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SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF GENDER INEQUALITY
1. Sociological Perspectives For
Gender Inequality
Feminist theory and feminism
Dr/ Eman M. Mortada
Associate professor
In sociology, public health and preventive medicine
8th lecture
2. • Differentiating ‘sex’ and ‘gender’Basic Definitions
• Def
• Agents
• Consequences
Gender Role Socialization
• education., work, healthcare and household
Contemporary Gender
Inequality
• Theories to explain gender
• Symbolic Interactionist
• Functionalist
• Conflict
Perspectives on Gender
Inequality
• Women movement
Feminism
Learning objectives
3. EXERCISE: RIDDLE
A boy and his father are in a car accident.
The father is taken to one hospital.
The boy is taken to another hospital.
The surgeon says, "I can't operate on this boy. He is my
son!“
Who is the surgeon?
4. **Who does what in our home (male or female or both)?
• Cooking
• Housework
• Washing up
• Putting out rubbish
• Pays the bills
• Main breadwinner
• Washing the car
• Laundry
• Plans day trips
• Plans holidays
5. “sex” vs “gender”
**Although the terms
“sex” and
“gender” are often
used interchangeably,
sociologists differentiate between the two.**
6. Sex: The biological Dimension
Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between Male/Female
Factors used to determine biological sex:
Anatomical (Internal sex organs and External genitals)
Chromosomes: XX for female; XY for male
Hormones
Sex
Sex
Male
Female
7. Sex: The biological Dimension
Sex
o Primary sex characteristics:
the genitalia used in the reproductive
process.
o Secondary sex characteristics:
the physical traits (other than reproductive
organs) that identify an individual’s sex.
8. • About 1 babies in 1,000 are born intersexed, or hermaphroditic:
People whose bodies have both male and female primary and/or
secondary characteristics, ambiguous sexual differentiation
Intersexual
9. Biological Differences
Physical differences:
General body shape,
The amount and distribution of body fat,
Height, weight,
Muscular strength,
The amount of body hair,
The tone of one’s voice
Reproductive organs
10. Biological Differences
Brain differences:
Male
more activity in regions with fighting,
more left hemisphere specialization,
listen with right ear
Female
more activity in emotional regions,
equal hemisphere specialization,
listen with both ears
11. Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation refers to A person’s romantic,
emotional and ,mainly, physical attraction to
another person
Homosexual: romantic or sexual attraction to
individuals of the same sex
Heterosexual: romantic or sexual attraction to
individuals of the opposite sex
Bisexuality: sexual attraction to people of all
sexes
Asexuality: a lack of sexual attraction to people of
either sex
12. Homophobia
refers to extreme prejudice and sometimes discriminatory actions directed at gays, lesbians,
bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual.
13. Our cultural programming as masculine/ feminine
The social construct that refers to the social and psychological
characteristics associated with being female or male.
Socially learned behaviors and expectations that are associated
with the two sexes.
Gender: The Cultural Dimension
Gender Refers to:
Gender
Masculine
Feminine
14. Gender role vs identity
Awareness of being masculine or feminine,
based on learned cultural values
The behaviors assigned to women and
men in a society. Culturally-based
expectations associated with each sex.
Women are expected to nurture
children.
Sex role: behaviors defined by biological
constraints
Only women can nurse infants.
Gender Identity: Gender role:
Generally, sex is considered to be an
ascribed status while gender is an
achieved status
biology determines sex;
society determines gender
15. ❑ Aggression- Females verbally aggress while men physically aggress.
❑ Males are more confident than females, especially in academic areas such as math
and science.
❑ Communication- Men talk more than women, especially in public places.
❑ Females are sensitive to people’s moods
❑ Girls make more eye contact
❑ Performance is based on testosterone
❑ Women are more detail orientated- remember things well
❑ Women are better at directions but men can read a map better
Behavioral differences
16. Gender stereotypes
For men, “society” considers them to be
Men
Strong
Rational
Independent
Dominant
Protective
Decisive
Less concerned with appearance
Women
Emotional (irrational)
Weak
Nurturing
Submissive
Anxious towards appearance
16
For women, they are considered to be
The consequences of these stereotypes commonly results in anorexia, bulimia, and body-building
17. Gender stereotypes
For boys,
any femininity may be threatening,
but for girls
some masculinity is acceptable, because
certain masculine traits are part of higher
social status.
