
32. Nonrandomized controlled clinical trials
• In this design, participants are assigned to different
intervention arms without following a “random”
procedure.
OR
• An experimental study in which people are allocated to
different interventions using methods that are not random.
33. Conclusion
• Descriptive and analytical research both play important
roles. The first shows what the data looks like while the
second examines cause and effect.
• Analytical research helps in many fields of study. For
example, these include psychology, marketing, medicine,
and other areas. Often, it’s used because it provides more
definitive information in answering research questions.
34. References
• Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 – Descriptive
studies. Perspect Clin Res. 2019;10:34–6. [PMC free
article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Ranganathan P, Aggarwal R. Study designs: Part 1 – An overview and
classification. Perspect Clin Res. 2018;9:184–6.
• Schultz, K.F.& Grimes, D.A. (2002) "Sample Size slippages in
randomised trials: exclusions and the lost and wayward." The Lancet,
359, 781-85.