he bacterial family Enterobacteriaceae and fungal genus Candida have continued to be a great challenge worldwide including resistance to antibiotics and relapse of infections mediated by them. Among these organisms, Salmonella typhi, Shigella species, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli strains have emerged as the most frequent cause of diarrheal illnesses which account for an annual mortality rate of 4.6 million people worldwide and many other infections. Candida albicans has been reported as a causative agent of all types of candidiasis. In the present study, the efficacy of plants commonly used plants in Transmara west, Kenya against these microbes was investigated. An ethnobotanical survey using semi-structured questionnaire was done. Plant extracts were obtained through methanolic extraction. Antimicrobial susceptibility assay was done using Kirby Bauer disk diffusion technique. Minimum inhibitory Concentration (MIC), Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) for the bacterial test stains and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) for C. albicans were determined using microtitre broth dilution method. Phytochemical tests were done using standard procedures. The study validates the ethno-medicinal use of Pterolobium stellatum, Rhamnus prinoides, Phyllanthus urinaria, Carissa edulis, Clutia abyssinica, Clerodendrum rotundifolium, Clerodendron myricoides and Dovyalis abyssinica and recommends consideration for the use of the studied plants as possible sources of antimicrobial agents in the development of drugs for treatment of Enterobacteria and Candida related infections.
Characterization and Determination of Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Ba...asclepiuspdfs
Background: Infection due to the wound has been a major health concern worldwide. Objectives: The study was aimed to characterize and determine antibiotic susceptibility patterns of some bacteria associated with untreated wound infection among secondary school student at Kura Local Government, Kano State, Nigeria. Methodology: A total of 24 samples were collected from the subjects with untreated infected wound from July 2018 to December 2018. The wound swab samples were inoculated onto Nutrient agar, Blood agar, and MacConkey agar plates and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24 h. Each colony was re-inoculated into freshly prepared agar plates until a pure colony was obtained. Isolates were identified using Gram staining and biochemical tests. Antibiotic susceptibility test was done using agar disk diffusion method.
This document discusses a study that tested the phytochemical and antibacterial activities of Calotropis procera leaf extracts against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The study found that ethanol and cold water extracts of C. procera leaves contained phytochemicals like alkaloids and flavonoids. The ethanol extract showed the highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identified functional groups in the active extracts, including phenols, hydroxyl, carbon-hydrogen and carbonyl groups. The results suggest that C. procera leaf extracts have potential antibacterial properties for treating wound infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
This document describes a study that investigated the antibacterial and phytochemical properties of Calotropis procera leaf extracts against antibiotic-resistant bacteria isolated from hospital patients' wound samples. Extracts from C. procera leaves were tested against six bacteria species using the agar well diffusion method. The ethanol extract showed the highest antibacterial activity, inhibiting the growth of two bacterial species. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides and phenols in the extracts. The results indicate that C. procera leaf extracts have antibacterial effects and could help treat wound infections, especially against Staphyloc
This study analyzed the microbiological quality of commonly consumed ready-to-eat foods (rice, beans, yam, fufu, and meat) obtained from food vendors at Ekiti State University in Nigeria. Aerobic plate counts and fungal counts were determined for the food samples, with mean plate counts ranging from 1.0 x 102 to 6.0 x 104 CFU/g and fungal counts ranging from 1.3 x 102 to 5.2 x 104 CFU/g. Eleven species of microorganisms were isolated including Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Aspergillus spp. Bacillus cereus was the most frequently isolated organism
The present study was undertaken to investigate
microbiological quality of ready-to-eat street vended aloo-tikki
sold in Allahabad, city of Uttar Pradesh, India. A total of 36
samples were collected from 12 major areas which represented
whole city. All samples were collected from the vendors in
sterilized polythene bags and analyzed within an hour of
procurement. Bacterial pathogens were identified by standard
bacteriological techniques. Microbiological enumeration of ready
to eat street-vended aloo-tikki, revealed a standard plate count
ranging from 103.4-247.3×10-4 cfu/gm, and yeast and mould
ranging between 89-168.2×10-4 cfu/gm. The presumptive coliform
test was found to be 86.1% positive. Prominent bacterial
pathogens isolated were Styphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Bacillus sp., and Salmonella sp. The presence of such
microorganisms indicates poor handling practices, cross
contamination and aerial contamination which becomes reason
and sometimes important source of food borne illness to humans.
Disease management system that in the context of associated environment and population dynamics of microorganisms, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in a manner as compatible as possible and maintains the disease below economic level”.
Title
Introduction
Objectives
Justification
Methodology
Results and Discussion
Conclusion
References
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
The document analyzes 142 samples of two brands of intravenous fluids (IVFs) marketed in Nigeria for fungal contamination. Sixty percent of samples were contaminated, with fungal counts ranging from 1600 CFU/ml in visibly defective samples to 50 CFU/ml in visibly normal samples. Fourteen fungal species from ten genera were isolated. The presence of pathogenic fungi in visibly normal samples before expiry, coupled with pH and osmolarity levels below safe thresholds, renders the IVFs potentially hazardous to health. Contaminated IVFs can cause infections, especially candidiasis, in vulnerable patients like neonates and those with central venous catheters.
The document summarizes a study on the antibacterial properties of four medicinal plants: Ocimum sanctum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Xanthoxylum armatum, and Origanum majorana. Ethanol extracts of the plants were tested against 10 bacterial strains using agar well diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The extracts showed greater activity against gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria. Xanthoxylum armatum demonstrated the largest zone of inhibition against Bacillus subtilis. Origanum majorana exhibited the strongest overall antibacterial activity. The minimum bactericidal concentration was lowest for Origanum majorana at 2.5 mg/ml. The results suggest these
Characterization and Determination of Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Ba...asclepiuspdfs
Background: Infection due to the wound has been a major health concern worldwide. Objectives: The study was aimed to characterize and determine antibiotic susceptibility patterns of some bacteria associated with untreated wound infection among secondary school student at Kura Local Government, Kano State, Nigeria. Methodology: A total of 24 samples were collected from the subjects with untreated infected wound from July 2018 to December 2018. The wound swab samples were inoculated onto Nutrient agar, Blood agar, and MacConkey agar plates and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24 h. Each colony was re-inoculated into freshly prepared agar plates until a pure colony was obtained. Isolates were identified using Gram staining and biochemical tests. Antibiotic susceptibility test was done using agar disk diffusion method.
This document discusses a study that tested the phytochemical and antibacterial activities of Calotropis procera leaf extracts against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The study found that ethanol and cold water extracts of C. procera leaves contained phytochemicals like alkaloids and flavonoids. The ethanol extract showed the highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identified functional groups in the active extracts, including phenols, hydroxyl, carbon-hydrogen and carbonyl groups. The results suggest that C. procera leaf extracts have potential antibacterial properties for treating wound infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
This document describes a study that investigated the antibacterial and phytochemical properties of Calotropis procera leaf extracts against antibiotic-resistant bacteria isolated from hospital patients' wound samples. Extracts from C. procera leaves were tested against six bacteria species using the agar well diffusion method. The ethanol extract showed the highest antibacterial activity, inhibiting the growth of two bacterial species. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides and phenols in the extracts. The results indicate that C. procera leaf extracts have antibacterial effects and could help treat wound infections, especially against Staphyloc
This study analyzed the microbiological quality of commonly consumed ready-to-eat foods (rice, beans, yam, fufu, and meat) obtained from food vendors at Ekiti State University in Nigeria. Aerobic plate counts and fungal counts were determined for the food samples, with mean plate counts ranging from 1.0 x 102 to 6.0 x 104 CFU/g and fungal counts ranging from 1.3 x 102 to 5.2 x 104 CFU/g. Eleven species of microorganisms were isolated including Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Aspergillus spp. Bacillus cereus was the most frequently isolated organism
The present study was undertaken to investigate
microbiological quality of ready-to-eat street vended aloo-tikki
sold in Allahabad, city of Uttar Pradesh, India. A total of 36
samples were collected from 12 major areas which represented
whole city. All samples were collected from the vendors in
sterilized polythene bags and analyzed within an hour of
procurement. Bacterial pathogens were identified by standard
bacteriological techniques. Microbiological enumeration of ready
to eat street-vended aloo-tikki, revealed a standard plate count
ranging from 103.4-247.3×10-4 cfu/gm, and yeast and mould
ranging between 89-168.2×10-4 cfu/gm. The presumptive coliform
test was found to be 86.1% positive. Prominent bacterial
pathogens isolated were Styphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Bacillus sp., and Salmonella sp. The presence of such
microorganisms indicates poor handling practices, cross
contamination and aerial contamination which becomes reason
and sometimes important source of food borne illness to humans.
Disease management system that in the context of associated environment and population dynamics of microorganisms, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in a manner as compatible as possible and maintains the disease below economic level”.
Title
Introduction
Objectives
Justification
Methodology
Results and Discussion
Conclusion
References
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
The document analyzes 142 samples of two brands of intravenous fluids (IVFs) marketed in Nigeria for fungal contamination. Sixty percent of samples were contaminated, with fungal counts ranging from 1600 CFU/ml in visibly defective samples to 50 CFU/ml in visibly normal samples. Fourteen fungal species from ten genera were isolated. The presence of pathogenic fungi in visibly normal samples before expiry, coupled with pH and osmolarity levels below safe thresholds, renders the IVFs potentially hazardous to health. Contaminated IVFs can cause infections, especially candidiasis, in vulnerable patients like neonates and those with central venous catheters.
The document summarizes a study on the antibacterial properties of four medicinal plants: Ocimum sanctum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Xanthoxylum armatum, and Origanum majorana. Ethanol extracts of the plants were tested against 10 bacterial strains using agar well diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The extracts showed greater activity against gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria. Xanthoxylum armatum demonstrated the largest zone of inhibition against Bacillus subtilis. Origanum majorana exhibited the strongest overall antibacterial activity. The minimum bactericidal concentration was lowest for Origanum majorana at 2.5 mg/ml. The results suggest these
Vegetable drugs used by traditional and indigenous communities to treat intes...Jefferson Lemos
Ethinobotanical studies are extremely important for the expansion and preservation of popular medicinal knowledge and the botanical species used for this purpose. In Brazil, the use of plants to treat parasitic diseases is very common in poor communities lacking basic sanitation. The objective of this work was to research botanical species used to treat worms, to identify the botanical families and plant structures most used by traditional and indigenous brazilian communities. For this, we conducted a literature review on the theme in brazilian scientific articles databases. Our results showed a greater representation of the Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae and Anacardiaceae families, as well as that the barks and leaves are the most used structures. The results found serve as support for other studies in pharmacobotany and ethnopharmacology.
This research article studied the bacterial population in the intensive care unit of Thanjavur Medical College Hospital in Tamil Nadu, India. A total of five bacterial species were isolated from samples collected in the ICU, including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Serratia marcescens. All isolated bacteria were tested for sensitivity to three common antibiotics - ciprofloxacin, penicillin G, and streptomycin. Most organisms were found to be sensitive to all three antibiotics tested. The identification of bacterial species and testing of antibiotic sensitivity can help inform appropriate treatment of infections in the ICU.
This document contains summaries of multiple studies related to fungi and plant pathogens. The first study characterized 11 isolates of Trichoderma virens using morphological and molecular techniques, finding a good correlation between the identification methods. The second studied the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical composition of Albiziaamara leaf extracts against bacteria and fungi. The chloroform extract showed the highest activity. A third study evaluated the compatibility of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi with various pesticides, finding several insecticides and fungicides that were most compatible.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
This study evaluated the efficacy of combination therapy using extracts of Annona senegalensis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in treating T. b. brucei infected mice. A combination of extracts from the two plants in a 1:1 ratio cleared parasites from the blood of one mouse within 2 weeks and the mouse survived over 3 months without parasites. Histopathological examination of organs from the surviving mouse showed damage to the liver and kidneys. The study concludes that the combination of extracts has potential for developing drug combinations to overcome parasite resistance, though it caused long-term organ damage.
