This document provides notes on human anatomy and physiology, specifically focusing on tissues of the human body. It defines tissues and describes the four main types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. For each tissue type, it discusses their structure, function and classification. Epithelial tissue is classified as simple or stratified. Connective tissue includes fibers, ground substance, and types such as loose connective, dense connective, cartilage and bone. Muscle tissue includes skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
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The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
Tissue Definition
Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a specific function. The word tissue comes from a form of an old French verb meaning “to weave”. There are four different types of tissues in animals: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial. In plants, tissues are divided into three types: vascular, ground, and epidermal. Groups of tissues make up organs in the body such as the brain and heart.
Types of Animal Tissues
Connective
Connective tissue connects or separates groups of other tissues. It is found in between all the other tissues and organs in the body. Connective tissue is made up of cells and ground substance, which is a gel that surrounds cells. Most connective tissue, except for lymph and blood, also contains fibers, which are long, narrow proteins. Fibers can be collagenous, which bind bones to tissues; elastic, which allow organs like the lungs to move; or reticular, which provide physical support to cells. Connective tissue also allows oxygen to diffuse from blood vessels into cells.
About 1 in 10 people are have a disorder involving connective tissue. Some connective tissue disorders include sarcomas, Marfan syndrome, lupus, and scurvy, which is a Vitamin C deficiency that leads to fragile connective tissue.
Muscle
Muscle tissue comprises all the muscles in the body, and the specialized nature of the tissue is what allows muscles to contract. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle anchors tendons to bones and allows the body to move. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and contracts to pump blood. Smooth muscle is found in the intestines, where it helps move food through the digestive tract, and it is also found in other organs like blood vessels, the uterus, and the bladder. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated; this means that they contain sarcomeres (a unit of muscle tissue) that are arranged in a uniform pattern. Smooth muscle does not have sarcomeres.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an example of a muscle tissue disorder. It is an inherited disorder that causes muscles to atrophy over time. The muscles shorten as they atrophy, which can cause scoliosis and immobile joints. Individuals with the disorder are usually male because the gene responsible for it is found on the X chromosome (of which males have only one).
Nervous
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, which are all parts of the nervous system. It is made up of neurons, which are nerve cells, and neuroglia, which are cells that help nerve impulses travel. Nervous tissue is grouped into four types: gray matter and white matter in the brain, and nerves and ganglia in the peripheral nervous system. The main difference between gray and white matter is that axons of the neurons in gray matter are unmyelinated, while white matter is myelinated. Myelin is a white, fatty substance that insulates neurons and
B.Pharm-Ist sem-HAP-Chapter 3-tissue level of organization.pptxSheetal Patil
Introduction
The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found together in the body.
Types of tissues
1. Epithelial tissue:]
2. Connective tissue: ]
3. Muscular tissue: ]
4. Nervous tissue: ]
-Development of Tissues
Tissues of the body develop from three primary germ layers: Ectoderm, Endoderm and Mesoderm.
1. Epithelial cell
Epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers.
Closely packed and held tightly together.
-General Features of Epithelial Cells:
1. Apical (free) surface
2. Lateral surfaces
3. Basal surface
Basement membrane
Basal lamina
Reticular lamina
-Classification of epithelial tissues
Epithelial tissues are classified according to :
Number of the cell layers formed
1. Simple epithelium (one layer)
2. Stratified epithelium(several layer)
-The shape of the cells
1. Squamous (flat cell)
2. Cuboidal (cube like)
3. Columnar (rectangular)
4. Transitional (variable)
- Glandular Epithelium and Glands
There are main two types of glands
1. Endocrine Glands
2. Exocrine Glands
-Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
1. Simple gland
2. Compound gland
-Functional Classification of 1. Exocrine Glands
2. Merocrine glands
3. Aprocrine glands
4. Holocrine glands
2. Connective Tissue
-Functions of connective tissues
-Classification of Connective Tissues
Embryonic connective tissue
Mesenchyme
Mucous connective tissue
Mature connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Areolar connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Reticular connective tissue
Dense connective tissue
Dense regular connective tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue
Elastic connective tissue
Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
Bone tissue
-Blood and Lymph
--Characteristics of Connective Tissue
1. Extra cellular matrix
2. Fibers
3. Cells of various types
Extracellular matrix of Connective Tissue
-Connective Tissue Cells
1. Fibroblasts
2. Adipocytes (fat cells)
3. Mast cells
4. White blood cells
5. Macrophages
6. Plasma cells
-Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix;
Ground substance and fibres make up the ECM.