18. First thing parents want to know
about child is SEX.
Even in womb
SEX becomes most
important characteristic of baby.
SEX of person is determined
by which sex organs
19.
20. Caster Semenya won gold in the
women’s 800-m race at the World
Athletics Championship in 2009, but
colleagues questioned if the 18 year
old South African was, in fact, a
woman.
Based on her picture and athletic
ability, why would her colleagues
think this?
21. Using the picture to the right,
address the following terms with
what you believe best defines this
person’s:
◼ Sex
◼ Gender
◼ Gender identity
◼ Gender Roles
◼ Sex role
22. Transgender vs Transsexual sex
Suffer from mismatch between biological sex and their gender identity
TranssexualTransgender
Undergo transition in
the biological sex
Doesn’t undergo
transition in the
biological sex
More physical
alternation of the
biological sex
More behavioral
transition (cross
dresser)
Transsexual women
can give birth to a
child
Transgender women
can not give birth
child
23. • Transgender a person who lives as the opposite sex but does not
alter the genitals
Transgender
24. Christine Jorgensen
1926- 1989
1953,Jorgensen was the first male-to-female transsexual in the United
States.
Her story made the headlines on the front page of the New York Daily News Paper
Transsexual
25. Zoe
Born with male body
parts:
• Male
Sees herself as a woman and
expresses herself through clothing,
etc. as a woman:
• Gender identity/expression?
• Female
• Biological sex?
Term that describes mismatch between
biological sex and gender identity?
• Transgender
26. Zach
Born with male
body parts:
• Biological sex?
• Male
Sees himself as a man and
expresses himself through
clothing, etc. as a man:
• Gender identity/expression?
• Male
Attracted to females:
• Sexual orientation?
• Straight/heterosexual
27. John
Born with male
body parts:
• Biological sex?
• Male
Sees himself as a man and
expresses himself through
clothing, etc. as a man:
• Gender identity/expression?
• Male
Attracted to males:
• Sexual orientation?
• Homosexual/gay
28. Carmen
Born with female
body parts:
• Biological sex?
• Female
Sees herself as a woman
and expresses herself
through clothing, etc. as a
woman:
• Gender identity/expression?
• Female
Attracted to females:
• Sexual orientation?
• Lesbia/homosexual
30. Patriarchy vs Matriarchy –
Patriarchy
a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural,
political, and economic structures are controlled by men.
when society (or any social group or institution) is dominated
by men.
It promotes the belief that women are innately inferior to men
31. Patriarchy vs Matriarchy –
Matriarchy –
a hierarchical system of social organization in which
cultural, political, and economic structures are
controlled by women.
when society (or any social group or institution) is
dominated by women.
32. Patriarchy vs Matriarchy –
Sexism is the subordination of one sex, usually
female, based on the assumed superiority of the
other sex.
o Negative attitudes toward women
o Discrimination
33. ❑Women are weak and
very emotional therefore
unfit to occupy
leadership positions.
Traditional Gender Roles
❑Men are natural leaders
because they are very
rational beings.
34. ❑Women are naturally nurturing
which is why they make good
nurses and teachers.
Traditional Gender Roles
❑Men are really “bread
winners” as they are good
economic providers
35. ❑All women want to be wives
and mothers.
❑Childcare is the mother’s
primary responsibility.
Traditional Gender Roles
❑Fathers remain to have the
final say.
38. Gender Role Socialization
Gender role socialization is the Lifelong process learning to be masculine or
feminine whereby people learn:
Values
Attitudes
Motivations
Behaviors
Primarily through four main agents of socialization: families, schools, peers, and the
media.
Gender role socialization takes place from earliest childhood through adolescence
and throughout all social interactions in which we participate
Values Attitudes Motivations Behaviors
Parents Peers Media Education
39. Gender Role Socialization in Childhood
From the time we are born we are being socialized along gender lines
Girls tend to identified as delicate, weak, beautiful, and cute.
Boys tend to be identified as strong, alert, and well-coordinated.