Invasive Alien Plants: Valuable Elixir with Pharmacological and Ethnomedicina...ijtsrd
Use of herbal medicines is propagating day-by-day and several tribes still rely upon this green treasure against their ailments. Being unfortunate to the environment, invasive plants species hold supreme remedies that are unique. Besides ethnoremedial uses they embrace anticancerous, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antitubercular and other pharmacological attributes in them. In the present review, authors aimed to compile the segregated ethnomedicinal information of invasive plant species. The literature study revealed a significant ethnoremedial importance of invasive alien weeds that may serve to establish a ground for future researchers to explore in pharmacognostic field with safe and natural drug resource. Shaiphali Saxena | P. B. Rao"Invasive Alien Plants: Valuable Elixir with Pharmacological and Ethnomedicinal Attributes" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11636.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/pharmacognosy-/11636/invasive-alien-plants-valuable-elixir-with-pharmacological-and-ethnomedicinal-attributes/shaiphali-saxena
This study evaluated endophytic bacteria from Pinus taeda L. as potential biocontrol agents of Fusarium circinatum, the causal agent of pitch canker disease affecting pine seedlings. Five bacterial strains - four Bacillus subtilis and one Burkholderia sp. isolated from healthy pine tissue - were tested against F. circinatum in dual culture experiments. All bacteria inhibited the fungal pathogen, arresting mycelial growth within 1 cm. Thermostable metabolites from the bacterial cultures also significantly reduced fungal growth over 50% when added to media. These endophytic bacteria adapted to pine tissues showed potential as biocontrol agents to control the pitch canker fungus in nurseries and prevent disease spread.
Invitro and Invivo antibacterial study of leaf extracts of Euphorbia heteroph...Premier Publishers
A study was carried out to determine the phytochemical components and antibacterial activity of Euphorbia heterophylla crude extracts on four enteric organisms namely; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. The clinical isolates of Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test using agar diffusion technique. Phytochemistry of the Euphorbia heterophylla, crude extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins and cardiac glycosides. Methanolic and aqueous crude extract produced clear zones of inhibition at concentration ranging from 50 to 200mg/ml. In vivo antimicrobial assay revealed that the mice treated with the crude methanolic and aqueous extracts after being infected with the various test organisms, survived and showed minute pathological effects. Similarly, untreated mice (control) died after 48hours of inoculation with Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris. Euphorbia heterophylla crude extract, most especially its methanolic and aqueous counterpart could be a potential source for the treatment of diseases associated with enteric organisms. Further studies should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compound in the crude extracts.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SOIL BORNE and AERIAL PATHOGENS OF CROP PLANTSHARISH J
This document discusses biological control of plant pathogens through antagonistic microorganisms. It begins by defining biological control and listing some common biocontrol agents like Trichoderma, Penicillium, and Bacillus. It then explains the various mechanisms biocontrol agents use, including antibiosis, siderophore production, induced systemic resistance, competition, and parasitism. The document provides examples of soilborne and aerial plant pathogens and their corresponding diseases. It concludes by stating that while commercial use of biocontrol agents is currently limited, their use is expected to increase as farming communities become more comfortable with their efficiency and safety compared to chemicals.
The document discusses the antimicrobial properties of Acacia nilotica plant extracts. It summarizes that phytochemical analysis confirmed the presence of various phytochemicals in A. nilotica like saponins, terpenoids, steroids, anthocyanins, coumarins and tannins. Extracts of A. nilotica showed potential antimicrobial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as the fungus Aspergillus niger, suggesting its extracts possess antimicrobial properties and could lead to isolation of novel compounds with healthcare applications.
This document discusses various types of bio-medical waste, their effects, and proper management. It outlines 5 main types of bio-medical waste (A-E) based on their risk level and appropriate disposal method. Type A waste does not require special treatment, while Types B-D pose increasing infection risks and must be disposed of carefully. Type E includes hazardous chemicals. The document also discusses the health hazards of improper sharps disposal, medical waste incineration, plastic and mercury use in healthcare, and glutaraldehyde/Cidex and radioactive waste. Key impacts include infection, toxic emissions, and accumulation of heavy metals in the environment and food chain. Proper segregation, treatment and disposal of each waste type is
Analysis of used disinfectants and antiseptics correlated with the occurrence...iosrphr_editor
This document analyzes the use of disinfectants and antiseptics at a clinical hospital in Macedonia from 2007-2011 and how it correlates with nosocomial infections. It finds that the most commonly used liquid disinfectants were Betadine 10% and ethanol, while the most common solid disinfectants were formaldehyde tablets and Medicarine Nat tablets. The gynecology department predominantly used Betadine 10%. The study aims to establish a connection between disinfectant use and nosocomial infection rates to help guide prevention efforts.
Integrated disease management in organic
farming combines the use of various measures. The
usefulness of certain measures depends on the specific
crop-pathogen combination. In many crops,
preventative measures can control diseases without
the need of plant protection products. However, for
certain disease problems, preventative measures are
not sufficient. For example, organic apple production
strongly depends on the multiple use plant protection
products
This review article summarizes biocontrol strategies for managing Colletotrichum species that cause anthracnose disease in postharvest fruits. It discusses strategies using bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeasts to control three main Colletotrichum clades: C. acutatum, C. gloeosporioides, and C. truncatum. The most effective bacterial biocontrol agents for C. acutatum were Bacillus subtilis, Paenibacillus polymyxa, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. Filamentous fungi like Cryptococcus laurentii and Aureobasidium pullulans showed promise for controlling multiple Colletotrichum species. Several
Plant pathology is the scientific study of plant diseases caused by pathogens and environmental conditions. It involves the identification of pathogens, studying disease cycles and economics impacts, and managing plant diseases. Some key methods of managing plant diseases include prevention through quarantines and sanitation, treatment using pesticides and chemotherapy, and promoting resistance through developing disease-resistant plant varieties. The overall goal is to reduce economic and aesthetic damage from plant diseases using integrated approaches rather than single severe control measures.
This document provides information on performing risk assessments for various types of biosafety work. It discusses risk assessments for microbiological work, animal biosafety, genetically modified plants, and genetically modified organisms. For each type of risk assessment, it identifies key factors to consider such as pathogenicity, routes of infection, survival in the environment, and availability of treatments. It emphasizes that risk assessments should be performed by those most familiar with the specific organisms, equipment, and facilities being used.
The document discusses the emergence of antimicrobial resistance due to the introduction and use of antimicrobials in humans and animals. It states that while antimicrobial resistance genes have existed naturally for thousands of years, the widespread use of antimicrobials has applied strong selective pressure that has led to growing antimicrobial resistance among human and animal pathogens. It also describes some of the associations seen between antimicrobial use and the emergence of resistance in various settings and bacterial species.
Identification of Ralstonia Solanacearum in Kyrgyzstan’s Potato Fields and th...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— In this study, we have used well-known, efficient methods and bioassay for systematic screening of R. solanacearum for identification of its phenotype and biochemical profile, as well as for pathogenicity and virulence. As a result, an aggressive race — Biovar 3 — was most isolated from the potato fields of the Issyk-Kul region, especially in fields where the Picasso variety was grown. The isolated indigenous strains of Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3 has the potential to be used as a biocontrol agent for the management of the bacterial wilt of potatoes, as indicated by the reduced percentage wilt incidence. Root zone and soil application of Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3 at a dose of 108 cell/ml significantly reduced disease incidence and increased the growth of potato plants. The disease’s progress was reduced by 60% and 56% in plants inoculated with Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3, respectively.
This document summarizes a study on Acinetobacter species isolated from clinical samples at a tertiary care hospital in Odisha, India. The study found that of 8,749 clinical samples tested, 137 (3%) yielded Acinetobacter species. Most isolates were from pus/swab samples (56.9%) and blood (13.1%). Risk factors for infection included older age, hospitalization, longer stays, comorbidities, and invasive procedures. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant (54.7%) or pan-drug resistant (5.8%), showing high resistance to many antibiotics. However, isolates remained sensitive to imipenem, meropenem, piperacillin/tazobact
In-vivo anthelmintic evaluation of a processed herbal drug from Entada leptos...IOSR Journals
The document describes an in vivo study that evaluated the anthelmintic activity of a processed herbal drug from Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep. The herbal drug showed maximum egg count reduction of 80.95% at a dose of 250 mg/kg body weight on day 11 post-treatment. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of compounds including alkaloids, steroids, phenolic compounds, tannins and flavonoids that may contribute to the anthelmintic effects. The study suggests the herbal drug has comparable anthelmintic activity to the conventional drug levamisole and could be used as an alternative de
This study analyzed 8,749 clinical samples collected from July 2010 to December 2012 at a tertiary hospital in Odisha, India. Of these, 137 samples (3%) yielded Acinetobacter species. Most isolates were from pus/swabs (56.9%), blood (13.1%), and urine (12.4%). Risk factors for Acinetobacter infection included older age, hospitalization, longer hospital stays, comorbidities, and invasive procedures. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant (54.7% resistant to >3 antibiotic classes) or pan-drug resistant (5.8% resistant to all antibiotics tested). Isolates were most sensitive to imipenem, meropenem, and pip
In vitro phytochemical, antibacterial and antifungal activities of leaves, st...PCSIR
This study investigated the phytochemical and antimicrobial activities of extracts from the leaves, stems, and roots of Adiantum capillus veneris. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and other compounds. Water, methanol, and ethanol extracts showed significant antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacterial strains isolated from clinical samples, as well as antifungal activity against medically important fungi. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identified compounds such as aldehydes, amides, alcohols, and carboxylic acids in the extracts. This research concluded that A. capillus veneris extracts have valuable phytochemicals and significant
Vegetable drugs used by traditional and indigenous communities to treat intes...Jefferson Lemos
Ethinobotanical studies are extremely important for the expansion and preservation of popular medicinal knowledge and the botanical species used for this purpose. In Brazil, the use of plants to treat parasitic diseases is very common in poor communities lacking basic sanitation. The objective of this work was to research botanical species used to treat worms, to identify the botanical families and plant structures most used by traditional and indigenous brazilian communities. For this, we conducted a literature review on the theme in brazilian scientific articles databases. Our results showed a greater representation of the Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae and Anacardiaceae families, as well as that the barks and leaves are the most used structures. The results found serve as support for other studies in pharmacobotany and ethnopharmacology.
This research article studied the bacterial population in the intensive care unit of Thanjavur Medical College Hospital in Tamil Nadu, India. A total of five bacterial species were isolated from samples collected in the ICU, including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Serratia marcescens. All isolated bacteria were tested for sensitivity to three common antibiotics - ciprofloxacin, penicillin G, and streptomycin. Most organisms were found to be sensitive to all three antibiotics tested. The identification of bacterial species and testing of antibiotic sensitivity can help inform appropriate treatment of infections in the ICU.
This document contains summaries of multiple studies related to fungi and plant pathogens. The first study characterized 11 isolates of Trichoderma virens using morphological and molecular techniques, finding a good correlation between the identification methods. The second studied the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical composition of Albiziaamara leaf extracts against bacteria and fungi. The chloroform extract showed the highest activity. A third study evaluated the compatibility of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi with various pesticides, finding several insecticides and fungicides that were most compatible.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
This study evaluated the efficacy of combination therapy using extracts of Annona senegalensis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in treating T. b. brucei infected mice. A combination of extracts from the two plants in a 1:1 ratio cleared parasites from the blood of one mouse within 2 weeks and the mouse survived over 3 months without parasites. Histopathological examination of organs from the surviving mouse showed damage to the liver and kidneys. The study concludes that the combination of extracts has potential for developing drug combinations to overcome parasite resistance, though it caused long-term organ damage.
Invasive Alien Plants: Valuable Elixir with Pharmacological and Ethnomedicina...ijtsrd
Use of herbal medicines is propagating day-by-day and several tribes still rely upon this green treasure against their ailments. Being unfortunate to the environment, invasive plants species hold supreme remedies that are unique. Besides ethnoremedial uses they embrace anticancerous, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antitubercular and other pharmacological attributes in them. In the present review, authors aimed to compile the segregated ethnomedicinal information of invasive plant species. The literature study revealed a significant ethnoremedial importance of invasive alien weeds that may serve to establish a ground for future researchers to explore in pharmacognostic field with safe and natural drug resource. Shaiphali Saxena | P. B. Rao"Invasive Alien Plants: Valuable Elixir with Pharmacological and Ethnomedicinal Attributes" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11636.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/pharmacognosy-/11636/invasive-alien-plants-valuable-elixir-with-pharmacological-and-ethnomedicinal-attributes/shaiphali-saxena
This study evaluated endophytic bacteria from Pinus taeda L. as potential biocontrol agents of Fusarium circinatum, the causal agent of pitch canker disease affecting pine seedlings. Five bacterial strains - four Bacillus subtilis and one Burkholderia sp. isolated from healthy pine tissue - were tested against F. circinatum in dual culture experiments. All bacteria inhibited the fungal pathogen, arresting mycelial growth within 1 cm. Thermostable metabolites from the bacterial cultures also significantly reduced fungal growth over 50% when added to media. These endophytic bacteria adapted to pine tissues showed potential as biocontrol agents to control the pitch canker fungus in nurseries and prevent disease spread.