a. Ground substance
-Complex combination of proteins and polysaccharides (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate dermatan sulphate and keratan sulphate).
b. Fibres
-Collagen fibers
-Elastic fibers
-Reticular fibers
3. Muscular Tissue
-Skeletal muscle tissue (Attached to bone by tendons)
-Cardiac muscle tissue (Heart wall)
-Smooth muscle tissue (Iris of eyes, walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways of lungs, stomach, intestine, gall bladder, urinary bladder and uterus)
--Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes for contraction.
--Cells use ATP to generate force.
4. Nervous Tissue
-Neurons or nerve cells
-Neuroglia
--Exhibit sensitivity to various types of stimuli, converts them into nerve impulses (action potentials) and conducts nerve impulses to other neurons.
By:M. Thiru murugan
Unit – II:
The cell: Structure, reproduction and function
Tissues including membranes and glands : types, structure and functions
Body cavities and their contents
Cell
Cell is the basic Structural and functional unit
Unicellular Organisms - made up of only one cell
Multicellular Organisms - made up of more than one cell.
Cells vary in shape & size
Types of Cells:
Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:
Prokaryotes - Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.
Eukaryotes - characterized by a true nucleus.
Structures of cell:
It consist of 3 parts:
Cell membrane outer boundary of cell
Nucleus - control center
Cytoplasm material between cell membrane & nucleus
Cell (plasma) membrane:
Cell structure that regulates passage of materials between cell & its environment; aid in protection & support of cell
Cell wall – cell structure that surrounds cell membrane
2. Nucleus
Nucleus - organelle that controls the cell’s activities & contains DNA
Parts of nucleus:
Nuclear envelope - 2 membranes that surround nucleus of a cell
Nucleolus - cell structure that contains RNA & proteins; where ribosomes are made
Chromosomes - threadlike structure in a cell that contains genetic information that is passed on from one generation of cells to the next
Chromatin – long, tangled strands of DNA
3. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm – (jelly-like) area between nucleus & cell membrane of a cell
Surrounds organelles
Organelle – tiny cell structure that performs a specialized function within the cell
Cell Organelle and its Functions:
Nucleolus: The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular reproduction
Nuclear membrane: The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies: Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell
Ribosome: Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell
Mitochondria: The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
Lysosomes: Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps in cell renewal. Therefore, it is known as the cell’s suicide bags
Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment chlorophyll
Vacuoles: Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste materials in the cell
Reproduction
Cell division: Cells need to divide for a number of reasons, including the growth of an organism and to fill gaps left by dead and destroyed cells after an injury, for instance.
There are two types of cell division:
Mitosis
Meiosis
Mitosis:
Mitosis
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
1. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 1
CHAPTER NO:3
TISSUES OF HUMAN BODY
Prepared by,
RAMDAS BHAT
Asst. Professor
Karavali college of Pharmacy
Mangalore
7795772463
Ramdas21@gmail.com
2. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 2
DEFINITION: “It is a group of cells that usually have common embryonic origin
a n d function together for special activities.”
INTRODUCTION: Body tissues can be classified in to four principal types according to
their function and structure:
1) Epithelia tissue: It cover body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavity and
ducts. It also forms glands.
2) Connective tissue: It provides the supports and protects the body and its
organs. It binds organs together. It stores energy as reserved fat. It provides
immunity.
3) Muscle tissue: It is responsible for movements and generation of force.
4) Nervous tissue: It initiates and transmits action potential (Nerves Impulse) that
helps coordinate body activities.
During the embryonic developments zygote produces three germ layers: a) Ectoderm
b) Endoderm and c) Mesoderm. These three are embryonic tissue from which all
tissues and organs of the body develop.
Epithelium tissue derived from all three layers.
Connective tissue and most muscles tissue derived from mesoderm.
Nervous tissue derived from ectoderm
TISSUES
3. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 3
General future of epithelial tissue:
• It Consists large and closely packed cells with little extracellular material between
adjacent cells.
• It’s arrangement produce continues sheet which is either single layer or multi
layers.
• Epithelial cells have an apical (free) surface, which produce the lining of internal
organ so it exposed in to a body cavity.
