RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
This document discusses exon shuffling, which is a mechanism by which new genes can form through the rearrangement of exons from different genes. Exon shuffling was first proposed in 1978 and involves recombination within introns that allows exons to be assorted independently, generating new exon combinations. There are three main types of exon shuffling: exon duplication, insertion, and deletion. Exon shuffling generates genetic variation and mosaic proteins, and it has played a major role in evolution. The mechanisms involved are crossover during sexual recombination and transposon-mediated movements that can cut, paste, or copy and paste exons into new locations.
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
This document provides information about gene structure in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, genes consist of a coding region flanked by promoter and terminator elements. Eukaryotic genes contain exons and introns, and have more complex regulatory elements like promoters, enhancers, and silencers that can be located upstream or downstream. The key components of genes discussed include coding regions, promoters, terminators, 5' and 3' untranslated regions, signals for capping and polyadenylation, and regulatory elements.
Transposable elements are mobile DNA sequences found in genomes of all organisms. Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements called Ac and Ds in maize that cause color patterns in corn kernels. Her discovery showed that genes can move within genomes. Experiments with Drosophila revealed another transposable element called P elements that cause hybrid dysgenesis. Transposable elements can provide genetic variation and flexibility that influences evolution.
Gene regulation ensures that the appropriate genes are expressed at the proper times and helps organisms respond to their environment. It involves mechanisms that increase or decrease production of gene products. The lac operon in E. coli regulates lactose metabolism genes in response to lactose and glucose levels. When lactose is present, it induces the operon by binding the repressor protein and allowing transcription. When glucose is high, cAMP levels are low and transcription is low. The lac operon precisely controls lactose gene expression through a repressor protein and RNA polymerase binding.
1) Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that is important for normal development and physiology, as it helps remove excess, damaged, or dangerous cells.
2) It occurs through intrinsic and extrinsic pathways that involve caspase proteases and results in characteristic cell changes like blebbing and nuclear fragmentation.
3) Between 50-70 billion cells die per day in humans due to apoptosis, which is critical for processes like immune system maturation and tissue remodeling.
The document summarizes programmed cell death or apoptosis. It describes apoptosis as a naturally occurring, genetically programmed process where a cell undergoes an organized breakdown. During apoptosis, cells shrink, break into membrane-bound fragments called apoptotic bodies, and are removed by phagocytes without causing inflammation. The document outlines the major pathways of apoptosis, including the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway and extrinsic death receptor pathway, and discusses the roles of caspase proteases and Bcl-2 family proteins in apoptosis signaling and regulation.
RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
This document discusses exon shuffling, which is a mechanism by which new genes can form through the rearrangement of exons from different genes. Exon shuffling was first proposed in 1978 and involves recombination within introns that allows exons to be assorted independently, generating new exon combinations. There are three main types of exon shuffling: exon duplication, insertion, and deletion. Exon shuffling generates genetic variation and mosaic proteins, and it has played a major role in evolution. The mechanisms involved are crossover during sexual recombination and transposon-mediated movements that can cut, paste, or copy and paste exons into new locations.
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
This document provides information about gene structure in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, genes consist of a coding region flanked by promoter and terminator elements. Eukaryotic genes contain exons and introns, and have more complex regulatory elements like promoters, enhancers, and silencers that can be located upstream or downstream. The key components of genes discussed include coding regions, promoters, terminators, 5' and 3' untranslated regions, signals for capping and polyadenylation, and regulatory elements.
Transposable elements are mobile DNA sequences found in genomes of all organisms. Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements called Ac and Ds in maize that cause color patterns in corn kernels. Her discovery showed that genes can move within genomes. Experiments with Drosophila revealed another transposable element called P elements that cause hybrid dysgenesis. Transposable elements can provide genetic variation and flexibility that influences evolution.