Invitro and Invivo antibacterial study of leaf extracts of Euphorbia heteroph...Premier Publishers
A study was carried out to determine the phytochemical components and antibacterial activity of Euphorbia heterophylla crude extracts on four enteric organisms namely; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. The clinical isolates of Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test using agar diffusion technique. Phytochemistry of the Euphorbia heterophylla, crude extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins and cardiac glycosides. Methanolic and aqueous crude extract produced clear zones of inhibition at concentration ranging from 50 to 200mg/ml. In vivo antimicrobial assay revealed that the mice treated with the crude methanolic and aqueous extracts after being infected with the various test organisms, survived and showed minute pathological effects. Similarly, untreated mice (control) died after 48hours of inoculation with Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris. Euphorbia heterophylla crude extract, most especially its methanolic and aqueous counterpart could be a potential source for the treatment of diseases associated with enteric organisms. Further studies should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compound in the crude extracts.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SOIL BORNE and AERIAL PATHOGENS OF CROP PLANTSHARISH J
This document discusses biological control of plant pathogens through antagonistic microorganisms. It begins by defining biological control and listing some common biocontrol agents like Trichoderma, Penicillium, and Bacillus. It then explains the various mechanisms biocontrol agents use, including antibiosis, siderophore production, induced systemic resistance, competition, and parasitism. The document provides examples of soilborne and aerial plant pathogens and their corresponding diseases. It concludes by stating that while commercial use of biocontrol agents is currently limited, their use is expected to increase as farming communities become more comfortable with their efficiency and safety compared to chemicals.
The document discusses the antimicrobial properties of Acacia nilotica plant extracts. It summarizes that phytochemical analysis confirmed the presence of various phytochemicals in A. nilotica like saponins, terpenoids, steroids, anthocyanins, coumarins and tannins. Extracts of A. nilotica showed potential antimicrobial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as the fungus Aspergillus niger, suggesting its extracts possess antimicrobial properties and could lead to isolation of novel compounds with healthcare applications.
This document discusses various types of bio-medical waste, their effects, and proper management. It outlines 5 main types of bio-medical waste (A-E) based on their risk level and appropriate disposal method. Type A waste does not require special treatment, while Types B-D pose increasing infection risks and must be disposed of carefully. Type E includes hazardous chemicals. The document also discusses the health hazards of improper sharps disposal, medical waste incineration, plastic and mercury use in healthcare, and glutaraldehyde/Cidex and radioactive waste. Key impacts include infection, toxic emissions, and accumulation of heavy metals in the environment and food chain. Proper segregation, treatment and disposal of each waste type is
Analysis of used disinfectants and antiseptics correlated with the occurrence...iosrphr_editor
This document analyzes the use of disinfectants and antiseptics at a clinical hospital in Macedonia from 2007-2011 and how it correlates with nosocomial infections. It finds that the most commonly used liquid disinfectants were Betadine 10% and ethanol, while the most common solid disinfectants were formaldehyde tablets and Medicarine Nat tablets. The gynecology department predominantly used Betadine 10%. The study aims to establish a connection between disinfectant use and nosocomial infection rates to help guide prevention efforts.
Integrated disease management in organic
farming combines the use of various measures. The
usefulness of certain measures depends on the specific
crop-pathogen combination. In many crops,
preventative measures can control diseases without
the need of plant protection products. However, for
certain disease problems, preventative measures are
not sufficient. For example, organic apple production
strongly depends on the multiple use plant protection
products
This review article summarizes biocontrol strategies for managing Colletotrichum species that cause anthracnose disease in postharvest fruits. It discusses strategies using bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeasts to control three main Colletotrichum clades: C. acutatum, C. gloeosporioides, and C. truncatum. The most effective bacterial biocontrol agents for C. acutatum were Bacillus subtilis, Paenibacillus polymyxa, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. Filamentous fungi like Cryptococcus laurentii and Aureobasidium pullulans showed promise for controlling multiple Colletotrichum species. Several
Plant pathology is the scientific study of plant diseases caused by pathogens and environmental conditions. It involves the identification of pathogens, studying disease cycles and economics impacts, and managing plant diseases. Some key methods of managing plant diseases include prevention through quarantines and sanitation, treatment using pesticides and chemotherapy, and promoting resistance through developing disease-resistant plant varieties. The overall goal is to reduce economic and aesthetic damage from plant diseases using integrated approaches rather than single severe control measures.
This document provides information on performing risk assessments for various types of biosafety work. It discusses risk assessments for microbiological work, animal biosafety, genetically modified plants, and genetically modified organisms. For each type of risk assessment, it identifies key factors to consider such as pathogenicity, routes of infection, survival in the environment, and availability of treatments. It emphasizes that risk assessments should be performed by those most familiar with the specific organisms, equipment, and facilities being used.
The document discusses the emergence of antimicrobial resistance due to the introduction and use of antimicrobials in humans and animals. It states that while antimicrobial resistance genes have existed naturally for thousands of years, the widespread use of antimicrobials has applied strong selective pressure that has led to growing antimicrobial resistance among human and animal pathogens. It also describes some of the associations seen between antimicrobial use and the emergence of resistance in various settings and bacterial species.
Identification of Ralstonia Solanacearum in Kyrgyzstan’s Potato Fields and th...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— In this study, we have used well-known, efficient methods and bioassay for systematic screening of R. solanacearum for identification of its phenotype and biochemical profile, as well as for pathogenicity and virulence. As a result, an aggressive race — Biovar 3 — was most isolated from the potato fields of the Issyk-Kul region, especially in fields where the Picasso variety was grown. The isolated indigenous strains of Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3 has the potential to be used as a biocontrol agent for the management of the bacterial wilt of potatoes, as indicated by the reduced percentage wilt incidence. Root zone and soil application of Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3 at a dose of 108 cell/ml significantly reduced disease incidence and increased the growth of potato plants. The disease’s progress was reduced by 60% and 56% in plants inoculated with Streptomyces diastatochromogenesstrain sk-6 and Streptomyces bambergiensis strain k1-3, respectively.
This document summarizes a study on Acinetobacter species isolated from clinical samples at a tertiary care hospital in Odisha, India. The study found that of 8,749 clinical samples tested, 137 (3%) yielded Acinetobacter species. Most isolates were from pus/swab samples (56.9%) and blood (13.1%). Risk factors for infection included older age, hospitalization, longer stays, comorbidities, and invasive procedures. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant (54.7%) or pan-drug resistant (5.8%), showing high resistance to many antibiotics. However, isolates remained sensitive to imipenem, meropenem, piperacillin/tazobact
In-vivo anthelmintic evaluation of a processed herbal drug from Entada leptos...IOSR Journals
The document describes an in vivo study that evaluated the anthelmintic activity of a processed herbal drug from Entada leptostachya and Prosopis juliflora against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep. The herbal drug showed maximum egg count reduction of 80.95% at a dose of 250 mg/kg body weight on day 11 post-treatment. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of compounds including alkaloids, steroids, phenolic compounds, tannins and flavonoids that may contribute to the anthelmintic effects. The study suggests the herbal drug has comparable anthelmintic activity to the conventional drug levamisole and could be used as an alternative de
This study analyzed 8,749 clinical samples collected from July 2010 to December 2012 at a tertiary hospital in Odisha, India. Of these, 137 samples (3%) yielded Acinetobacter species. Most isolates were from pus/swabs (56.9%), blood (13.1%), and urine (12.4%). Risk factors for Acinetobacter infection included older age, hospitalization, longer hospital stays, comorbidities, and invasive procedures. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant (54.7% resistant to >3 antibiotic classes) or pan-drug resistant (5.8% resistant to all antibiotics tested). Isolates were most sensitive to imipenem, meropenem, and pip
In vitro phytochemical, antibacterial and antifungal activities of leaves, st...PCSIR
This study investigated the phytochemical and antimicrobial activities of extracts from the leaves, stems, and roots of Adiantum capillus veneris. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and other compounds. Water, methanol, and ethanol extracts showed significant antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacterial strains isolated from clinical samples, as well as antifungal activity against medically important fungi. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identified compounds such as aldehydes, amides, alcohols, and carboxylic acids in the extracts. This research concluded that A. capillus veneris extracts have valuable phytochemicals and significant
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI)inventionjournals
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the antibacterial properties of extracts from the leaves of two Viburnum species (Viburnum nervosum and Viburnum foetens) that grow in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The leaves were extracted using different solvents and tested against 8 bacterial pathogens using the disc diffusion method. The ethanol and methanol extracts showed the highest antibacterial activity, with zones of inhibition ranging from 10 to 30 mm. The chloroform extracts had moderate activity, while the petroleum ether extracts showed little to no effect. Overall, the results indicate that extracts from these Viburnum species have antibacterial properties and warrant further investigation.
Evaluation of the Antibacterial Activities of Crude Extracts of Cochlospermum...iosrjce
The antibacterial activities of the methanolic, hot water, chloroform and petroleum ether extracts of
Choclospermum planchonii leaf were tested against some clinical bacterial isolates and reference organisms.
The phytochemical screenings of the extracts were also carried out. The leaf extracts of the plant exhibited
antibacterial activities against clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella typhii and reference strains of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 28923),
Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853. The methanolic leaf extracts
exhibited the highest antibacterial activity, its minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging between 0.31
and 1.25 mg/ml; and its zones of inhibition on the various test microorganisms ranging between 8mm and 13
mm. The petroleum ether extracts had the weakest antibacterial activity, its minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) ranging between 2.50mg/ml and 5.00mg/ml and its inhibition zone ranging between 4mm and 8mm. The
phytochemical constituents present in the plant were alkaloids, tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, and
sterols. The methanolic extracts of the leaf exhibited potentially biological activity than other extracts. This
indicates that the plant leaf could be useful in the treatment of human infections caused by these pathogens. The
antibacterial activities of the methanolic leaf extract may be attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds.
Antimicrobial Susceptibility, Biochemical Characterization and Molecular Typi...wilhelm mendel
Pathogenic isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), particularly the extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing strains, are mostly associated with the failure of antibiotic therapy in nosocomial infections. The present work was designed to evaluate the impact of Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment on phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of K. pneumoniae. The strain of K. pneumoniae bearing ATCC 15380 (American Type Culture Collection) was procured from the Bangalore Genei, in sealed pack and divided into control and treated groups. Treated group was subjected to Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment and analyzed for the antimicrobial susceptibility, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), biochemical reactions, and biotyping using automated MicroScan Walk-Away® system. Further, the effect of biofield treatment was also evaluated using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) in order to determine their epidemiological relatedness and genetic characteristics of biofield treated K. pneumoniae samples. The antimicrobial susceptibility results showed an improve sensitivity (i.e. from intermediate to susceptible) of ampicillin/sulbactam and chloramphenicol, while altered sensitivity of cephalothin (i.e. from susceptible to intermediate) was also reported as compared to the control sample. The MIC value showed two-fold decrease in MIC value of ampicillin/sulbactam (i.e. 16/8 to ≤8/4 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (i.e. 16 to ≤ 8 μg/mL) as compared to the control. The cephalothin showed two-folds change (i.e. ≤ 8 to 16 μg/mL) in the MIC value as compared with the control. Biofield treatment showed 9.09% alterations in biochemical reactions followed by a change in biotype number (7774 4272) in the treated group with respect to the control (7774 4274). Genetic fingerprinting was performed on control and treated samples using RAPD-PCR biomarkers, which showed an average range of 11 to 15% of polymorphism among the treated samples with respect to the control. These results suggested that Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment has a significant impact on K. pneumoniae.
