1. Theories of Gender
Development
Brannon
Gender: Psychological Perspectives
Chapter 5

2. Basic Terms
• Gender constancy: the knowledge
that gender is a permanent
characteristic and will not change
with superficial alterations.
• Gender identity: individual
identification of self as female or
male.
• Gender labeling: the ability to label
self and others as male or female.
• Gender role: a set of socially
significant activities associated
with being male or female.

3. Basic Gender
Symbols
Symbol Derivation Fact
Symbol for Denotes a
the planet male
Mars organism or
a man.
Symbol for Denotes a
the planet female
Venus organism or
a woman.

4. Basic Gender
Symbols
Symbol Derivation Fact
Symbol for Denotes an
the planet intersexed
Mercury individual.
Symbolizes Denotes
bisexual “biangles”
individuals in
Nazi camps

5. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Gender • Interactions with
parents – early childhood
• Reinforcement &
Differences observation
Develop
• Cognitive development
• Gender-specific
Through schemata
• Learning gender
scripts

6. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Gender • Passively
• Choosing models
Participation • Organizing
Involves information
• Gender specific
schemata
• Scripts through
social interaction

7. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Gender • Oedipal period
• pre-Oedipal
Development period
Begins • Cultural emphasis
• Preschool years
• Preschool years
• Early preschool

8. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Gender • Oedipal resolution
• Separation from
Development mother
Proceeds • Adult knowledge
• Series of stages
• Schemata
• Script
components

9. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Gender • ID same sex
parent
Development • Adulthood
Concludes • ~ Late childhood
• Late childhood
• When scripts are
learned

10. Comparison of Theories
of Gender Development
Girls • Very different
• Often different
and
• Similar cognitively
Boys • May be different
• Different

11. Comparison of Horney
and Freud
Concept Horney Freud
Unconscious Yes Yes
Early Yes Yes
Childhood
Gender Yes Yes
differences

12. Comparison of Horney
and Freud
Concept Horney Freud
Envy Womb envy Penis envy
Masculinity ID with Feeling of
complex father inferiority
Masochism Abnormal for Inevitable
M/F for F:
abnormal in
M.

13. Nancy Chodorow-
Feminist Psychoanalytic
Theory
Stage Description Freud
Infancy: No One with the Boys separate
Sense of Self world (mostly from mother.
mother). Girls stay
connected.
Early Separation Differences
Childhood: from mother: are due to
Sense Girls have Oedipal v.
easier task. Electra
of Self
conflict.

14. Nancy Chodorow-
Feminist Psychoanalytic
Theory
Stage Description Result
Masculine Boys have Boys must reject
sense of already femininity &
self identified develop a
with mother. different identity
Feminine Gender Girls never
sense of similarity is separate from
self know by mother as
mothers & completely as boys
daughters. do.

15. Comparison of Freud
and Chodorow
Stage Freud Chodorow
Pre- No gender •Boys reject
Oedipal differences at femininity
this stage. •Girls retain
Oedipal Genital Gender
differences differences
prompt have already
personality emerged.
differences.

16. Ellyn Kaschak
Psychodynamic Theory
• Parallels personality development of
Antigone
• Oedipus’s daughter (and half-sister).
• Once blind, Antigone became guide &
caretaker to her father.
• She sacrificed an independent life to
care for him.

17. Ellyn Kaschak
Psychodynamic Theory
• Oedipus considered it his ‘right’ to
have this level of devotion.
• Antigone, then, is symbolic of the
inevitable fate of the good daughter
in the patriarchal family.
• Women are considered men’s
possessions & woman are subservient
to them.

18. Male Outcomes of
Personality Development
Phase Not Resolved Resolved
Patriarchal Nonpatriarchal
Power: Major Power: Not
goal major goal
Oedipal Women seen as Women seen
(men) extensions of as
self independent.
Sexually self- Sexually
centered unselfish

19. Female Outcomes of
Personality Development
Phase Not Resolved Resolved
Accept Reject subservient
subservience role
Passive & Assertive &
dependent independent
Antigone Male defined Define own
(women) sexuality sexuality
Deny own needs Express own needs

20. Patriarchal Terrorism
• ~ 1-3 million women are physically
abused by their husband or boyfriends
annually.
• In 2000, intimate partner homicides
accounted for 33.5% of the deaths of
women and >4% of men’s deaths.
• 3.3-10 million children witness some
form of domestic violence annually.
• Pregnant women are more likely to be
victims of homicide than to die of any
other cause.

21. Turning Point of the
Lehigh Valley
• http://www.tplv.org/index
• Abuse can be verbal, physical, emotional,
sexual or economic.
• An abused person can be male or female,
gay or straight, of any age, race, class,
culture, religion or occupation.
• Violence is a crime. You are not alone. We
can help. Call our 24-hour hotline at 610-
437-3369.

22. "I NEVER BELIEVED
SHE'D ABUSE ME."
• Lesbian violence is:
• Any behavior which is adopted by a woman to
control you, which causes physical, sexual or
psychological damage or causes you to live in
fear. Physical and sexual violence are the most
obvious forms of violence.
• Pushing, biting, hitting, punching and using a
weapon are all forms of violence. Forcing you to
participate in sex is violence. Threats are a form
of violence.

23. Ways Same-Gender
Domestic Violence is Unique
• Partner may threaten to ‘out’ the other.
• Assumption that lesbian, bi and gay abuse
must be "mutual."
• Utilizing existing services either means
lying or hiding the gender of the batterer.
• Telling heterosexuals can reinforce the
belief that lesbian, bi and gay relationships
are "abnormal."