• The basal surface of the epithelial cells attached with the basement membrane.
• Epithelial cells are avascular so the blood vessels that supply to nutrients and move
wastes are located in adjacent connective tissue.
• The material exchanges take place in epithelium by the diffusion process.
• Epithelium cells are adheres to connective tissue which holds the epithelium in their
position.
• The junction between the epithelium and connective tissue is known as basement
membrane which consist two layers.
1) Basal lamina: contain collagen, laminin and proteoglycan secret by epithelium.
2) Reticular lamina: This contains reticular fibers, fibronectin and glycoproteins.
• The main function of epithelium is protection, filtration , lubrication, secretion,
digestion, absorption, transportation, sensory reception and reproduction.
1. Simple epithelium:
• It is a single layer of cells.
• It founds where activities such as diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion and
absorption occurs.
• According to shape of the cells it is further divided in to:
a) Simple squamous Epithelium:
• It is a flat in shape.
• This consists of a single layer of flat cells .
• Their surfaces look like as tiles floor.
• The nucleolus of each cell is oval or spherical shape.
• It follows the osmosis or diffusion process.
• It found in the body where the little wear and tear is found .
• It lines the hearts, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and also forms the
wall of capillary known as endothelium.
• The cells which form the epithelial layer of serous membrane are known as
mesothelium.
b) Simple cuboidal epithelium:
• It is cuboidal in shape.
• The nucleus of the cell is round.
• The main function of this tissue is absorption and secretion.
c) Simple columnar epithelium:
• It is rectangular in shape .
• It consist oval nuclei.
• It mainly produces two forms:
4. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 4
i) Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium:
• It contains microvilli and goblet cells.
• Microvilli produce the microscopic finger like structure which increases the surface
area of plasma membrane.
• Goblet cells secret mucus which is slightly sticky fluid.
ii) Ciliated simple columnar cells:
• Cilia produces the hairlike processes means it’s movement gives the motion.
• E.g.: Secondary oocyte moves toward fallopian tube for fertilization by or fertile
ovum down the uterine tube to the uterus help of Cilia.
2. Stratified Epithelium:
• It contains two or more layers.
• It protects the underline tissues from where there is considerable tear and
wear.
• According to shape i t can be further classified as under:
a) Stratified squemous epithelium:
• In the superficial layer this type of cells are flat whereas in the deep layers cells
vary in shape from cuboidal to columnar.
• Here, the basal cells continuously replicate by cell division and produce new
cells which shift upward toward the surface.
• So, they loss the i r blood supply from the connective tissue so they become
dehydrated , shrunken and harder.
• These processe s replace old cells by new cells.
• Stratified squemous epithelium exists in two forms:
i) Keratinized stratified squemous epithelium:
• It consist tough layer of keratin.
• It is a protein which i s water proof and prevents us from several bacterial attacks.
ii) Non keratinized stratified squemous epithelium:
• It does not contain keratin and remains moist.
5. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 5
b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium:
• It consist two or more layer of cells in which superficial cells are cube -
shaped.
• Duct of adult sweat glands and part of mal e urethra consist these cells.
• The main function i s to give protection.
c) Stratified columnar epithelium:
• It consists several layers of polyhedral cells.
• Only the superficial cells are columnar.
• Conjunctiva of eye, anal mucous membrane, urethra consist these cells.
• It gives protection and secretion.
d) Transitional epithelium (Urothelium):
• Its appearance is variable mainly it depends either it is stretched or relaxed.
• Its line the urinary bladder and portion of ureters and urethra.
6. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 6
3) Glandular epithelium:
• These types of cells are mainly present in gland the main function of these cells is
secretion.
• There are two types of secretary gland:
a) Exocrine:
• It secret their product in to duct.
• The secretion includes mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax and digestive enzymes.
• Eg .: Sweat glands, Salivary glands.
• According to structure it is divided into two classes:
i) unicellular
ii) multi cellular
• According to function it is divided in to:
i) Merocrine glands: it forms the secretary product and discharge it.
(salivary glands)
ii) Apocrine glands: accumulate their secretary product on their apical surface.
(mammary glands).
iii)Holocrine glands: accumulate secretary product in cytosol. (Sebaceous gland).
b) Endocrine glands:
• Secret product in to blood.