Antimicrobial Susceptibility, Biochemical Characterization and Molecular Typi...rachelsalk
Pathogenic isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), particularly the extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing strains, are mostly associated with the failure of antibiotic therapy in nosocomial infections. The present work was designed to evaluate the impact of Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment on phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of K. pneumoniae. The strain of K. pneumoniae bearing ATCC 15380 (American Type Culture Collection) was procured from the Bangalore Genei, in sealed pack and divided into control and treated groups. Treated group was subjected to Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment and analyzed for the antimicrobial susceptibility, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), biochemical reactions, and biotyping using automated MicroScan Walk-Away® system. Further, the effect of biofield treatment was also evaluated using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) in order to determine their epidemiological relatedness and genetic characteristics of biofield treated K. pneumoniae samples. The antimicrobial susceptibility results showed an improve sensitivity (i.e. from intermediate to susceptible) of ampicillin/sulbactam and chloramphenicol, while altered sensitivity of cephalothin (i.e. from susceptible to intermediate) was also reported as compared to the control sample. The MIC value showed two-fold decrease in MIC value of ampicillin/sulbactam (i.e. 16/8 to ≤8/4 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (i.e. 16 to ≤ 8 μg/mL) as compared to the control. The cephalothin showed two-folds change (i.e. ≤ 8 to 16 μg/mL) in the MIC value as compared with the control. Biofield treatment showed 9.09% alterations in biochemical reactions followed by a change in biotype number (7774 4272) in the treated group with respect to the control (7774 4274). Genetic fingerprinting was performed on control and treated samples using RAPD-PCR biomarkers, which showed an average range of 11 to 15% of polymorphism among the treated samples with respect to the control. These results suggested that Mr. Trivedi’s biofield energy treatment has a significant impact on K. pneumoniae.
A Study on Evaluation and Effectiveness of Herbal Hand Sanitizer and its Anti...ijtsrd
An ever increasing number of customers might want Good hygiene is a minister to health, comfort, and social interactions. Current society is well aware of hygiene. Washing hands is one of the simplest, most effective ways to get rid of germs and avoid infection. Transient microorganisms can be of any type, from any source may contact the body. As hands carry out the majority of functions of the humans body and are exposed to a variety of substances, hands hygiene plays a chief conscientiousness. Herbal plants are the unique resources of every country with potent medicinal properties pave ways towards sustainable health. In this present study, the combination of Trachyspermum copticum, Coleus aromaticus, Acorus calamus, Mentha piperita, Piper nigram, Elatteria cardamomum and Aloe barbadensis were used to formulate herbal hand sanitizer. The hand wash samples were subjected to microbial analysis. The isolated strains (Yersinia, Proteus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Salmonella, and Pseudomonas) were characterized by their cultural characterization and confirmed using selective media. Herbal sanitizer possesses vitamin C (.4%), vitamin A (0.062) and considerable microbial load. The antioxidant activity was found to be 49% and the susceptibility test showed more activity found in Yersinia sp. > Proteus sp > Salmonella sp. > Klebseilla sp. > Pseudomonas sp. > E.coli. Dr. R. Kalaivani | Ms. S. V. Bakiyalakshmi | P. Arulmozhi"A Study on Evaluation and Effectiveness of Herbal Hand Sanitizer and its Anti Bacterial Activity" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd12922.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/biotechnology-/12922/a-study-on-evaluation-and-effectiveness-of-herbal-hand-sanitizer-and-its-anti-bacterial-activity/dr-r-kalaivani
Terminalia avicennioides is an important medicinal plant used to manage many pathological
conditions among most inhabitants of rural communities in Nigeria and many other African countries. It
belongs to family Combretaceae and found commonly growing in the savannah region of West Africa. The
parts of the plant mostly used for medicinal purpose are root and stem barks extracts, which are rich sources
of phytochemicals such as anthraquinone, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenes among others. In folk
medicine, there are claims that the plant has been used to cure various diseases such as dental caries, skin
infections, sore and ulcer, syphilis, bloody sputum, ringworm infection, gastrointestinal helminthes and several
others. In this review, we have tried to provide bases for most of these claims at the instance of the results of
modern investigations on the biological activities of the plant extract. The possibility of employing the plant
extract in the field of green chemistry for probable application in biomedical industries was also discussed.
Keywords: Terminalia avicennioides, uses, phytochemicals, biological activities, nanoparticles
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS PLANTS EXTRACTSsin74
The document summarizes a study on the antimicrobial activity of various plant extracts against common pathogenic microorganisms. The study tested aqueous extracts of myrtle, harmal, henna, thyme, and fenugreek against bacteria (Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, E. coli, Proteus, Staphylococcus) and the yeast Candida. The myrtle extract showed the strongest inhibition of all microbes at 5% concentration. The harmal extract inhibited bacteria at 10% concentration except Candida which was inhibited at 20%. The henna extract inhibited bacteria at 20% except Candida was resistant. Thyme only inhibited 2 bacteria at 20% while others were resistant. Fen
Multidrug resistant microorganisms are globally becoming a major confrontment because of illogical use of antibiotics and this played a good role in investigation about the antibacterial compounds in plants. Thus, the present study investigate for the antibacterial effect of alcoholic extracts of Curcuma longa L. rhizomes , CommiphoramyrrhaL. gums and Ginkgo biloba L. leaves products against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The plants samples extracted by soxhlet with methanol and fractionation with and four solution ( chloroform, hexane, water and ethyl acetate) were used for investigation about antibacterial activity by disc diffusion method. The results showed that methanolic alcohol extract and fractions of C. longa L. rhizomes , C. myrrha L. gums showed biological activity against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus bacteria, but methanolic alcohol extract and fractions of G. biloba L. leaves product didn’t show any activity as antibacterial substance. It can be concluded that the presence of secondary metabolites as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides and saponins in the plants under study would be marked a good anti-bacterial effect.
This document discusses antibiotic resistance genes found in natural environments. It begins by reviewing the early discoveries of antibiotic resistance in pathogens. It then discusses how antibiotic resistance genes are often found in environmental bacteria and can spread between species through horizontal gene transfer, especially on mobile genetic elements like plasmids. The overuse of antibiotics in agriculture, aquaculture and livestock has contributed to the increased presence of these genes in natural ecosystems. Understanding the distribution and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in nature is important for evaluating antibiotic usage and policies.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the antibacterial evaluation of root extracts of Juglans regia against Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) producing E. coli and Klebsiella pneumonia in Bombay Hospital and Research Centre Jabalpur. The antibacterial activity of, ethyl acetate and methanol root extracts of Juglans regia was determined by disk diffusion method. The antibacterial activity was calculated based on the minimum inhibitory concentration using Mueller–Hinton broth in a tube-dilution method. The best antibacterial activity, calculated as minimum inhibitory concentration values, against ESBL was shown by the methanol root extract Juglans regia (25 mg/mL) for both isolated organisms and ethyl acetate (25mg/mL) against E. coli. The methanol extract showed zone of inhibition in the range of 17-26mm as compared to ethyl acetate extract which showed zone of inhibition in the range of 11-16mm against the uropathogens. The zone of inhibition ranged from 17 mm to 26 mm and MIC was 25mg/ml. This effect is comparable to antibiotics. The results obtained in the present study suggest that Juglans regia have the potential to be developed as antibacterial agents against ESBL producing UTI bacteria strain. Further investigations are needed to identify the active compounds and their mechanism of action
This document describes a study that evaluated the in vitro antiviral activity of extracts from three medicinal plants (Azadirachta indica, Quercus lusitanica, and Wedelia calendulaceae) against dengue virus serotypes 2 and 4. The aqueous extract of Azadirachta indica showed the best antiviral activity against both serotypes at a maximum non-toxic dose of 500μg/ml. The ethanolic extracts of Azadirachta indica partially inhibited dengue serotype 2 at 500μg/ml but did not inhibit dengue serotype 4. The other plant extracts and combinations of extracts did not show inhibition of either serotype. The known antiv
Antibacterial Effect of Endophytic Actinomycetes from Marine Algae against Multi Drug Resistant Gram Negative Bacteria by Manoharan N in Examines in Marine Biology & Oceanography
Ethnomedical survey of herbs for the management of malaria in karnataka, indiaYounis I Munshi
This document describes an ethnomedical survey of plants used traditionally by healers in Karnataka, India to treat malaria. Researchers interviewed 24 healers and documented 31 plant species across 20 families used in herbal remedies. The most commonly used plant parts were leaves. Eight species had not been previously recorded for treating malaria. Traditional knowledge of malaria symptoms and herbal treatments is threatened by loss of culture. The survey aimed to document this indigenous knowledge and assess plant species for anti-malarial activity based on literature.
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolicAlexander Decker
The document summarizes a study that investigated the antibacterial properties and preliminary phytochemical composition of the methanolic leaf extract of Acalypha wilkesiana. Phytochemical screening of the extract found the presence of tannins, saponins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, steroids and terpenoids. Testing of the extract against various clinical bacterial isolates showed zones of inhibition ranging from 4mm to 13mm, with minimum inhibitory concentrations between 10mg/ml and 30mg/ml and minimum bactericidal concentrations between 30mg/ml and 50mg/ml. The results support the traditional use of A. wilkesiana leaves for treating bacterial infections and suggest it
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolicAlexander Decker
1) The study investigated the antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic leaf extract of Acalypha wilkesiana against selected clinical isolates through preliminary phytochemical screening and antibacterial susceptibility testing.
2) The extract showed the presence of phytochemicals like tannins, flavonoids, saponins which may be responsible for its antibacterial properties.
3) The extract inhibited the growth of all test organisms in a concentration-dependent manner, with zones of inhibition ranging from 4mm to 15mm and minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 10-30mg/ml.
Anti mdrsa activity of rhizophora apiculata and avicennia marina – an in vitr...pharmaindexing
This study evaluated the anti-bacterial activity of extracts from the leaves of two mangrove plants, Rhizophora apiculata and Avicennia marina, against 100 multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDRSA) clinical isolates. Aqueous, ethanol, and methanol extracts were tested using agar well diffusion. The ethanol and methanol extracts showed high levels of anti-MDRSA activity against all isolates. The aqueous extracts showed low or minimal anti-MDRSA activity. The results suggest that ethanol and methanol are better solvents than water for extracting anti-bacterial compounds from the mangrove plant leaves against MDRSA.
Similar to The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya against selected Enterobacteria and Candida (20)
Cytogenetic an Experimental Monitoring Test for Plant ExtractsIOSRJPBS
More than two centuries have been passed since the chromosomes have been firstly observed in plant cells by Nageli in 1842. During this long period, chromosomes have been discovered in human cells and well recognized as a source of genes locations. The effects of chemicals and environmental pollution in human health and caners became an interested field of studying diver mutagens and their role in affecting the genetic materials. Cytogenetic tests were the main tools to evaluate the effects of those mutagens on human genome and chromosomes. Many techniques have been used for these purposes including in vitro and in vivo analyzing tests using human and animal cells. The intent of this article is to review the role of cytogenetic techniques in detecting the effects of mutagens on chromosomal aberrations and the role of plant extracts in monitoring these effects
Prevalence of Rota Virus Detection by Reverse TranscriptasePolymerase Chain R...IOSRJPBS
The present study was conducted for the period from 1/6/2016 to 20/1/2017 in Baquba city. The study aimed to detection of rotavirus in stool specimens of children fewer than five age and also explore the effects of certain demographic factors on the detection rates by revers transcriptase- polymerase chain reaction. The study included 49 patients with acute diarrhea, 32 were male and 17 were female. The age range was two months to 5 years. Demographic information on the patients regarding age, sex, residence, type of feeding and source of drinking water were collected from their parents. Stool specimens were collected from each patients and. Detection of rotavirus in stool specimens was done by conventional reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results of present study showed that the overall infection rate by rotavirus among patients with acute diarrhea by RT-PCR tests was 93.88%. The highest infection rate was recorded among those >10-≤15 months of age. None of the results showed significantly difference between female and male, PCR (88% vs 96.87%). Likewise, there was insignificantly difference between urban and rural residence, PCR (95.65% vs 92.30%). The results revealed insignificantly higher infection rate among patients (those below 2 years) feed mixing (91.66%) and bottled (100%) compared to that breast feeding (77.77%) by RT-PCR. The rotavirus infection rate was insignificantly higher among patients consuming municipal water for drinking (97.22%) compared to those consuming bottled water (84.61%) by the RT-PCR. The study concluded that rotavirus was detected in high rates among children less than 5 years old with acute diarrhea in Baquba city, particularly those less than 2 year old.
Antidiabetic and Cytoprotective Effect of Ethanolic Extract of SalaciaNitida ...IOSRJPBS
The document summarizes a study that investigated the antidiabetic and cytoprotective effects of the ethanolic root extract of Salacia nitida on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Key findings of the study include:
1) The ethanolic extract of S. nitida roots showed significant antidiabetic activity, demonstrated by a dose-dependent reduction in blood glucose levels and increase in body weight of treated diabetic rats.