Males preferred in many cultures
◼ Gender bias favoritism towards one gender over another
This socialization takes place not only by parents but also by siblings, peers, schools and
the mass media
Parents Reinforce gender distinction through:
43. Gender Role Socialization in Adolescence
Adolescence is a critical time for establishing gender identity
Girls are encouraged to be passive and less achievement
oriented
Boys are encouraged to be competitive, autonomous and
independent
Because gender roles are changing in the culture at large,
adolescence can be even more uncertain with regard to
gender identity than it once was
44. Gender Differences in Men and Women
Research shows that men and women experience the world differently
Men have a sense of autonomy, that they can accomplish what they set out to do
Women feel more limited in the control they have over their future
Men and women also tend to think and reason differently
Men tend to be decisive, rational and firm
Women tend to consider “gray areas,” recognize complexities, and are more
concerned about the feelings of others which often comes across as indecisive
48. What is the difference between these two pictures?
49. Sex objects: an object of sexual attraction. The ideal woman can be portrayed
as thin, beautiful, sexually seductive and scantily clad.
Being in relationship with men e.g. bosses, husbands and lovers
Housewives and mothers
Women in the media may be portrayed as: -
51. Gender Inequality
Gender Inequality = Gender Stratification –
refers to men’s and women’s unequal access to
power, property, and prestige
Gender inequality can be found in all past and
present societies.
Despite gains some old practices persist
52. Gender Stratification in Historical Perspective
Hunting and Gathering Societies
o relative gender equality
Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
o decreasing gender equality
Agrarian Societies
o low women’s status
Industrial Societies
o low women’s status
Postindustrial Societies
o varied gender equality
53. The proportion of women earning
professional degrees has increased for
degrees such as medicine, dentistry,
law, and theology.
Even when women achieve the same
levels of education as men, they tend
to paid less.
Gender Inequality in Education
Gender Stratification in Contemporary Perspective
54. Gender Inequality in Workplace
Gendered division of labor
The wage gap
Sexual harassment
The glass ceiling and glass escalator
Gender Stratification in Contemporary Perspective
59. Wage Gap
Wage gap: disparity in earnings between men and
women.
Women make 80 ¢ for every $1.00 men make. (full
time)
Comparable worth has been proposed to even things
out.
Comparable worth: The principle that jobs
requiring similar levels of education and
training should be paid at similar levels
regardless of whether they are predominately
female or predominately male occupations
60. Glass ceiling and escalator
Invisible barrier preventing
women from reaching male
dominated top ranking positions.
Women take on supporting
roles; lack mentors
Men get higher in female
dominated occupations and
promoted quickly
Registered nurses, librarians, social
workers.
Glass Ceiling: Glass Escalator:
61. Family Roles
Double Shift= Second shift: The
extra hours women often spend
performing child-care duties,
cooking, and cleaning after a full
shift of work outside the home.
Women also a part of the “sandwich
generation”
Caring for dependent children
and aging parents
Gender Inequality in
62. Health Care
Although women live longer than men, a higher
percentage of women have chronic illnesses and
women use health services more often
the gap between male and female life expectancy
shrinking
women are increasingly taking on “male
behaviors”
Women’s bodies and normal life cycles have
been used historically to “prove” their inferiority
and keep them out of some social positions
Defined by their unstable reproductive bodies
The medicalisation of menstruation,
pregnancy and menopause leads to higher
health care usage
Gender Inequality in
63. Violence
Statistics show that one in every three females are likely "to be beaten, coerced into
sex or otherwise abused in her lifetime“. This includes in both the developing as
well as the developed world.
Violence against women in the form of rape, spousal abuse, child abuse or spousal
killing is routine behavior.
Female Feticide and infanticide are the act of aborting a fetus or an infant.
This is increasingly more popular in countries such as India and China.
The reason behind this has to do with the fact that women are less valuable than men in these
countries.
64. Political participation
Despite women taking part of 50% of the world’s population, research has proved
that they only take up approximately 15.6% of political seats.
It is debate able that women would make great political leaders in that they will
focus on the priorities such as family and community resources, health, education
and the eradication of poverty.
However, although women are less recognized then man in their political status,
several countries are involved in a quota system.