Gene regulation ensures that the appropriate genes are expressed at the proper times and helps organisms respond to their environment. It involves mechanisms that increase or decrease production of gene products. The lac operon in E. coli regulates lactose metabolism genes in response to lactose and glucose levels. When lactose is present, it induces the operon by binding the repressor protein and allowing transcription. When glucose is high, cAMP levels are low and transcription is low. The lac operon precisely controls lactose gene expression through a repressor protein and RNA polymerase binding.
1) Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that is important for normal development and physiology, as it helps remove excess, damaged, or dangerous cells.
2) It occurs through intrinsic and extrinsic pathways that involve caspase proteases and results in characteristic cell changes like blebbing and nuclear fragmentation.
3) Between 50-70 billion cells die per day in humans due to apoptosis, which is critical for processes like immune system maturation and tissue remodeling.
The document summarizes programmed cell death or apoptosis. It describes apoptosis as a naturally occurring, genetically programmed process where a cell undergoes an organized breakdown. During apoptosis, cells shrink, break into membrane-bound fragments called apoptotic bodies, and are removed by phagocytes without causing inflammation. The document outlines the major pathways of apoptosis, including the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway and extrinsic death receptor pathway, and discusses the roles of caspase proteases and Bcl-2 family proteins in apoptosis signaling and regulation.
Introduction
History
Tumor suppressor gene- pRB
- RB gene
- Role of RB in regulation of cell cycle
- Tumor associated with RB gene mutation
Tumor suppressor gene- p53
- What is p53 gene?
- Function of p53 gene
- How it regulates cell cycle
- What happen if p53 gene inactivated
- Cancer associated with p53 mutation
- Conclusion
- References
A complementation test (sometimes called a "cis-trans" test) can be used to test whether the mutations in two strains are in different genes. By taking an example of Benzer's work, complementation has been explained.
The document discusses DNA denaturation and renaturation, including:
- Denaturation involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands through heating or chemical treatment, disrupting hydrogen bonds between base pairs. This increases UV absorption.
- Renaturation is the spontaneous rewinding of single strands back into the original double helix structure when denaturing conditions are removed, through base pairing of complementary strands.
- C0t curves plot the fraction of single strands renatured versus the product of DNA concentration and time, and can indicate the complexity and size of the original DNA sample based on renaturation rates. More complex DNA with more dissimilar sequences takes longer to renature
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can change their position within a genome. They are common in bacteria and include insertion sequences (IS elements) and larger transposons. IS elements are short sequences that can insert into bacterial chromosomes, while transposons are composed of IS elements flanking additional genes. Transposition occurs via either replicative or conservative mechanisms, with replicative resulting in duplication of the transposable element. Transposition can cause mutations but also increases genome flexibility and is useful for genetic engineering applications like insertional mutagenesis.
DNA repair mechanisms in prokaryotes involve direct repair, excision repair, and mismatch repair. Direct repair converts damaged nucleotides directly back to their original structure using enzymes like photolyase. Excision repair removes damaged sections of DNA through base excision repair which removes single damaged bases using glycosylases and AP endonucleases, or nucleotide excision repair which removes short oligonucleotides. Mismatch repair recognizes and fixes errors made during DNA replication by distinguishing the parental DNA strands and excising the newly synthesized strand containing mistakes.
Messenger RNA carries genetic code from DNA and is translated by the ribosome into proteins. This involves transfer RNA molecules that associate amino acids with their codons. Translation begins with initiation factors recruiting the small ribosomal subunit to the start codon. Elongation then occurs through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome and translocation of transfer RNAs. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached. Translation is highly conserved and essential for protein synthesis in all organisms.
This document provides information on various genetic mapping techniques. It discusses locus, genome, linked genes, genetic distance, and recombination frequency. It then describes genetic mapping and the different types of maps - genetic/linkage maps and physical maps. Genetic maps are based on recombination frequencies while physical maps use techniques like in situ hybridization. Restriction mapping and DNA footprinting are also summarized as methods to determine the order and location of genes and restriction sites on chromosomes. Transposable elements in eukaryotes are classified into Class I and II based on their mechanism of transposition via RNA intermediates or direct DNA-to-DNA movement.