2) Histological examination showed the extract helped restore damaged pancreatic and kidney tissues in treated diabetic rats closer to normal.
3) The extract demonstrated significant glucose tolerance effects and may lower blood glucose through mechanisms like stimulating insulin production or protecting pancreatic beta cells.
Anti Bacterial and Anti Oxidant Activities of Evolvulus Alsinoides LinnIOSRJPBS
: Plants are very important sources of potential useful raw materials as natural chemotherapeutic agents. Shankhpushpi is botanically termed as Evolvulus alsinoides; the extracts have exhibited antioxidant, anti-ulcer, and immunomodulatory activities. The present work is to investigate the invitro therapeutic potential activities of methanolic extract of whole plant of Evolvulus alsinoides on the antimicrobial activity against five clinical pathogenic bacterial strains viz., Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebshiella pneumonia and Salmonella typhii, using agar well diffusion assay and Anti oxidant activity using 1-1-Diphenyl- 2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical. Extract inhibited IC50: 40.2. Total phenolic content: 28.4 mg/ml & Total flavonoid content: 20.2 μg /ml. Evolvulus alsinoides (MIC): 512.5mg/ml possess 30 to 40 % inhibition, the antibacterial activity of the herbal extracts was more pronounced on the gram- negative bacteria Klebshiella pneumonia than the gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. The free radical scavenging activity of methanolic activity of whole plant of Evolvulus alsinoides increase in a concentration dependent manner, and posses statistically significance DPPH free radical scavenging & Anti microbial activities
A Study on Biomarkers in a Spatially Distributed Type – 2 Diabetes mellitus G...IOSRJPBS
Diabetes, a dreaded disease already ravaged a huge population worldwide, whether it is inherited through generations or invited by the people by their uncontrolled way of life is still obscure. Biomarkers assay is a boon to the diseased to opt proper prophylactic measures to curb or eradicate diseases. The elevated levels of various biomarkers related to inflammation of vital organs, liver function, kidney function and other vital parameters in our diabetic cases reveals the extent of organ(s) damage in these subjects. It is also evident that the levels of various biomarkers are similar in our diabetic subjects, irrespective of their habits or habitats.
Toxicological profile of Grewia bicolor root extractIOSRJPBS
The document summarizes a study on the toxicological profile of Grewia bicolor root extract. The study found:
1) The tolerated dose of the extract in rats was 800mg/kg while the toxic dose was 1600mg/kg, with behavioral and neurological signs observed at toxic doses.
2) The median lethal dose (LD50) of the extract was calculated to be 2663.92 mg/kg in acute toxicity testing.
3) In a 28-day sub-acute toxicity study, rats administered 800mg/kg of the extract daily showed no changes in body weight, hematological, or biochemical parameters compared to controls.
Flora of Kansai Basin at Lalgarh of Paschim Medinipur District in West Bengal...IOSRJPBS
Flora is systematic enumeration of plant species in a given community of a given ecosystem. It reflects the quality as well as the health of the ecosystem because the floral community are the producers which support the growth and development of ecosystem. It reflects the inflow of nutrients and recycling processes through bio-geochemical processes. Indiscriminate use of different chemicals and articles for different purposes produced by different leading factories for the modern development of human societies causes threat to the environment and loosing the biodiversity which significantly destroying the environment rapidly. The main reason is increasing load of human population which damaging the environment and degrading the ecosystem by pollution directly or indirectly. The present paper reflects the 57 floral elements under 29 families and the community structure including eco-degradation process which could be a starting point of extension through community research by a group of workers in future. Hope that interested people will come and take that opportunity to record the problems for future study and assessment about the dwindling ecosystem for our existence at Lalgarh.
Although ATP production is very important for mitochondria, little is known about the actual rate of production and the value of “unit of currency” for mitochondrial energy transactions. “Unit of currency” for all transactions in general is named “quantum” in Physics, and no value of ATP quantum is accurately given in bibliography, other than rough estimates. This work focuses to calculating produced energy unit in mitochondrial metabolism (Quantum for ATP, or QATP for sort) and the rate of ATP production (power of “mitochondrial factory”)
High Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency Among Saudi Children And Adolescents ...IOSRJPBS
Background: Vitamin D inadequacy constitutes an increasingly recognized comorbidity among Saudi populations. There were limited data about its prevalence in Saudi children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Aim: To evaluate the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among Saudi children and adolescents with T1DM in Albaha region, southwestern of Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 117 Saudi children and adolescents with T1DM. These patients were recruited from Albaha diabetic center, Saudi Arabia. The range of age of the participants was 1 –18 years.. All participants were subjected to history taking including, age, gender, duration of diabetes, clinical presentation at the onset of diabetes. Measurement of serum 25 hydroxy vitamin D was done in all participants. Results: There were 117 Saudi children and adolescent with T1DM, 52 (44.4%) were boys, and 65 (55.6%) were girls with a mean age 8.8 ± 3.4 and 9.2 ± 3.9 for boys and girls respectively (p=0.52). The mean serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels among them was 17.1± 10.1 ng/ml and the prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy was 88.9% (59.9% of subjects had vitamin D deficiency and 29 % had vitamin D insufficiency) and 11.1% had sufficient levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D. There was a significant difference in vitamin D level among different groups of vitamin D level (p˂ 0.001). The prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency was greater in the girls with 34.2%, as compared to 25.6% among boys. Vitamin D deficiency was more common among children in the range of age 1-10 years (52.1% vs 36.8%). In vitamin D deficient group, the mean levels of vitamin D were significantly lower in patients presented with DKA as compared to those presented with hyperglycemic symptoms (p= 0.016). Conclusion: Vitamin D deficiency is common in Saudi children and adolescent with T1DM in Albaha region. This is more common in girls and in the younger age groups. Therefore, screening for vitamin D deficiency, creating awareness to increase sunlight exposure, increase the fortification of food products with vitamin D and vitamin D supplementation for these patients should be warranted to prevent future morbidity.
Development of Nimbolide from Seeds of Azadirachta Indica Extract Assisted by...IOSRJPBS
The recent studies on Nimbolide, a robust cervical anticancer agent was identified for the separation of Nimbolide from Azadirachta indica berry collected from Ranga Reddy- Dist, the seeds were initially isolated, dried and transformed into coarse powder. The seed core was defatted and concentrated using methanol in a soxhlet apparatus. The methanolic extract obtained from seeds is subjected to High Performance Liquid Chromatography [HPLC] by direct reverse phase method for isolation of Nimbolide using Molecular Docking of Nimbolide through Molecular Operatin Environment [MOE] 2008 software. This declared that Nimbolide has capability of binding 12.3% to a Glycine 131 undergoing polar interactions. Nimbolide was found to interact with Cyclin E, was redeemed from the Protein Data Bank [PDB code; 1W98]. It was observed that Nimbolide showed an satisfactory increased life span (54.32 and 65.16), decreased the viable cells (52.3±1.5 and 32.5±1.3), and tumor volume (3.2±0.03 and 2.4±0.04).
A Review on Different Benefits of MushroomIOSRJPBS
This paper reviews mushrooms. In this paper, nutritional and medicinal values, other uses of mushrooms were discussed. Mushrooms have been important in human history as food, as medicine, as legands, and in folk lore and religion. Mushrooms are basically consumed for their texture and flavor. They have recently become attractive as health - beneficent food and as sources for the development of drugs. Many higher mushrooms are known to contain a number of biologically active components that show promising antitumor and immunomodulating, cardiovascular, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolemic, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic and antidiabetic effects. Nutritional value of mushrooms lies between that of meat and vegetables. The rich source of proteins, vitamins and minerals and low in fat content (2-8%) unique chemicals constitution of mushrooms makes them low calorie food 8 and choice diet for those suffering from hypertension, arthrosclerosis, diabetes, obesity. Mushrooms play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water). From the review it was observed that developing countries should harness the potentials of mushrooms as this would boost the revenue income and healthy living. It is hoped that this paper would add to existing information on this fungus
Evaluation of plasma Creatine Kinase activity and Inorganic phosphate among S...IOSRJPBS
Background: CK and phosphorus are helpful biomarker for detection of early renalabnormality particularlyCK which has been shown to be abetter predicator of acute renal failure. Objectives: This is a descriptive cross-sectional study.Conducted in Khartoum and White Nile state from March to June 2016.The aim of this study to assess serum creatine kinase (CK) activity and inorganic phosphate concentrations in Sudanese patients with sickle cell anemia. 80 subjects were enrolled in this study they were classified into 40 with sickle cell disease (SCD) as casegroup and 40 healthy apparently as control group. CK activity and phosphorus level was measured by using Spectrophotometry method. Results: The results showed significantly higher Ck activity in patients with SCD when compared with control group with (P = 0.021), and not significant differences in mean of serum phosphorus concentration in case when compared with control with (P = 0.547). Also show serum CK activity in patients used hydroxyurea when compare with the mean of patients not used hydroxyurea it is significantly decrease with (P= 0.006)
A Clinical Study of Amoebic Dysentery and Its Homoeopathic ManagementIOSRJPBS
A Clinical Study of Amoebic Dysentery and Its Homoeopathic Management, Sri Ganganagar, Rajasthan, India. Background: To study the clinical presentation of amoebic dysentery and to study the results of Homeopathic management and treatment of amoebic dysentery. To assess the influence of miasm in the case of Amoebic Dysentery. Methodology: Thirty out-patients with clinically confirmed symptomatic cases of amoebic dysentery were entered trial and treated with Homoeopathic remedies on the basis of Homoeopathic principles with fixed criteria to know the results of treatment as recovered, improved or not improved. For the present study he patients who visited on Sriganganagar Homoeopathic Medical College, Hospital and Research Center, Sri Ganganagar, Rajsthan, India and peripheral Out Patient Department were selected on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Result: Totally 30 patients were selected for this study. At the end of the study it was observed that, out of 30 patients, 24 patients recovered (80%), 5 case improved (16.66%) and1case is not improved (3.3%). with the help ofsuitable homoeopathic medicines. Conclusion: There were no side effects during the treatment and it can be concluded that Homoeopathic Medicines can be help the patient to take a new lease on life
Biological Efficacy of Quassia Indica (Geratn) Nooteb and Centella Asiatica (...IOSRJPBS
Antimicrobial activity of different extracts of two selected plants, Quassia indica (Geartn) Nooteb and Centella asiatica (L.) Urban were tested against selected strains of bacteria viz; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas sps, Bacillus thuringiensis, Klebsiella sps and Serratia sps using agar disc diffusion technique. Petroleum ether, acetone, methanol and water extracts of seed and leaf of Q. indica and leaf of C. asiatica showed moderate to significant antimicrobial activity. Of the four extracts tested, petroleum ether and water fractions showed more activity against all the bacterial strains. The zone of inhibition of the active fractions for the petroleum ether ranged from 8.57 to 12.63 mm and 8.53 to 14.5mm for the water fraction of Q. indica seed and leaf and C. asiatica leaf; and exhibited comparable results with widely used commercial antimicrobial agents (16 to19 mm for Kanamycin and 14 to 17mm for Cefotaxime). The results prove the efficacy of the most active fractions of the selected plant extracts to be used for developing potent antimicrobial formulations.
Comparative Testing of Antibacterial Activity of Aqueous Extract of Bergenia ...IOSRJPBS
The aim of this research was to formulate a gel comprising of the both extracts of Bergenia ligulata rhizomes and Butea monosperma flowers that would aid in wound healing by exhibiting antibacterial activity at the site of wound infection if any. As per the literature survey conducted it was found that aqueous extract of Bergenia ligulata rhizomes and ethanolic extract of Butea monosperma flowers have good potential of antibacterial activity. Hence this antibacterial activity was studied with the help of agar well-diffusion assay method, against the micro-organisms-S. aureus, MRSA, Pr. vulgaris, and E.coli . Both these extracts were obtained through Soxhlet extraction process and this process was optimized to get maximum yield of extraction. By agar gel well- diffusion assay at the concentration of about 100µg/mL both the extracts exhibited maximum zone of inhibition. This concentration was helpful in deciding the dose for topical gel formulation.