66. Historical Views on Males and Females
Historically, women have been viewed as inferior to
men, both in the east and in the west
Women have been sidelined in history
Auguste Comte, founding father of sociology,
believed that women were physically and mentally
inferior to men
Comte believed that women should not work outside
the home, own property, or hold political power
67. Religious Views on Males and Females
Many of the major religions of the world have characterized men
as superior to women:
Christianity
Judaism
Islam
Hinduism
Some interpretations of the religious texts of these religions has given
rise to a patriarchal ideology, the belief that men are naturally superior
and should control all important aspects of society
68. Biological Views on Males and Females
Supporters of the view that male and female attributes are biologically determined
Gender and Disease
Disease
Gender Most Affected
Heart Attack
Men more likely to suffer heart attacks and cardiovascular disease; Heart attacks are more fatal in women
Cancer
Second leading cause of death for women: lung cancer heads the list followed by breast cancer
Osteoporosis Women are primarily affected by this disease
Immunologic Diseases
Affect women much more than men: Autoimmune thyroid diseases 15:1; rheumatoid arthritis 3:1
Mental Disorders Mental illness is twice as high among women
Alzheimer’s Disease This disease is higher among women and increases greatly after age 85
Visual/Hearing Impairments
Men are 50% more likely to experience these symptoms
69. Sociological View
Sociologists view gender inequality in different ways. Some see the gender inequality basically
as stable and ongoing entity. Some sociologists see gender inequality as composed of many
groups in conflict, competing for scarce resources. Other sociologists, gender inequality is
produced and reinforced through daily interactions and the use of symbols. To still other
sociologists analyzes gender inequality through the intersection of gender, race, and class. These
four views, the ones most widely used by sociologist, are:
1. The Functionalist Perspective;
2. The Conflict Perspective;
3. The Interactionist Perspective; and
4. The Feminist Perspective.
71. Believe that that societies are more stable when certain tasks are fulfilled by the
appropriate sex.
Functionalist Perspective on Gender inequality
73. In the 1950s, Talcott Parsons advanced the idea that the nuclear family effectively
reared children to meet the labor demands of a capitalist system.
74. According to Talcott Parsons:
gender inequality is inevitable due to biological division of labor
Man :
Instrumental tasks
Goal oriented tasks
•economic support
•making decisions
Woman :
Expressive tasks
Emotional oriented tasks
•nurturing
•caregiving
“The Natural Order of the Universe”
75. Contemporary Perspective:
Traditional division of labor has dysfunctions,
especially for modern society.
Functionalist Perspective on Gender inequality
76. Consequences of Traditional Gender Role
Socialization: Female Roles
Longer life expectancy: 81.4 (women)
compared to 76.4 (men)
Stronger relationship focus
Keeping relationship on track
Bonding with children
Negative consequences for women: Positive consequences for women:
❑ Less income: Women earn about 2/3 of what
men earn.
❑ Feminization of poverty: disproportionate
percentage of those living in poverty
constituted by women living alone and with
their children
❑ Higher risk for sexually transmitted
infections for women
❑ Negative body image for women
❑ Sexism: an attitude, action, or institutional
structure that subordinates or discriminates
against individuals and groups because of
their sex
❑ Less marital satisfaction for women
77. Freedom of movement
Greater pool of potential partners
Norm of initiating a relationship
Negative consequences for men: Positive consequences for men:
Puts unnecessary burdens on men
Limited expression of emotions
Shorter life expectancy
Consequences of Traditional Gender Role
Socialization: Male Roles
78. Focus on how we learn to act the way we are
“supposed to act.”
Symbolic Interactionists emphasize how the
concept of gender is socially constructed,
maintained, and reproduced in our everyday lives.
Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Gender
Inequality
79. Power is a key variable for conflict theorists.
Believe men have historically had access to most of society’s material resources and
privileges.
Therefore, it is in their interest to try to maintain their dominant position.
It is to the advantage of men to prevent women from gaining access to political,
economic, and social resources
Suggests that men continue to dominate women because of their greater control
over economic, political and social resources
Conflict Perspective on Gender
80. By keeping the traditional division of labor intact, men can maintain the
privileges they enjoy; protect their dominance of women and society.
Conflict theorists see traditional gender roles as outdated
Women have every right to pursue non-traditional careers whether it is functional
for society or not.
A significant component of the conflict approach to gender stratification draws on
feminist theory.
Conflict Perspective on Gender
81. Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which
analyses the status of women and men in society.