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetic linkage in fungi and other lower eukaryotes. During meiosis in these organisms, four haploid spores, known as a tetrad, are produced. If spores remain in ordered linear formations, called ordered tetrads, the arrangement allows mapping of genes relative to centromeres. If spores are randomly mixed in unordered tetrads, patterns of allele segregation can determine if two genes are linked. Analysis of tetrad segregation patterns is used to calculate genetic distance between loci.
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that cap the ends of chromosomes. They contain the sequence TTAGGG and associated proteins that help protect chromosome ends from damage or fusion. As cells divide, telomeres slowly shorten due to the end replication problem. Once telomeres reach a critical short length, cells enter a permanent state of growth arrest called senescence. The enzyme telomerase helps maintain telomere length by adding back TTAGGG repeats and allowing cells to avoid senescence and continue dividing. Telomeres and telomerase play important roles in aging, cellular replication limits, and preventing chromosome fusion.
1. Chromosomal abnormalities are categorized as either numerical (change in number) or structural (change in structure).
2. Numerical abnormalities include aneuploidy (extra or missing single chromosomes) and euploidy (change in entire set).
3. Structural abnormalities include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations which alter chromosome structure through breaks and fusions.
4. Common aneuploidies in humans include Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and Turner syndrome (monosomy X). Common structural changes and their effects are described.
DNA replication in prokaryotes involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Initiation begins with the binding of initiator proteins to the origin of replication, unwinding the DNA helix to form replication forks. Elongation synthesizes the leading and lagging strands bidirectionally away from the origin using DNA polymerases. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, completing duplication of the chromosome.
Penetrance and expressivity refer to how likely and how strongly, respectively, a genetic trait is expressed in individuals. Penetrance is the proportion of individuals with a genotype who exhibit the associated phenotype, ranging from complete (100%) to incomplete. Expressivity refers to how strongly or uniformly a phenotype is manifested across an individual's body. A phenocopy is an environmentally induced phenotype that resembles a genetically determined trait but is not inherited. Diabetes has an incompletely penetrant genetic basis but treating it with insulin produces a phenocopy of the non-diabetic phenotype.
This document describes the process of DNA replication in eukaryotes. It occurs in S phase of the cell cycle and involves three main stages: initiation, formation of the initiation complex, and elongation. Initiation requires the assembly of pre-replication complexes containing ORC, Cdc6, Cdt1 and MCM proteins. In S phase, Cdc45 and GINS are recruited to form the initiation complex. Elongation proceeds bidirectionally from replication forks, with leading strand synthesis continuous and lagging strand discontinuous via Okazaki fragments. Replication terminates at telomeres.
The document describes the process of mitosis and cytokinesis in cells. It discusses the four main stages of mitosis - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During these stages, the chromosomes condense, align at the center, separate into two sets as the cell divides, and decondense as the nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm and cell membrane, resulting in two daughter cells each with a full set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis differs between animal and plant cells, with plant cells forming a cell plate from vesicles to divide the cell.
I have tried to make a precise presentation on protein transport, targeting and sorting into organelle's other than nucleus. Hope this might help you. Comments are welcome.
The document discusses various types of programmed cell death (PCD), including apoptosis, autophagy, paraptosis, autoschizis, oncosis, and necrosis. It provides details on the characteristics and mechanisms of apoptosis and autophagy. Apoptosis involves blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, and is mediated by caspases through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Autophagy results in autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic contents and organelles. The document also discusses some plant-specific features of apoptosis and its role in pollen self-incompatibility.
Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by environmental factors like chemicals or radiation. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication or chemical changes to bases like deamination, while induced mutations are caused by mutagens that damage DNA like radiation, base analogs, or intercalating agents. Both spontaneous and induced mutations can lead to changes in the genetic code through base substitutions, insertions, or deletions.