Yield Performances of Pleurotus ostreatus on Different Growth Substrates as I...IOSRJPBS
This study was carried out to investigate the effects of some vegetables (Diplazium sammatii, Moringa oleifera, and Justicia insularis) as additives on the growth parameters of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated on two substrates; banana leaves (BL) and banana leaves/sawdust (BL/SD). The substrates were amended with these vegetables at different concentration levels (0 g, 5 g, 10 g and 15 g). Spawn running was completed in 30, 35, and 40 days in banana leaves, banana leaves/sawdust and the control respectively. Parameters assessed included area of pileus, number of fruit bodies, fresh weight, dry weight, length of stipe and girth of stipe. Higher mean values for fresh weight (21.69 g), area of pileus (42.58 cm2 ), length of stipe (5.10 g) and girth of stipe (4.30 g) were obtained from BL substrate treated to 5 g M. oleifera leaf powder. These values were significantly different from values obtained for other plant additives. Considering the number of fruit bodiesthat emerged on BL/SD substrates, the control produced more fruit bodies than the substrates with additives. The best performance in BL/SD substrates was observed when the substrate was treated to 10 g J. insularis in some of the parameters assessed. These included fresh weight (20.64 g), number of fruit bodies (8.00) and stipe girth (3.44 cm).Other parameters like area of pileus (36.08 cm2 ) and dry weight (2.39 cm), control had a better performance. While for length of stipe, 15 g M. oleifera leaf powder had the highest mean value that was significantly different (P≤0.05) from what was observed in substrates amended with other additives. It is therefore evident that these vegetables have high potential for utilization as additives or supplements for growing of Pleurotus ostreatus especially when using BL as substrates. In addition, substratesadditive concentration combination played a significant role in selective organ growth of the test mushroom.
Dermatoglification Analysis for Selection and Training of Sports TalentsIOSRJPBS
: The term sports talent can be defined as the individual who, through his inherited and acquired conditions, has a special ability for sports performance, above the average of the general population. Fingerprints are genetic markers and can function as indicators of sporting talents. The objective of the present study was to use dermatoglyphics to identify the genetic-physical profile of soccer athletes. Twenty-four athletes belonging to the Palmeiras Sports Society Athletes' Capture Center participated in this study in the Nordeste sub-category category 16. The dermatoglyphic protocol of Cummins and Midlo (1961) was used. Standard fingerprint indices were calculated: the number of drawings for the 10 fingers and the delta index (D10). We also analyzed the types of digital formulas that indicate the representation in individuals of different types of drawings. Based on the classification of Fernandes (2002), the group presented somatofunctional classification for height, velocity and explosive strength, due to the delta index of 11.54. We conclude that dermatoglyphics can be a parameter to identify the potentiality of an individual and can be incorporated into a policy of selection and formation of sports talent.
Establishment of suspension cultures of Salvadora persica L. for benzyl isoth...IOSRJPBS
Successful scale-upof the anticancer benzyl isothiocyanate compound production was achieved from cell suspension cultures of Salvadora persica L. Cell cultures were established from the stem internodal segments derived callus. Elicitation with two biotic elicitors; chitosan and salicylic acid, increased callus biomass and benzyl isothiocyanate accumulation, but chitosan induced the maximum accumulation, which reached about four-fold higher over the control at the concentration of 100 mg/L. Benzyl isothiocyanate production from cell suspension cultures was studied in shake-flask culture and stirred-tank bioreactor with the application of the optimum concentration of chitosan in the medium. Both methods elevate the compound production; however its yield was higherin the stirred-tank bioreactor.It achieved about eight-fold increase in the production of benzyl isothiocyanate after 24 days of incubation. This protocol can act as a roadmap for large-scale production of benzyl isothiocyanate from cell suspension cultures ofSalvadora persica by using bioreactors
Antimicrobial Activity of Bauhinia Purpurea (L) by Minimum Inhibitory Concent...IOSRJPBS
MIC methods are widely used in the comparative testing of new agents, or when a more accurate result is required for clinical management. As there are no CLSI (formerly NCCLS) recommendations for the determination of MICs of varies bio-compounds against gram positive and gram negative organisms. The minimum inhibitory concentration is the lowest concentration (in μg/ml) of an antibiotic that inhibits the growth of a given strain of bacteria. In Diagnostic laboratories these MIC’S are used to confirm resistance and also most often used to determine antimicrobial invitro activity. In the present MIC method, one can get the information about Antibiotic agent, preparation of stock solutions, media and inoculation, conditions of incubation, ultimately reading and interpretation of results. The present study is focused to evaluate antibacterial activities of ethanolic extract and purified fractions of Bauhinia purpurea using a gram-positive and a gram-negative organisms Staphylococcus aureus , Klebsiella, E.coli and enterococcus
Evaluations of Some Biological Properties of Ethanolic Leave Extract of Costu...IOSRJPBS
Costus afer plant has been known to the traditionalist for a very long time. The locals having realized its medicinal potentials have employed it in a variety of ways. This study was designed to investigate the antimicrobial, biochemical and CNS depressant properties of ethanolic leave extract of Costus afer in albino mice and anti-inflammatory activity in albino rats. Ninety albino mice (22-29g) of both sexes were selected and divided into eighteen groups of five mice each. Four groups for analgesic activity, three groups for in-vivo clothing time, four groups for spontaneous locomotor activity, three groups for heamatological evaluation and four groups for phenobarbitone induced hypnosis. Twenty albino rats (180-200g) of both sexes were also selected and divided into four groups of five rats each and used for anti-inflammatory activity. In all, the control groups receive 0.2ml of normal saline while two dose groups of the extract was used 400 and 1200mg/kg representing low and high dose in the treatment group. Indomethacin, Phenobarbitone, Chropromazine, Indomethacine, Ciprofloxacin and Fluconazole were used as reference drug for anlagesic activity, locomotor activity, hypnosis, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antifungal test respectively. Qualitative phytochemical analysis of ethanolic leave extract of Costus afer was performed. The result of the qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, glycosides and terpenoids whereas anthraquinones, essential oil and phlobatannins were absent. The results obtained shows that ethanolic leave extract of Costus afer posses antibacterial activity but no antifungal activity. There was a dose dependent increase in analgesic, anti-inflammatory activities, bleeding/clotting time and CNS activity. The hematological evaluation of the leaves of costusafer shows that the extract has no noticeable effect on the HB, PCV, RBC, but decreases the WBC, platelet count, neutrophils and lymphocytes components of the blood, also the clotting/bleeding time was seen to increase dose dependently in the treated groups. In conclusion, ethanol extract of costus afer ker Gawl leaves possess antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and CNS depressant activity.
Height and depth gauge linear metrology.pdfq30122000
Height gauges may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height gauge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes to be used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe.
This presentation is about Food Delivery Systems and how they are developed using the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and other methods. It explains the steps involved in creating a food delivery app, from planning and designing to testing and launching. The slide also covers different tools and technologies used to make these systems work efficiently.
We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
A high-Speed Communication System is based on the Design of a Bi-NoC Router, ...DharmaBanothu
The Network on Chip (NoC) has emerged as an effective
solution for intercommunication infrastructure within System on
Chip (SoC) designs, overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods that face significant bottlenecks. However, the complexity
of NoC design presents numerous challenges related to
performance metrics such as scalability, latency, power
consumption, and signal integrity. This project addresses the
issues within the router's memory unit and proposes an enhanced
memory structure. To achieve efficient data transfer, FIFO buffers
are implemented in distributed RAM and virtual channels for
FPGA-based NoC. The project introduces advanced FIFO-based
memory units within the NoC router, assessing their performance
in a Bi-directional NoC (Bi-NoC) configuration. The primary
objective is to reduce the router's workload while enhancing the
FIFO internal structure. To further improve data transfer speed,
a Bi-NoC with a self-configurable intercommunication channel is
suggested. Simulation and synthesis results demonstrate
guaranteed throughput, predictable latency, and equitable
network access, showing significant improvement over previous
designs
Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) Calculator ManualMassimo Talia
The aim of this manual is to explain the
methodology behind the Levelized Cost of
Hydrogen (LCOH) calculator. Moreover, this
manual also demonstrates how the calculator
can be used for estimating the expenses associated with hydrogen production in Europe
using low-temperature electrolysis considering different sources of electricity
Blood finder application project report (1).pdfKamal Acharya
Blood Finder is an emergency time app where a user can search for the blood banks as
well as the registered blood donors around Mumbai. This application also provide an
opportunity for the user of this application to become a registered donor for this user have
to enroll for the donor request from the application itself. If the admin wish to make user
a registered donor, with some of the formalities with the organization it can be done.
Specialization of this application is that the user will not have to register on sign-in for
searching the blood banks and blood donors it can be just done by installing the
application to the mobile.
The purpose of making this application is to save the user’s time for searching blood of
needed blood group during the time of the emergency.
This is an android application developed in Java and XML with the connectivity of
SQLite database. This application will provide most of basic functionality required for an
emergency time application. All the details of Blood banks and Blood donors are stored
in the database i.e. SQLite.
This application allowed the user to get all the information regarding blood banks and
blood donors such as Name, Number, Address, Blood Group, rather than searching it on
the different websites and wasting the precious time. This application is effective and
user friendly.
Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 StandardMuhammadJazib15
This document provides basic guidelines for imparitallity requirement of ISO 17025. It defines in detial how it is met and wiudhwdih jdhsjdhwudjwkdbjwkdddddddddddkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwioiiiiiiiiiiiii uwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwhe wiqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq gbbbbbbbbbbbbb owdjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj widhi owqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq uwdhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhwqiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw0pooooojjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj whhhhhhhhhhh wheeeeeeee wihieiiiiii wihe
e qqqqqqqqqqeuwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiqw dddddddddd cccccccccccccccv s w c r
cdf cb bicbsad ishd d qwkbdwiur e wetwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww w
dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddfffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffw
uuuuhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhe qiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbu uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuum
m
m mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm m i
g i dijsd sjdnsjd ndjajsdnnsa adjdnawddddddddddddd uw
The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya against selected Enterobacteria and Candida
1. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences (IOSR-JPBS)
e-ISSN:2278-3008, p-ISSN:2319-7676. Volume 12, Issue 1 Ver. I (Jan. - Feb.2017), PP 115-122
www.iosrjournals.org
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 115 | Page
The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within
Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya against selected
Enterobacteria and Candida
Hesbon Omwoyo Nyang’au1
, John Maingi2
, Anthony Kebira3
1(
Department of Biological Sciences, Rongo University, Rongo, Kenya)
2(
Department of Microbiology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya)
3(
Department of Microbiology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya)
Abstract: The bacterial family Enterobacteriaceae and fungal genus Candida have continued to be a great
challenge worldwide including resistance to antibiotics and relapse of infections mediated by them. Among
these organisms, Salmonella typhi, Shigella species, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli strains have
emerged as the most frequent cause of diarrheal illnesses which account for an annual mortality rate of 4.6
million people worldwide and many other infections. Candida albicans has been reported as a causative agent
of all types of candidiasis. In the present study, the efficacy of plants commonly used plants in Transmara west,
Kenya against these microbes was investigated. An ethnobotanical survey using semi-structured questionnaire
was done. Plant extracts were obtained through methanolic extraction. Antimicrobial susceptibility assay was
done using Kirby Bauer disk diffusion technique. Minimum inhibitory Concentration (MIC), Minimum
Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) for the bacterial test stains and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC)
for C. albicans were determined using microtitre broth dilution method. Phytochemical tests were done using
standard procedures. The study validates the ethno-medicinal use of Pterolobium stellatum, Rhamnus prinoides,
Phyllanthus urinaria, Carissa edulis, Clutia abyssinica, Clerodendrum rotundifolium, Clerodendron myricoides
and Dovyalis abyssinica and recommends consideration for the use of the studied plants as possible sources of
antimicrobial agents in the development of drugs for treatment of Enterobacteria and Candida related
infections.
Keywords: Efficacy, Enterobacteria, Medicinal, Phytochemicals, Transmara west
I. Introduction
Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, Klebsiella pneumonia and Escherichia coli represent members
of the Enterobacteriaceae family largely implicated as causes of urinary tract infections (UTIs), many
bloodstream infections, nosocomial pneumonias, various intra-abdominal infections and diarrhoea [1,2,3]. It is
estimated that 4 billion diarrheal infections and 4.6 million people, including 2.5 million children deaths occur
from diarrhea every year particularly in developing countries [4]. According to Sobel (2009) [5], C. albicans is
the cause of up to about 85–95% of all vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). It has been observed that VVC is one of
the most common vaginal infections with about 50 to 75% women suffering symptomatic disease and 5%
developing recurring VVC [6].