24. Social Learning
Theory
• Gender role derives from French for roll
• Role denotes expected, socially encouraged
patterns of behavior exhibited by
individuals in specific situations.
• Emphasizes the influence of the
environment.
• A variation of traditional learning theory.

25. Traditional Learning
Theory
• Learning: A change in behavior that
is the result of experience or
practice.
• Operant conditioning: A form of
learning based on applying
reinforcement and punishment.

26. Traditional Learning
Theory
• Reinforcer: Any stimulus that
increases the probability that a
behavior will recur.
• Punishment: any stimulus that
decreases the probability that a
behavior will recur.
• Each individual has a unique learning
history.

27. Results of Reinforcement and
Punishment for Gender-
Related Behaviors
Behavior Consequences Result
Little girl Receives Plays with doll
plays with praise again.
doll
Little girl Scolded for Does not play
plays with choosing a with truck
truck truck again.

28. Results of Reinforcement and
Punishment for Gender-
Related Behaviors
Behavior Consequences Result
Little boy Scolded for Does not play
plays with choosing a with doll again
doll doll
Little boy Receives Plays with
plays with praise for toy truck again
truck choice

29. Social Learning Theory
Includes Cognitive
Processes
• Observation is more important than
reinforcement
• Learning is cognitive
• Performance is behavioral
• Separates learning from performing
learned behaviors
• Investigates factors that affect both.

30. Gender Children &
Television
• Oriented toward boys
• Males outnumber females 3:1
• Females < visible, important, active
• Females > polite, romantic, supportive
• 1990’s: females > independent, assertive,
intelligent, competent, responsible & <
emotional, tentative, & sensitive.

31. Gender Children &
Television
• Pokemon cartoons:
– Some consistent with stereotypical
gender depictions
– Others vary from gender stereotypes
– “Good” Pokeman trainers employ
stereotypes
– “Bad” Pokemon trainers behave in
nonstereotypical ways.

32. Gender, Children,
Television, and Advertising
• History of biased gender portrayals
– Changes have also occurred (Larson,
2001).
• Number of girls equals number of boys
in commercials.
• Still convey clear messages re: toys &
gender
• Few offer attractive portrayals of
children deviating from gender
stereotypes (Pike & Jennings, 2005).

33. Research in Gender,
Children, & Television
• Children not only notice but are also
influenced by gender portrayals in
cartoons & in advertisements.
• Even young children watch a great deal
of television (Christakis, et al.,2004).
• TV provides many more opportunities to
observe stereotypical gender behaviors
than actual experience does (Bussed &
Bandura, 1999).

34. Research in Gender,
Children, & Television
• Children observe many models
• They notice the consistencies and
overlook the exceptions
• As same-sex models exhibit a behavior,
the more likely behaviors come to be
gendered.
– These behaviors may have no direct
relationship to sex.
– Children become selective in their modeling.

35. Modeling &
Reinforcement
• Even before birth parents often have a
preference for a boy or a girl.
– More often for a boy
– Parents interact differently with sons &
daughters.
• Young children do not show strong
preferences for gender-typical toys
(Wood et al., (2002)
• Parents tend to choose gender-typical
toys.

36. Social Learning via Parenting
• Fagot & Hagan (1991)
– Fathers gave fewer positive responses
to their 18-month-old sons who chose
‘girls’ toys.’
– Mothers spend more time in
communication with their daughters.
• Wood et al. (2002)
– Showed fewer differences in parental
play.
– Tendency to choose “masculine” toys
for boys was still evident.

37. Cognitive Theories
• Cognitive Developmental
Theory
• Gender Schema Theory
• Gender Script Theory

38. Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Gender identity is a
cognitive concept that
children learn as part of
the process of learning
about the physical world &
their bodies.

39. Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Children younger than 2
have no concept of
gender
• Cannot consistently label
themselves or others as
male or female.

40. Gender Constancy
• Among the last types of
gender knowledge to be
acquired.
• Gender Constancy is an
understanding that gender
is a permanent personal
characteristic that will
not change.

41. Gender Schema Theory
• An extension of cognitive
developmental theory
• Explains gender identity in terms
of schemata
– Cognitive structures that
underlie complex concepts.
– Behavior changes to conform to
gender roles.

42. Gender Script Theory
• An extension of gender schema
theory.
• Children learn about gender by
acquiring scripts
– Ordered sequences of behavior
with a gender stereotype
component.
– Organize knowledge &
facilitate social relationships.

43. Problems
• None of the theories explain all data from
gender development research.
• Social learning theory does not address
the fact that children acquire a pattern of
gender knowledge that social learning does
not predict.
– Children learn gender labeling b/f toy &
clothing preferences develop.

44. Problems
• Cognitive developmental theory does
not allow for a different pattern of
development for boys and girls.
• Gender Schema does not
specifically address differences in
schemata between girls and boys.

45. Problems
• Findings that support cognitive
changes can be applicable to both
cognitive developmental theory as
well as gender schema theory.
• The necessity for gender constancy
as the basis for developing all
other gender knowledge has not
been substantiated.

46. Gender Flexibility
• Understanding the development of
gender flexibility is a goal for
researchers in late adolescence.
– Research has shown that this is a
time during which individuals gain
flexibility of gender beliefs.
– According to cognitive developmental
theory children undergo no additional
cognitive changes after early
adolescence.