The document discusses genetic recombination and site-specific recombination. It describes the Meselson-Radding model of genetic recombination, which involves a single-strand nick that allows DNA polymerase to extend the 3' end and displace the other strand, forming a D loop structure. Site-specific recombination involves recombinases cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences and rejoining the strands to form a Holliday junction intermediate. Examples discussed include bacteriophage lambda integration into E. coli DNA, which is mediated by lambda integrase recombining attP and attB sites.
Chromosomal aberrations arise from structural changes or alterations in chromosome number. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural aberrations which involve changes in chromosome structure, and numerical aberrations which involve changes in chromosome number. Common types of structural aberrations discussed in the document include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosome segment, duplications the addition of an extra segment, inversions reverse the orientation of a segment, and translocations involve segments moving to new chromosomes. These structural changes can have varying genetic effects depending on the location and size of the alteration.
Introduction
History
Tumor suppressor gene- pRB
- RB gene
- Role of RB in regulation of cell cycle
- Tumor associated with RB gene mutation
Tumor suppressor gene- p53
- What is p53 gene?
- Function of p53 gene
- How it regulates cell cycle
- What happen if p53 gene inactivated
- Cancer associated with p53 mutation
- Conclusion
- References
A complementation test (sometimes called a "cis-trans" test) can be used to test whether the mutations in two strains are in different genes. By taking an example of Benzer's work, complementation has been explained.
The document discusses DNA denaturation and renaturation, including:
- Denaturation involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands through heating or chemical treatment, disrupting hydrogen bonds between base pairs. This increases UV absorption.
- Renaturation is the spontaneous rewinding of single strands back into the original double helix structure when denaturing conditions are removed, through base pairing of complementary strands.
- C0t curves plot the fraction of single strands renatured versus the product of DNA concentration and time, and can indicate the complexity and size of the original DNA sample based on renaturation rates. More complex DNA with more dissimilar sequences takes longer to renature
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can change their position within a genome. They are common in bacteria and include insertion sequences (IS elements) and larger transposons. IS elements are short sequences that can insert into bacterial chromosomes, while transposons are composed of IS elements flanking additional genes. Transposition occurs via either replicative or conservative mechanisms, with replicative resulting in duplication of the transposable element. Transposition can cause mutations but also increases genome flexibility and is useful for genetic engineering applications like insertional mutagenesis.
DNA repair mechanisms in prokaryotes involve direct repair, excision repair, and mismatch repair. Direct repair converts damaged nucleotides directly back to their original structure using enzymes like photolyase. Excision repair removes damaged sections of DNA through base excision repair which removes single damaged bases using glycosylases and AP endonucleases, or nucleotide excision repair which removes short oligonucleotides. Mismatch repair recognizes and fixes errors made during DNA replication by distinguishing the parental DNA strands and excising the newly synthesized strand containing mistakes.
Messenger RNA carries genetic code from DNA and is translated by the ribosome into proteins. This involves transfer RNA molecules that associate amino acids with their codons. Translation begins with initiation factors recruiting the small ribosomal subunit to the start codon. Elongation then occurs through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome and translocation of transfer RNAs. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached. Translation is highly conserved and essential for protein synthesis in all organisms.
This document provides information on various genetic mapping techniques. It discusses locus, genome, linked genes, genetic distance, and recombination frequency. It then describes genetic mapping and the different types of maps - genetic/linkage maps and physical maps. Genetic maps are based on recombination frequencies while physical maps use techniques like in situ hybridization. Restriction mapping and DNA footprinting are also summarized as methods to determine the order and location of genes and restriction sites on chromosomes. Transposable elements in eukaryotes are classified into Class I and II based on their mechanism of transposition via RNA intermediates or direct DNA-to-DNA movement.
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetic linkage in fungi and other lower eukaryotes. During meiosis in these organisms, four haploid spores, known as a tetrad, are produced. If spores remain in ordered linear formations, called ordered tetrads, the arrangement allows mapping of genes relative to centromeres. If spores are randomly mixed in unordered tetrads, patterns of allele segregation can determine if two genes are linked. Analysis of tetrad segregation patterns is used to calculate genetic distance between loci.