High levels of resistance to commonly used antibiotics have often been recorded among this group of
bacteria worldwide [7, 8]. In the last two decades, outbreaks of infections caused by extended-spectrum b-
lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae have largely been reported [9, 10]. Among other ESBL
producers, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae have been implicated as the main gram- negative
bacteria that are associated with production of these enzymes which are responsible for multi-drug resistance
[11, 12, 13].
Infection with carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae is another emerging important challenge
in health-care settings [14]. A progressive increase in Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP)
strain has been observed worldwide over the last decade posing a great challenge in healthcare settings since
carbapenem is often used as a drug of last resort in the treatment of diseases caused by resistant bacterial strains
[15, 16]. Multi-drug resistant (MDR) Salmonella and Shigella disenteriae type 1 strains have also been
identified and recorded to have escalated into a worldwide problem (17, 18).
Additionally, many antifungal drugs including imidazoles, triazoles and thiazoles have limitations such
as a narrow spectrum of action, undesirable side effects, toxicity and emergence of drug resistance [5, 19]. This
has posed a challenge in the management of Candida infections. The problem of recurrence of infections
caused by bacterial and fungal organisms and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance has therefore led to the
increased interest in herbal products [20]. Plants have been proven to be important both as agents of
pharmacological research and drug development by acting as sources of lead compounds for synthesis of drugs
2. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 116 | Page
or when used directly as therapeutic agents and therefore reducing total dependence on antibiotics [21,22]. The
objective of our study was to identify some of the plants commonly used against Salmonella typhi, Shigella
species, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans by traditional herbal practitioners of the
Maasai community in Transmara west sub-county, Kenya, investigate their antimicrobial activity in vitro and
subject them to phytochemical assay to test for presence of saponins, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids. The
study site was purposely selected since it is known to be rich in indigenous vegetation and also the use of
medicinal herbs for treatment of various ailments which is relatively substantial [23].
II. Materials And Methods
2.1 Ethnobotanical survey
The study area (Tranamara west sub-county) was divided into six blocks which comprised the six
divisions in Transmara west namely Kilgoris, Keiyian, Lolgorian, Angata, Pirrar and Kirindon. Key informants
comprising of Traditional Health Practitioners (THP) knowledgeable on medicinal plants used for treating
various diseases were identified with the help of local leaders including chiefs and village elders. Selection of
informants to participate in the study was done using purposive sampling technique [24]. The selection
depended on the willingness to share information and acquaintance with medicinal plants used for treating
diseases such as pneumonia, candidiasis and diarrhea. With the help of the local leaders, twelve informants were
selected by identifying two knowledgeable informants from each of the six divisions.
Information on medicinal plants used was collected through interviews using a semi-structured
questionnaire as well as detailed personal discussion with the herbalists [25]. The plants used by the THP in the
management of diseases whose symptoms were associated with Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, E.
coli, Shigella dysenteriae and C. albicans were first identified using their vernacular names. Then the plants
commonly identified were selected using the ‘species of choice value’ model [26].
To further select medicinal plants for screening, a participatory pair-wise ranking exercise [27] was
conducted with confinement to only those plants whose use was restricted to the treatment of typhoid,
dysentery, pneumonia, diarrhoea and candidiasis. This involved a prioritization exercise involving participation
of the herbalists. During the exercise, a list of plants cited in the questionnaire for treatment of fungal and
enterobacteria related infections was generated. Selection of plants was by agreement of herbalists, whereby
frequency of use of a given species and comparison between different species used for treatment of the same
disease were considered. With the guidance of informants, the habitats of the selected plants were located then
the parts of the plants used in the treatment of the respective diseases, as specified by the informants were
collected. Voucher specimens were also collected and preserved in a plant press. Identification of the plants was
done at the Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences in Kenyatta University.
2.2 Collection, identification and drying of plant samples
After an ethnobotanical survey on plants used by traditional health practitioners in Transmara West
against the selected pathogens, plant parts, which comprised roots of the sampled plants were collected as
prescribed by the herbalists and transported for screening at the University. The samples were chopped into
pieces and air dried in the laboratory for three weeks and then ground into powder using a milling machine and
stored in sterilized bottles.
2.3 Extraction of chemical substances
The ground powder was first soaked in methanol for 3 days before decanting and filtering through a Buchner
funnel using Whatman filter paper No. 42. The filtrate was concentrated using a rotary evaporator (Type N-100,
SN 60714679, Eyela- Tokyo) with the water bath set at 40 ◦
C. This was followed by drying of the extracts in a
dessicator over anhydrous Calcium Sulphate [28]. The extracts were then stored at 4 ◦
C for further use [29].
2.4 Sourcing of test microorganisms
Clinical isolates of Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli, Shigella dysenteriae and C. albicans
strains were obtained from Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya, during the period of the assay and transported to
Kenyatta University for antimicrobial susceptibility testing.
2.5 Antimicrobial susceptibility assay
Kirby Bauer disk diffusion technique was used [30]. A plant extract concentration of 300 mg/ml was
prepared using methanol as the solvent. For the test isolates, an inoculum size of 0.5 McFarland standard was
used. The test bacterial cultures were applied by spreading 0.1 ml of the bacterial inoculums on dry 150 mm
diameter Mueller-Hinton agar plate [31]. Twelve disks (6 mm diameter) were then soaked in 0.1 ml of the
dissolved plant extracts. Commercial antibiotic Ciprofloxacin was used as the positive control for the bacterial
3. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 117 | Page
isolates while methanol was used as a negative control. The disks were then air dried and placed on the
inoculums’ agar surface separately. Incubation was done for 24hours at 35±2 ◦
C before analysis.
For C. albicans, the disks were soaked in 0.1 ml of the plant extracts, commercial antifungal fluconazole as
positive control and methanol as negative control. Dry impregnated disks were spread on prepared dry Potato
Dextrose Agar (PDA) plates containing spread 0.1 ml of C. albicans inoculum. The plates were then incubated
for 24 hours at 35±2 ◦
C. Three replicates of the extract and control impregnated disks were made for every test
microbe. Microbial growth inhibition was determined by measuring the average zones of inhibition to the
nearest millimeter using a transparent plastic ruler [32]. Based on the size of average zones of inhibition, the
susceptibility levels by the test pathogens to the crude plant extracts were categorized as resistant (average zone
of inhibition of ≤ 7.00 mm), intermediately resistant (average zone of inhibition of between > 7.00 mm and <
9.00 mm) and susceptible (average zone of inhibition ≥ 9.00 mm) [28].
2.6 Determination of Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and Minimum Bactericidal
Concentration/Minimum Fungicidal concentrations
The active extracts which recorded mean zones of inhibition of ≥9 mm from the antimicrobial
susceptibility test by Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method were tested for MIC and MBC/MFC [33]. The MIC
was determined by use of Micro-titre broth dilution method [34] using a 96- well micro-titre plate. A solution of
plant extract (concentration of 300 mg/ml) was prepared using 2% DMSO as solvent [35].
All the wells were first filled with fifty microlitres (50 µl) of broth. Fifty microlitres of the prepared
plant extract solution was then dispensed into the first well then two- fold serial dilutions of 50 µl of broth
mixed with the extract were carried out until the eleventh well was reached, at which time the last 50 µl was
discarded [34]. Fifty micro litres (50 µl) of broth containing the standardised test microorganism isolate was
then dispensed into each well. One well with 50 µl of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin/fluconazole was used as
positive control while another well without extract or antibiotic was used as the negative control. Incubation was
done at 37 ◦
C for 24 hours and microbial growth confirmed by visible turbidity. Minimum Inhibitory
Concentration was represented by the lowest concentration of the extract that prevented visible growth [36].
Broth was then taken from each well without visible microbial growth and then sub-cultured onto fresh
drug-free solid media (Nutrient broth for bacterial isolates and PDA broth for C. albicans) and incubated for
further 24 hrs. The MBCs and MFCs were defined as the lowest concentrations of the extracts that completely
killed the inoculated microbial population [34].
2.7 Test for saponins, tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids
The plant extracts were subjected to phytochemical screening in order to test for the presence of saponins,
tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids [37]. Screening for presence of the selected phytochemicals was carried out
using standard procedures [38, 39, 40].
2.8 Data analysis
Data obtained from the zones of inhibition was analyzed using SPSS version 16 computer program.
The average zones of inhibition values produced by the plant extracts and positive controls in both the bacterial
and fungal assays were expressed as means ± standard error for each test culture. The effects of the plant
extracts on the test pathogens were compared by testing for significant difference in the means of zones of
inhibition using one-way ANOVA at 1% and 5% level of confidence with P value < 0.05 considered as
significant. The significant means of the zones of inhibition were separated using multiple range test (Tukey
HSD test).
III. Results
The ethnobotanical survey carried out in Transmara West, Narok County on the medicinal plants used
by the local herbalists to treat diseases caused by Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, Klebsiella pneumonia,
Escherichia coli and Candida albicans revealed twenty two plants (Table 4.1). Roots, leaves and stem barks
comprised the parts commonly used by the herbalists, with roots being the highest preferred and hence chosen
for the assay. From the species of choice value model, eleven plant species, which were cited by the herbalists
as the most commonly used by the Maasai Traditional Health practitioners were identified and recorded (Table
4.1). From these, eight plants were selected for antimicrobial screening after prioritization using participatory
pair-wise ranking technique (Table 4.2).
The assay revealed remarkable differences both in the antimicrobial activities as well as the
phytochemical composition of the plants under study (Table 4.2). The average diameters of zones of inhibition
produced by the extracts against the test pathogens revealed various susceptibility levels ranging from resistant,
intermediately resistant as well as susceptible (Table 4.3). Compared to other extracts whose MICs and MBCs
were determined against S. typhi, C. abyssinica Jaub and Spach (Euphorbiaceae) had the highest activity with
4. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 118 | Page
MIC of 18.75 mg/ml and a similar MBC (Table 4.4). Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae) and
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) showed similar MICs and MBCs of 37.50 mg/ml against S. typhi.
Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations and MBCs of 37.50 mg/ml and 75.00 mg/ml respectively were exhibited by
both Phyllanthus urinaria Linn (Phyllanthaceae) and Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb (Flacourtiaceae)
against the pathogen (Table 4.4).
The highest activity against E. coli was shown by R. prinoides L’He´r (Rhamnaceae) with MIC and
MBC of 9.37 mg/ml. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn (Phyllanthaceae) also showed a good activity with MIC and
MBC of 18.75 mg/ml and 37.50 mg/ml respectively against E. coli with both Clerodendron myricoides
(Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) and Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb (Flacourtiaceae) showing similar MICs
and MBCs of 37.50 mg/ml. The extracts of both P. stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae) and P. urinaria Linn
(Phyllanthaceae) exhibited MICs and MBCs of 37.50 mg/ml and 75.00 mg/ml respectively against E. coli.
For S. dysenteriae, only two extracts showed promising antibacterial activity and were therefore
screened for MIC and MBC. Clutia abyssinica Jaub and Spach (Euphorbiaceae) showed a relatively higher
activity with MIC and MBC of 18.75 mg/ml and 37.50 mg/ml respectively. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn
(Phyllanthaceae) had MIC of 37.50 mg/ml and MBC of 75.00 mg/ml. The rest of the test extracts were not
screened for MIC and MBC due to their low activity (zones of inhibition of < 9.0 mm) against S. dysenteriae.
Against K. pneumoniae, Phyllanthus urinaria Linn (Phyllanthaceae) and Clutia abyssinica Jaub and
Spach (Euphorbiaceae) showed similar and relatively higher activity with MICs and MBCs of 18.75 mg/ml and
37.50 mg/ml respectively while Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) and Clerodendron myricoides
(Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) both had similar MICs and MBCs of 37.00 mg/ml (Table 4.4).
For C. albicans, Clutia abyssinica Jaub and Spach (Euphorbiaceae) showed the highest antifungal
activity with MIC and MFC of 9.37 mg/ml which was close to the MIC and MFC of the positive control (4.69
mg/ml). Clerodendron myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) also showed good activity with MIC of 9.37
mg/ml and MFC of 18.75 mg/ml against the fungal pathogen.