• Eg.: endocrine glands, pituitary glands, thyroid gland.
7. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 7
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
“It is the tissue which provide supports and strength of the other body tissues,
protect and insults internal organs also it binds the other cells or tissue together.
8. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 8
CELLS:
9. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
RAMDAS BHAT
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FIBERS:
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GROUND MATERIAL:
• Amorphous, Transparent, semi fluid gel
• Contains water, Hyaluronidase, Hyaluronic acid (Glycosaminoglycan), Proteoglycan,
Dermatan sulphate, Chondroitin sulphate, Glycoprotein, Heparin sulphate.
CLASSIFICATION:
Collagen Elastic Reticular
Colour Pearly white White/Yellow ----------------
Thickness 1-12 m 0.1-0.2 m thinnest
Protein Collagen Elastin Reticulin
Features Elongated, Helical
structure, occur as
bundle, each fiber
will move parallel to
each other without
coinciding with each
other.
Elongated structure,
they do not occur as
a bundle, they are
spindle shaped fiber
with tapering ends,
each fiber will
coincide with each
other.
Fibers will coincide
with each other
forming a mesh like
structure; hence
they are called as
reticular fiber.
Formed by Fibroblast Fibroblast Fibroblast,
Reticulocyte
Location To provide strength
in Tendons and
Ligaments
To provide elasticity
in Pinna of the ear,
Nostrils, Upper part
of larynx (vocal
cord), Lungs
To provide support
and helps in
filtration in Spleen,
Lymph nodes,
Kidneys and Bone
marrow.
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a) Loose connective tissue:
• Here the fibers are loosely woven. It consists:
i) Areolar connective tissue:
• It is the most widely connective tissue.
• It consist several types of cells like as fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast
cells and a few white blood cells.
• All three types of fibers – collagens, elastic and reticular.
• The fluid, semi fluids or gelatinous ground substance contains hyaluronic acid,
chondroitin sulphate, dermatan sulphate and keratin sulphate.
• It located in subcutaneous layer of skin, papillary region of dermis of skin, mucous
membrane, blood vessels, nerve and around body organ.
• It provides strength, elasticity and support.
ii) Adipose tissue:
• The cells of adipose tissue contain a fatty substance and they are large and
round in shape.
• It consists adipocytes cells that are specialized to store triglyceride (Fat and
oil).
• It is located in subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart, kidney, yellow bone marrow
of long bone and behind the eye ball sockets.
• The main functions of these tissues are reduce heat loss through skin, serve as
energy reserve, provides supports and protection.
iii) Reticular connective tissue:
• It consists fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular fibers.
• It forms the framework of certain organs and helps in binding of certain cells together.
b) Dense Connective tissue:
• It consists more numerous, thicker and densely packed fibers.
• It further divided in to:
i) Dense regular connective tissue:
• Here, the bundle of collagen fibers regular and parallel arrangements which gives
great strength.
• The tissue is silvery white and tough.
ii) Dense irregular connective tissue:
• It consists collagen fibers that are usually irregularly arranged.
• Heart valves, pericardium consists this type of tissue.
iii) Elastic connective tissue:
• It consist branched elastic fibers.
• It provides strength and can be stretched.
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c) Cartilage:
• It is hard but elastic in nature.
• It consist elastic and collagen fibers.
• There are three types of cartilage:
i) Hyaline cartilage:
• It provides the supports and flexibility, reduce the friction and absorb the
shock at joints.
• Cartilage cells are large, arranged in group of 2 and 4.
• It’s mostly found in bones and ribs.
ii) Fibro cartilage:
• It consists large cells which are arranged in groups.
• The collagen fibers are more than hyaline cartilage.
• It is found in inner vertebral discs, in knee joins.
iii) Elastic Cartilage:
• It consist elastic fiber in matrix. Mostly found in laryngeal cartilages, epiglottis
and in Eustachian tube.
BONES:
13. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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KARAVALI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY 13
BONE ANATOMY
Diaphysis: long shaft of bone
Epiphysis: ends of bone
Epiphyseal plate: growth plate
Metaphysis: b/w epiphysis and diaphysis
Articular cartilage: covers epiphysis
Periosteum: bone covering (pain sensitive)
Sharpey’s fibers: periosteum attaches to underlying bone
Medullary cavity: Hollow chamber in bone
- red marrow produces blood cells
- yellow marrow is adipose
Endosteum: thin layer lining the medullary cavity
Bone is supplied with blood by:
• Periosteal arteries accompanied by nerves supply the
periosteum and compact bone.