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that cap the ends of chromosomes. They contain the sequence TTAGGG and associated proteins that help protect chromosome ends from damage or fusion. As cells divide, telomeres slowly shorten due to the end replication problem. Once telomeres reach a critical short length, cells enter a permanent state of growth arrest called senescence. The enzyme telomerase helps maintain telomere length by adding back TTAGGG repeats and allowing cells to avoid senescence and continue dividing. Telomeres and telomerase play important roles in aging, cellular replication limits, and preventing chromosome fusion.
1. Chromosomal abnormalities are categorized as either numerical (change in number) or structural (change in structure).
2. Numerical abnormalities include aneuploidy (extra or missing single chromosomes) and euploidy (change in entire set).
3. Structural abnormalities include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations which alter chromosome structure through breaks and fusions.
4. Common aneuploidies in humans include Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and Turner syndrome (monosomy X). Common structural changes and their effects are described.
DNA replication in prokaryotes involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Initiation begins with the binding of initiator proteins to the origin of replication, unwinding the DNA helix to form replication forks. Elongation synthesizes the leading and lagging strands bidirectionally away from the origin using DNA polymerases. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, completing duplication of the chromosome.
Penetrance and expressivity refer to how likely and how strongly, respectively, a genetic trait is expressed in individuals. Penetrance is the proportion of individuals with a genotype who exhibit the associated phenotype, ranging from complete (100%) to incomplete. Expressivity refers to how strongly or uniformly a phenotype is manifested across an individual's body. A phenocopy is an environmentally induced phenotype that resembles a genetically determined trait but is not inherited. Diabetes has an incompletely penetrant genetic basis but treating it with insulin produces a phenocopy of the non-diabetic phenotype.
This document describes the process of DNA replication in eukaryotes. It occurs in S phase of the cell cycle and involves three main stages: initiation, formation of the initiation complex, and elongation. Initiation requires the assembly of pre-replication complexes containing ORC, Cdc6, Cdt1 and MCM proteins. In S phase, Cdc45 and GINS are recruited to form the initiation complex. Elongation proceeds bidirectionally from replication forks, with leading strand synthesis continuous and lagging strand discontinuous via Okazaki fragments. Replication terminates at telomeres.
The document describes the process of mitosis and cytokinesis in cells. It discusses the four main stages of mitosis - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During these stages, the chromosomes condense, align at the center, separate into two sets as the cell divides, and decondense as the nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm and cell membrane, resulting in two daughter cells each with a full set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis differs between animal and plant cells, with plant cells forming a cell plate from vesicles to divide the cell.
I have tried to make a precise presentation on protein transport, targeting and sorting into organelle's other than nucleus. Hope this might help you. Comments are welcome.
The document discusses various types of programmed cell death (PCD), including apoptosis, autophagy, paraptosis, autoschizis, oncosis, and necrosis. It provides details on the characteristics and mechanisms of apoptosis and autophagy. Apoptosis involves blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, and is mediated by caspases through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Autophagy results in autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic contents and organelles. The document also discusses some plant-specific features of apoptosis and its role in pollen self-incompatibility.
Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by environmental factors like chemicals or radiation. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication or chemical changes to bases like deamination, while induced mutations are caused by mutagens that damage DNA like radiation, base analogs, or intercalating agents. Both spontaneous and induced mutations can lead to changes in the genetic code through base substitutions, insertions, or deletions.
The document discusses genetic recombination and site-specific recombination. It describes the Meselson-Radding model of genetic recombination, which involves a single-strand nick that allows DNA polymerase to extend the 3' end and displace the other strand, forming a D loop structure. Site-specific recombination involves recombinases cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences and rejoining the strands to form a Holliday junction intermediate. Examples discussed include bacteriophage lambda integration into E. coli DNA, which is mediated by lambda integrase recombining attP and attB sites.