Feminist Theorists and Gender Inequality
82. Feminism is a conflict theory, like Marxists,
feminists see society as being fundamentally divided but between the sexes
rather than between classes.
Feminist Theorists and Gender Inequality
83. Feminists believe that
women are unfairly treated and they
want to change society so that there is
equality between men and women.
Feminist Theorists and Gender Inequality
85. Historical Roots of feminism
The women’s movement is a social movement aimed at the achievement of sexual
equality—socially, legally, politically, and economically
These movements have been classified into ‘waves’
Emerged from three waves of feminist (political) movements.
First Wave – (1840s)-1880s-1920s: Main goal: political equality (right to vote)
Second Wave – 1960s-1990s: Main goal: social and cultural equality
Third Wave – 1990s-present: Main goal: Continuing struggle for social equality
First Wave
(1840s)-1880s-1920s
Second Wave
1960s-1990s
Third Wave
1990s-present
86. The First Wave
The first wave was the earliest period of feminist activism and
included the period from the mid-nineteenth century until
American women won the right to vote in 1920.
The campaign organized around gaining voting rights for
women was called the suffrage movement.
Heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinking
Chief goals:
❖ Women’s suffrage (right to vote),
❖ access to education,
❖ family planning
87. The Second Wave
The second wave was the period of feminist activity during the
1960s and 1970s
often associated with the issues of women’s equal access to
employment and education.
Focus on sexual liberation and freedom from sexual violence
Aimed to free women from excessive concern with beauty and
appearance
1960s concentrated on equal rights in the workplace
1961 free contraception
1970 equal pay act
88. The Third Wave
The third wave is the most recent period of feminist activity and
focuses on issues of diversity and the variety of identities that
women can possess across race/ethnicity, class, sexual
orientation
Promotes breaking down/ playing with gender categories
89. Feminist theory
Categorize feminism in 3 main perspectives:
Liberal feminism: Seeks to improve the lot of women through reform of existing
social institutions. promote antisexist attitudes and new legislation. Focuses on
equal opportunity for women and heightened public awareness of women’s rights.
Radical feminism traces the oppression of women to male-dominated societies.
Argues that equality requires the elimination of patriarchy.
Socialist (Marxist) feminism: sees capitalism as the sources of female
oppression. Argues that it is necessary to have a more socialist society, in
particular socialized means of child care
91. Based on idea that all people are created equal and should
not be denied equal opportunity based on gender
92. Liberal feminism fights for complete gender equality
through social , political and legal means.
93. Liberal Feminists see that because of CULTURE and ATTITUDES of
society, women do not always get the chance to excel in the workplace
94. If they want to stay and be successful at work they must sacrifice
time with their children.
95. Liberal Feminists try to get rid of sexism and stereotypical views of
females in children’s books and the mass media. Ex. men-doctors,
women-nurses
Figure 10.1 Page 257
103. Impacts of feminism on society
FAMILY:
Women go to work and contribute financially
Have more say in family matters
WORKPLACE:
Less sexism (nude calendars, innuendos)
Better chance of promotion
LAW:
Equal pay act
Pension age discrimination
EDUCATION:
Girls are treated more equally in schools and are out achieving boys
SOCIAL POLICY:
Maternity leave
105. Changing Gender roles
Women are now doing better in education compared to men
Bearing fewer children, and entering the labor force in greater numbers than at any other
time in history.
Women’s success in politics, education and the labour market
106. have provided role models
of strong, independent and
successful women.
This challenges the old
stereotypes of women as
housewives and mothers
107. Changing Gender Roles:
Androgyny
A blend of traits stereotypically associated with masculinity and femininity
Physiological androgyny refers to intersexed individuals.
Behavioral androgyny refers to the blending or reversal of traditional male and female
behavior,
◼ so a biological male may be gentle and nurturing, and
◼ a biological female may be assertive and decisive.
Positive Androgyny
Devoid of the negative traits of masculinity:
Aggression, hard-heartedness, indifference,
selfishness, showing off, vindictiveness
Devoid of the negative traits of femininity:
Passivity, submissive, temperamental, fragile
108. Times change
gender roles are becoming less
strict.
Women are being
accepted in roles
traditionally male dominated.
Men enjoy
things once
considered feminine,
like
caring for children.