• Epiphyseal veins carry blood away from long bones
• Nerves accompany the blood vessels that supply bones
• The periosteum is rich in sensory nerves sensitive to tearing or tension.
Compact Bone – dense outer layer
Spongy Bone – (cancellous bone) honeycomb of trabeculae (needle-like or flat pieces) filled
with bone marrow.
Compact Bone:
• called lamellar bone (groups of elongated tubules called lamella)
• majority of all long bones
• protection and strength (wt. bearing)
• concentric ring structure
• blood vessels and nerves penetrate
• periosteum through horizontal openings called perforating (Volkmann’s) canals.
• Central (Haversian) canals run longitudinally. Blood vessels and nerves.
• around canals are concentric lamella
• osteocytes occupy lacunae which are between the lamella
• radiating from the lacunae are channels called canaliculi (finger like processes of
osteocytes)
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• Lacunae are connected to one another by canaliculi
• Osteon contains:
1. central canal
2. surrounding lamellae
3. lacunae
4. osteocytes
5. canaliculi
COMPOSITION OF BONES:
• Contains Cells that are surrounded by matrix that contains:
1. 25% water
2. 25% protein
3. 50% mineral salts
4 cell types make up osseous tissue
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Osteoclasts
1. Osteoprogenitor cells:
• derived from mesenchyme
• all connective tissue is derived
• unspecialized stem cells
• undergo mitosis and develop into osteoblasts
• found on inner surface of periosteum and endosteum.
2. Osteoblasts cells:
• bone forming cells
• found on surface of bone (arrow)
• no ability to mitotically divide
• collagen secretors
3. Osteocytes cells:
• mature bone cells
• derived from osteoblasts
• do not secrete matrix material
• cellular duties include exchange of nutrients and waste
with blood.
4. Osteoclasts cells:
• bone resorbing cells
• bone surface
• growth, maintenance and bone repair
Abundant inorganic mineral salts:
• Tricalcium phosphate in crystalline form called hydroxyapatite
Ca3(PO4)2(OH)2, Calcium Carbonate: CaCO3, Magnesium
Hydroxide: Mg(OH)2, Fluoride and Sulfate
15. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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MUSCLE TISSUE:
• Muscles cells consist fibers that are beautifully constructed and generate force for
constriction.
• As a result of constriction power it provides motion, maintains posture and
generates heat.
• Based on location, function and structure it is divided in to three types:
1) Skeletal muscles tissue:
• Its name shows its location means attached to bone.
• It is strait in nature, fiber contain light and dark band which is known as striation
which are visible in microscope.
• A single skeletal muscles fiber is very long, roughly cylindrical in shape and
has more than one nuclei which are periphery of the cells.
• Skeletal muscles are voluntary in nature because it can be contracted and relaxed
below the conscious level.
2) Cardiac muscles tissue:
• They are in bulk form and produce wall of the heart.
• Like skeletal muscles it is striated but it is involuntary in nature means
constriction in not under the control of conscious level.
• The fibers are branched and cross sections are squares in shape.
• Centrally it contain one nuclei and cardiac muscles fibers attached end to
end by one another and the joint is known as intercalated disc which form welding
like spot between cells.
3) smooth muscles tissue:
• It is located in the wall of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels,
air ways to the lungs, intestines, gallbladders and urinary bladders.
• It provides help in break down of foods, elimination of wastage and move fluid and
food through out body.
• It is involuntary in control.
16. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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NERVOUS TISSUE
• Nervous tissues are of 2 types
1. Neuron cells
2. Neuroglial cells
• Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system
• Neuroglial cells are the supporting cells for the neurons.
Neuron cell:
• The neurons consists of three basic portion :
a) Cell body:
• Cell body contains a nucleolus surrounded by
cytoplasm that includes typical organelles such as
lysosomes, mitochondria and Golgi complex.
• In the cytoplasm it also contains the
Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) which is
ordinary arrangement of endoplasmic reticulum,
the site of protein synthesis and it also contain
neurofibrils which forms the cytoskeleton and
provide the support and shape of the cells.
b) Dendrites:
• Dendrites are the receiving or input portion of
the neurons.