Chromosomal aberrations arise from structural changes or alterations in chromosome number. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural aberrations which involve changes in chromosome structure, and numerical aberrations which involve changes in chromosome number. Common types of structural aberrations discussed in the document include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosome segment, duplications the addition of an extra segment, inversions reverse the orientation of a segment, and translocations involve segments moving to new chromosomes. These structural changes can have varying genetic effects depending on the location and size of the alteration.
Chromosomes carry hereditary information and mutations can occur through problems during cell division or exposure to mutagens. There are several types of chromosomal mutations that can change the structure or number of chromosomes including translocations, deletions, duplications, inversions, and isochromosomes. These mutations can result in aneuploidy, having an abnormal number of chromosomes through trisomy, monosomy, or polyploidy of having multiple sets of chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations can cause developmental issues and health problems depending on the type of structural change or chromosomal material lost or gained.
Introduction, Types-somatic and germinal; Mechanism of meiotic crossing oversynapsis, duplication of chromosomes, breakage and union, terminalization;
Cytological basis of crossing over - Stern’s experiment in Drosophila; Creighton
and McClintock’s experiment in Maize; Crossing over in Drosophila, Construction
of genetic maps in Drosophila - two point and three-point crosses; Interference and
coincidence.
Chromosome structure variations can arise from breaks that are rejoined randomly. This can result in deletions, duplications, inversions, rings, or translocations of chromosomal segments. Problems include breaking critical genes or improper disjunction during meiosis leading to aneuploidy and non-viable gametes. Specific issues depend on the type of structural variation, such as pericentric inversions causing both duplications and deletions after recombination. Translocations can also lead to aneuploid gametes if alternate versus adjacent segregation occurs during meiosis I.
4 Unit - I Chromosomal aberrations, Patterns of Inheritance.pptxNimmykutti
This document provides information on chromosomal aberrations and patterns of inheritance. It discusses that chromosomal aberrations are changes in chromosome structure or number, and can be numerical (changes in total number) or structural (changes in chromosome shape). It describes several types of numerical aberrations like trisomy, monosomy, and polyploidy. It also discusses structural aberrations including translocations, inversions, deletions, and more. The document then covers patterns of inheritance, explaining Mendel's laws of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance in transmitting traits from parents to offspring.
This document discusses patterns of inheritance and chromosomal abnormalities. It begins by explaining Mendel's laws of inheritance - the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment. It then describes different patterns of inheritance including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked recessive and X-linked dominant traits. It also discusses chromosomal abnormalities such as aneuploidy, polyploidy, structural abnormalities including translocations, inversions, deletions and more. In summary, the document provides an overview of Mendelian genetics and different modes of inheritance along with explanations of various types of chromosomal abnormalities.
Here are the key points to cover in the assignment:
1. Briefly explain the different types of structural changes that can occur in chromosomes - deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation.
2. Explain deletion in more detail - its types (terminal, intercalary), cytological detection using looping during meiosis, and genetic effects of changing gene number.
3. Explain duplication in more detail - its types (tandem, reverse, displaced), cytological detection using looping, and effects of changing gene number.
4. Explain inversion in more detail - its types based on centromere involvement (pericentric, paracentric), and that it does not change overall genetic material.
5. Provide detailed explanation
Crossing over occurs during meiosis when non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material. It generates genetic diversity within populations that can drive evolution. The key steps are synapsis where homologs pair, duplication, exchange of segments between chromatids at chiasmata, and separation. Factors like distance, sex, temperature, chemicals, and radiation can influence crossing over rates. Significance includes proving linear gene arrangement, producing new combinations for evolution, and enabling genetic maps.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique. The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). In the present slide, the structural chromosomal aberration is discussed. The diseases caused due to such aberrations are also explained. Hope you all enjoy. Feel free to comment if have any further clarifications.
Cytogenetics examines chromosomes microscopically to detect abnormalities in chromosome number or structure. Chromosomes are stained and have characteristic banding patterns used to identify them. Variations in chromosome structure include deficiencies/deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deficiencies occur when a chromosome fragment is lost. Duplications involve repetition of a chromosomal segment. Inversions flip a segment to the opposite orientation. Translocations exchange genetic material between non-homologous chromosomes. These structural variations can impact phenotypes but many are phenotypically normal.
Structural Chromosomal aberrations (Change in Structure of Chromosome)Asad Afridi
this presentation is about chromosomal aberration especially change in structure of chromosome. different types of structural chromosomal aberrations are also discussed. effects of different aberration are also included.
Crossing over refers to the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. It results in new combinations of genes and genetic variation. Crossing over occurs via the formation of chiasmata, where segments are exchanged between chromatids. It can involve two, three, or all four chromatids, and can be single, double, or multiple. Factors like temperature, radiation, age, and nutrition can influence the rate of crossing over. Its significance includes providing evidence for gene order and creating genetic variation important for breeding programs.
This document summarizes key concepts about chromosome structure and function. It discusses that chromosomes are composed of DNA, proteins and other molecules, and appear as thread-like structures under a microscope. It describes the different types of chromosomes based on centromere position and arm length ratios. It also summarizes common numerical and structural chromosome abnormalities, different chromatin types, inheritance patterns such as dominance and polygenic traits, and some examples of human chromosome abnormalities and genetic disorders.
Crossing over and Recombination in Meiosos.pdfSamonteKim
Crossing over occurs during meiosis when segments are exchanged between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, resulting in recombinant chromosomes. There are two main theories for the origin of crossing over: 1) it evolved as a method of DNA repair or 2) it evolved from bacterial transformation to propagate diversity. The major steps of meiotic crossing over are synapsis, chromosome duplication, crossing over itself, and terminalization. Crossing over increases genetic variation between offspring and parents, ensuring individuals do not look exactly alike.
This document provides an overview of chromosomes. It begins by defining a chromosome as a structure that carries genetic information in the form of genes. Chromosomes are located in the cell nucleus and are made up of DNA and protein. The total complement of genes in an organism makes up its genome, which can be stored on one or more chromosomes. In humans, there are usually 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. The document then discusses chromosome structure, the different types of chromosomes, the functions of chromosomes, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes. It concludes by defining chromosome aberrations and describing the two main types: structural and numerical aberrations.
Structural chromosomal aberrations alter chromosome structure without changing chromosome number. They include intra-chromosomal aberrations that remain within a single chromosome and inter-chromosomal aberrations involving breaks between non-homologous chromosomes. Common structural aberrations are deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, which can have varying effects on fertility, viability, and phenotype depending on the genes involved. Structural aberrations provide tools for gene mapping and have evolutionary importance.
This document discusses different types of mapping populations that can be used to determine genetic distances between loci and map them to genomic locations. The primary mapping populations mentioned are F2, F2:F3, backcross, and recombinant inbred lines (RILs). F2 populations are generated from a single cross between two parental lines and allow preliminary mapping but have limitations. RILs require many generations of inbreeding but result in an immortal population suitable for quantitative trait mapping. Other secondary mapping populations discussed include near isogenic lines, doubled haploids, and multiparent advanced generation intercross populations.
This document discusses multiple alleles, which are two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same locus on homologous chromosomes. It provides examples of traits determined by multiple alleles, including coat color in rabbits (with alleles for agouti, chinchilla, himalayan, and albino), human blood groups (A, B, AB, and O alleles), eye color in fruit flies (with alleles producing shades from red to white), and feather patterns in ducks. The relationship between genotypes and resulting phenotypes is explained for each example. The document also briefly discusses self-sterility in plants as another example of multiple alleles.
This document summarizes key vitamins, including their chemical names, whether they are fat-soluble or water-soluble, their functions, deficiency symptoms, and good food sources. It discusses the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and the water-soluble B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, B6, folate, B12) and vitamin C. Each vitamin is described in 1-2 sentences on its classification, role, and impact of deficiency for concise but comprehensive coverage of essential vitamin information.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
2. When two non- homologous chromosomes exchange their
parts , the resulting chromosomal rearrangement are
translocations.