• They are usually short, tapering and highly
branched.
• Usually dendrites are not myelinated.
• Their cytoplasm contains chromatophilic substance,
mitochondria and other organelles.
c) Axon :
• It is a long, thin and cylindrical in shape.
• It is joined with cell body by axon hillock.
• The first portion of axon is known as initial
segment where the nerves impulse are arise.
• It also contains mitochondria, microtubules and neurofibrils but no rough
endoplasmic reticulum so it does not synthesize protein.
• Its cytoplasm known as axoplasm which is surrounded by membrane known as
axolemma.
• The side branch of axon is known as axon collaterals.
• At the end of axon it divides branch like structure known a s axon terminals.
• The tip of some axon terminals swell in to bulb shaped known as synaptic end
bulbs.
17. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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Classification of neurons:
a) According to functional classification it is divided in to:
i) Sensory neurons or afferent neurons:
It transmits nerve impulse from receptors of skin, sense organ, muscles, and joints
into the CNS.
ii) Motor or Efferent Neurons:
It conveys motor nerve impulse from the CNS to the effectors which may be either
muscles or glands.
b) According to structural it can be classified into:
i) Multi polar neurons:
• It has several dendrites and one axon.
• Most neurons of brain and spinal cord are of this type.
ii) Bipolar neurons:
• It has one main dendrites and one axon.
• It is found in the eye, inner ear and olfactory areas of the brain.
iii) Unipolar neurons:
• It’s originated as bipolar neurons in the embryo but during the development
axon and body get fuse into a single process that divides in to two branch and
consist one cell body.
• It is always sensory neurons.
iv) Pseudo unipolar neurons:
• A Pseudo unipolar neuron has one axon that projects from the cell body for relatively a
very short distance, before splitting into two branches - one that extends to the central
nervous system, and the other that extends to the peripheral nervous system.
18. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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• Pseudo unipolar neurons are sensory neurons that have no dendrites, the branched axon
serving both functions.
• The peripheral branch extends from the cell body to organs in the periphery including
skin, joints and muscles, and the central branch extends from the cell body to the spinal
cord.
• Pseudo unipolar neurons are found in the sensory ganglia of most cranial nerves.
Neuroglial cells :
• Neuroglia or glia fills about half of the CNS.
• Its have the glue like characteristics so it held nervous tissue together.
• Neuroglias are generally smaller than neurons.
• Neuroglia can multiply and divide in the mature nervous systems.
Classification of Neuroglia:
There are mainly six types of Neuroglia in which four astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,
microglia and ependymal cells are found in the CNS.
While neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells) and satellite cells found in peripheral nervous
system.
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Types:
a) Neuroglia found in CNS:
i) Astrocytes:
• They are star shaped.
• It produces the metabolism of neurotransmitters, maintain the proper balance of K+
for generation of nerves impulse, and participate in brain development.
• It forms the blood brain barrier which regulates entry of substance in to the
brain.
ii) Oligodendrocytes:
• It is the most common glial Cells in the CNS.
• It is smaller than astrocytes.
• They coil around neurons and produce supporting structure to the neurons.
• It produces protein and lipid covering known as myelin sheath.
iii) Microglia:
• It is the small and phagocytic Neuroglia derived from monocytes.
• They protect the CNS from the disease by engulfing invading microbes and clearing
away debris from dead cells.
iv) Ependymal:
• It is the epithelial cells.
• The cells have different shaped from cuboidal to columnar and many are
ciliated.
• Ependymal cells line the fluid filled ventricles, cavity within the brain and
central canal means a narrow passage from spinal cord.
• It forms the fluid which is known as cerebrospinal fluids.
20. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
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b) Neuroglia found in peripheral nervous system:
i) Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells):
• Each cell produces myelin sheath around PNS Neurons.
ii) Satellite cells:
• Which supports neurons in ganglia in PNS.
Function of Nervous tissue:
a) Sensory function:
• It sense certain changes both within body (the internal environment) such as
stretching of your stomach or increase the acidity and outside the body (the
external environment) such as rain drop landing on your arm or the aroma
of rose.
b) Integrative Function:
• It analyses the sensory information, store some aspect and make some decision
regarding appropriate behaviour.
c) Motor function:
• It may respond to stimuli by initiating muscular contraction or glandular
secretion.