The reason behind translocation is that if the cell are exposed
to agents that cause chromosomes to break and broken ends
lack teleomeres.
These reactive ends are join by Dna repair enzymes . If multiple
chromosomes are broken then reactive ends may be joined
incorrectly to produce abnormal chromosome.
This is one mechanism that can cause reciprocal translocation
to occur
A second mechanism that can cause a translocation is an
abnormal crossover. This also results in reciprocal
translocation.
Translocation in humans is linked with many disorders such as
mental retardation, infertility, and cancer.
Introduction
3. Chromosomal translocation is a result of unusual
rearrangement of chromosomes.
It is involved in the generation of a novelchromosome.
It alters the size of the chromosome as well as the position
of the centromere.
Translocation requires the break downing of double-strand
DNAs at two different places.
It occurs many times during the evolution of species and
provides help in the identification of closely related species.
CHARACTERISTICS
5. A reciprocal translocation can be produced
when two non homologous chromosomes cross
over. This type of rare aberrant event results in
a rearrangement of the genetic material,
though not a change in total amount of genetic
material.
Reciprocal Translocation
6. How reciprocal translocation arises?
During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes attempt
to synapse with each other.
For these translocated chromosomes, the expected
segregation pattern is governed by the centromeres.
Each haploid gamete should receive one centromere
located on chromosome I and one centromere located
on chromosome 2. This can occur in two ways.
One possibility is alternate segregation. this occurs
when the chromosomes diagonal to each other within
the translocation cross sort into the same cell. One
daughter cell receives two normal chromosomes, and
the other cell gets two translocated chromosomes.
Following meiosis II, four haploid cells are produced:
two have normal chro- mosomes, and two have
reciprocal (balanced) translocations.
7. On very rare occasions, adjacent-2 segregation can occur. In this case, the
centromeres do not segregate as they should. One daughter cell has received
both copies of the centromere on chromosome 1; the other, both copies of the
centromere on chromosome 2. This rare segregation pattern also yields four
abnormal haploid cells that contain an unbalanced combination of
chromosomes.
Alternate and adjacent-1 segregation patterns are the likely outcomes when
an individual carries a reciprocal translocation. Depending on the sizes of the
translocated segments, both types may be equally likely to occur. In many
cases, the haploid cells from adjacent-1 segregation are not viable, thereby
lowering the fertility of the parent. This condition is called semisterility.
8. Robertsonian Translocation, named after William Robertson , who first
described this type of fusion in grasshoppers.
This type of translocation arises from breaks near the centeromeres of two non
homologous acrocenteric chromosomes.
Forexample , The long arms of chromosomes 14 and 21 had fused creating one
large single chromosome, the two short arms are lost
Robertsoniantranslocation involves only the acrocentric chromosomes
13,14,15,21,22.
Itis also known as centeric fusion type . Frequency = 1/1000 livebirths
Chromosome 13 translocate with chromosome 21
Chromosome 14 translocate with chromosome 21
Chromosome 15 translocate with chromosome 21
Chromosome 21 translocate with chromosome 22
Robertsonian Translocation
10. Translocation further classified as balanced and unbalanced
translocation. In balance translocation, the total amount of genetic
material is not altered . Like inversions , balanced translocation usually
occur without any phenotypic consequences because the individual has
a normal amount of genetic material . In unbalanced translocation, in
which significant portions of genetic material are duplicated and deleted
. Unbalanced translocation are generally associated with phenotypic
abnormalities or even lethality.
Example: Transmission of familial Down Syndrome
Balanced and Unbalanced Translocation
11.
12. It is one directional transfer of chromosomal
segment to another chromosome. Furthermore
this may drastically alter the chromosome size
and position of its centromere.
Only one chromosomal segment takes part in
the translocation.
One chromosomal segment moves one to
another locus of a non homologous
chromosomes.
Nonreciprocal translocation
13. GENETICS: ANALYSIS AND PRINCIPLES,
Third Edition by Robert J .Brooker.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication
/344224726
www.wikipedia.com
References