IV. Tables
Table 4.1: Some plant species used by herbalists in Transmara west to treat diseases caused by the test
pathogens and other related ailments
Botanical Name Family Vernacular Name Part used Diseases treated
Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne Fabaceae Oltepesi Roots, Stem,
Leaves
Urinary tract infections,
Mouth infections
Acacia xanthophloea Benth. Fabaceae Olerai Roots, Stem,
Leaves
Pneumonia
Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Olerobat Roots, Leaves Candidiasis, Skin
diseases
Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. Fabaceae Ormukutan Roots, Stem Stomach ache,
Diarrhoea, Back ache
Aloe volkensii Engl. Asphodelaceae Osukuroi Leaves Stomach ache,
Diarrhoea
Blepharis linariifolia Pers. Acanthaceae Oltontolian Roots, leaves Pneumonia
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl* Apocynaceae Olamuriaki Roots Backaches,
Kidney problems,
Pneumonia
Clerodendron myricoides
(Hochst.) Vatke*
Verbenaceae Olmatukutuk Roots Candidiasis, gonorrhoea
Clerodendrum rotundifolium
Oliv.*
Verbenaceae Osingarua Leaves, Roots Pneumonia
Clutia abyssinica Jaub and
Spach*
Euphorbiaceae Olkiparnyeny Roots Candidiasis
Commiphora africana (A. Rich.)
Engl.
Burseraceae Olchilishili Roots, Stem Skin diseases,
Candidiasis
Commiphora sp. Asphodelaceae Oltemuai Roots, Stem Pneumonia,
Skin diseases
Crotolaria rotundifolia J.F.
Gmel.*
Fabaceae Oloniai Roots Candidiasis
Dovyalis abyssinica
(A. Rich.) Warb*
Flacourtiaceae Olmorogi Roots Typhoid, Diarrhoea
Echinops sphaerocephalus L.* Asteraceae Enkomereki Roots, stem,leaves Typhoid
Melhania
parvifolia Chiov.
Malvaceae Orporokwai-
lekop
Leaves Pneumonia and other
Lung related Problems
Phyllanthus urinaria Linn* Phyllanthaceae Olmenangi Roots, leaves Dysentery,
Diarrhoea,
Stomach ache
Pterolobium stellatum
(Forssk.) Brenan*
Fabaceae Kinawa Roots,
Leaves
Pneumonia
5. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 119 | Page
Key: * Plants most commonly used
Table 4.2: Means ± standard error of the mean of zones of inhibition (mm) against the test microorganisms
Key: The terms a, b, c, d, e, f show significant differences where applicable for the clusters
Table 4.3: Susceptibility levels shown by the test pathogens to the plant extracts and controls as exhibited by
the means of zones of inhibition produced
Key: R represents Resistant
I represents intermediately resistant
S represents Susceptible
- represents no inhibition
Table 4.4: MICs and MBCs/MFCs (mg/ml) produced by the medicinal plants and positive controls
Positive control: Commercial antibiotics Ciprofloxacin (for bacterial isolates) and Fluconazole for (C. albicans)
- Represents MIC, MBC/MFC not determined due to low activity as revealed by mean zone of inhibition
of < 9.00 mm
Rhamnus prinoides L’He´r* Rhamnaceae Olkonyil Roots, stem Typhoid
Stomach ache
Rhynchosia calycosa
Hemsl.*
Fabaceae Osaei- Loldia Roots Pneumonia
Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii
Schinz.
Amaranthaceae Olaisai Roots, Leaves Stomach ache, Malaria
Warburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.)
Chiov.
Canellaceae Osokonoi Roots, Stem Stomach ache,
Typhoid, Pneumonia
TREATMENT S. typhi E. coli S. dysenteriae K. pneumaniae C. albican
Negative controls 6.000 ±0.000a 6.000 ±0.000a 6.000 ±0.000a 6.000± 0.000a 6.000 ±0.000a
C. rotundifolium 7.667 ±0.333 ab 6.667±0.333ab 8.000± 0.577a 7.333±0.333abc 7.333±0.333ab
C. myricoides 8.000± 0.577ab 10.667±1.201cd 6.667±0.333a 10.333±0.333bcd 14.000±0.577c
C. edulis 8.333±0.333ab 7.667±0.333 abc 8.000 ± 0.577a 10.333±1.201bcd 8.000±0.577ab
D. abyssinica 9.000±0.577 ab 9.667± 0.881abc 7.333± 0.333a 7.000±0.577ab 9.000± .577ab
P. urinaria 9.667±0.333 bc 13.667± 0.881de 12.000±1.154c 12.667 ± 0.881d 8.000±0.577ab
P.stellutum 10.000±0.573bc 10.333±1.201bcd 8.667 ±0.881ab 7.333±0.333abc 10.333±0 .881b
R. prinoides 12.333±0.881 cd 14.667± 0.881e 7.333 ±0 .333a 8.667±0.881abc 6.667±0.333a
C. abyssinica 14.000±0.577d 9.667±0.881abc 11.667±0.881bc 11.000±1.000cd 14.667±0.333c
Positive controls 28.333±1.201e 28.667±0 .333f 28.000± 0.577d 29.333±0.881e 24.667±1.201d
P. value < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Botanical name of plant S. typhi E. coli S. dysenteriae K. pneumoniae C. albicans
P. stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan S S I I S
C. edulis (Forssk.) Vahl I I I S I
R. prinoides L’He´r S S I I R
P. urinaria Linn S S S S I
C. abyssinica Jaub and Spach S S S S S
C. rotundifolium Oliv I R I I I
C. myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke I S R S S
D. abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb S S I I S
Positive controls S S S S S
Negative controls - - - - -
S. typhi
MIC MBC
E. coli
MIC MBC
S. dysenteriae
MIC MBC
K. pneumonia
MIC MBC
C. albicans
MIC MFC
P. stellatum 37.50 37.50 37.50 75.00 - - - - 37.50 75.00
C. edulis - - - - - - 37.50 37.50 - -
R. prinoides 37.50 37.50 9.37 9.37 - - - - - -
P. urinaria 37.50 75.00 18.75 37.50 37.50 75.00 18.75 37.50 - -
C. abyssinica 18.75 18.75 37.50 75.00 18.75 37.50 18.75 37.50 9.37 9.37
C. myricoides - - 37.50 37.50 - - 37.50 37.50 9.37 18.75
D. abyssinica 37.50 75.00 37.50 37.50 - - - - 37.50 75.00
Positive control 4.69 4.69 2.34 2.34 4.69 4.69 4.69 4.69 4.69 4.69
6. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 120 | Page
Table 4.5: Phytochemical screening of the extracts from the selected plant species
Botanical name of plant Tannins Saponins Flavonoids Alkaloids
Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan
(Fabaceae)
+++ ++ +++ -
Phyllanthus urinaria Linn (Phyllanthaceae) +++ ++ + +
Clutia abyssinica Jaub and Spach
(Euphorbiaceae)
++ + +++ ++
Rhamnus prinoides L’He´r (Rhamnaceae) +++ + + +++
Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv
(Verbenaceae)
+++ ++ + -
Clerodendron myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke
(Verbenaceae)
+ - ++ +++
Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb
(Flacourtiaceae)
++ ++ - +
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) +++ - ++ ++
Key: +++ represents high quantity/ abundant
++ represents moderate quantity
+ represents low quantity/ trace
- represents absence
V. Discussion
The use of roots as the most preferred plant parts in the preparation of herbal medicines as revealed in
the present survey could be because roots are believed to store higher concentrations of phytochemicals than
other plant parts. Roots have a high partitioning for the photosynthates and exudates [41]. The high
antimicrobial activity exhibited by Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae) against S. typhi and E.
coli may be attributed to the presence of high quantities of tannins and flavonoids in the plant (Table 4.5). These
compounds have been shown to possess cytotoxic and antidiarrhoeal properties [41].
In a research conducted by Endale et al. (2014) [42], ethanol extracts from leaves of P. stellatum
(Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae) showed significant in vitro anti-mycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium
tuberculosis with MIC of 250 mg/ml. Gizachew et al. (2014) [43] revealed that methanol extracts from the roots
of P. stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae) showed high activity against S. typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, P.
aeruginosa, S. aureus and E. coli. Despite the significantly acclaimed antimicrobial value of Carissa edulis
(Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) [44, 28, 45], the present study revealed that among the studied pathogens, the
extracts from the plant were highly active only against K. pneumoniae. The relatively low antimicrobial activity
of C. edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) in the present study may be due to phytochemicals antagonism and
discrepancies in phytochemical composition as a result of seasonal differences [46]. It could also be as a result
of intrinsic tolerance of the test microorganisms to the phytochemical combinations in the extracts of the plant
[47]. Findings of Nedi et al. (2004) [48] show that Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae) possesses
medicinal properties effective in the management of tuberculosis and other ailments.
Presence of flavonoids in abundance and moderate amounts of tannins and alkaloids (Table 4.5) could
possibly be contributory to the bacterial and fungal inhibitory nature of extracts from Clutia abyssinica Jaub and
Spach (Euphorbiaceae) against S. typhi and C. albicans in the present study. This is due to the antibacterial and
antifungal properties properties that have been attributed to tannins and alkaloids [41]. Methanol extracts of
Clutia abyssinica Jaub and Spach (Euphorbiaceae) have also been found to possess antiplasmodial properties
[49]. Resistance against Clerodendron myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) by S. dysenteriae and the low
inhibition against S. typhi by the plant may be due to phytochemical antagonism [46]. The significant inhibitory
potency shown by extracts of Clerodendron myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) against E. coli, K.
pneumonia and C. albicans in this study is comparable to research findings of Aremu et al. (2010) [50] which
revealed activity of extracts from C. myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) against E. coli, K. pneumoniae
and C. albicans with MICs of 3.13 mg/ml in all the microbes and MFC of 6.25 mg/ml against C. albicans.
Resistance towards Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv (Verbenaceae) by E. coli despite the high quantities of
tannins in the plant as revealed in the present assay can be as a result of tolerance towards tannins. It has been
shown that many strains of bacteria possess tolerance mechanisms towards tannins [34].
The susceptibility of S. typhi, E. coli, S. dysenteriae and K. pneumonia to Phyllanthus urinaria Linn
(Phyllanthaceae) could be attributed to synergy among tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and other
phytochemicals that may be present in the plant. This is from the assertion that for many herbal extracts,
synergy among multiple constituents exists [51]. The large number of pharmacologically active compounds in
the plant increases the likelihood of interactions taking place [52].
The variations in the antimicrobial potency of the plants extracts as revealed by the distinct inhibitory
zones and the MICs could be as a result of differences in both composition and amount of phytochemicals
among the plants studied as represented in the present research findings. This is in agreement to Akharaiyi and
Boboye (2010) [20] who maintain that active medicinal plants, though effective on the microbial isolates tested
7. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 121 | Page
against may exhibit variations in inhibitory potency resulting from variations in the secondary metabolites
concentrations in the plants. Variations in the sensitivity may also be attributed to the differences in growth rate
of the tested organisms, nutritional requirements, temperature and inoculum size [53].
VI. Conclusion
The results of the present study revealed that Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan (Fabaceae),
Rhamnus prinoides L’He´r (Rhamnaceae), Phyllanthus urinaria Linn (Phyllanthaceae), Carissa edulis (Forssk.)
Vahl (Apocynaceae), Clutia abyssinica Jaub and Spach (Euphorbiaceae), Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv
(Verbenaceae), Clerodendron myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (Verbenaceae) and Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.)
Warb (Flacourtiaceae) have a good antimicrobial activities against the studied Enterobacteria and fungal
pathogens. We therefore recommend for their consideration as possible sources of antimicrobial agents in the
development of additional drugs for management of Enterobacteria and Candida related infections. Further
research should be carried out to investigate the safety of direct use of the extracts of the studied plants as
medicine including their pharmacokinetics and pharmacological activities before their ethno medicinal use is
validated.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Kenyatta National Hospital’s Public Health Laboratories for providing us with the test cultures
and the Kenyatta University’s Chemistry, Pharmacy and Microbiology Departments for allowing us to use their
laboratories in carrying out the various procedures and assays involved in the entire investigation.
References
[1]. Paterson, D. L. (2006). Resistance in gram-negative bacteria: Enterobacteriaceae. American Journal of Infectious Diseases Control,
34: 21-28.
[2]. Gupta, K., Hooton, T.M. and Naber, K. G. (2011). International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated
cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: a 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for
Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 52: 103–120.
[3]. Hawser, S. P., Bouchillon, S. K., Lascols, C., Hackel, M., Hoban, D. J. and Badal, R. E. (2012). Susceptibility of European
Escherichia coli clinical isolates from intra-abdominal infections, extended-spectrum betalactamase occurrence, resistance
distribution, and molecular characterization of ertapenem-resistant isolates (SMART 2008–2009). Clinical Microbiology and
Infectious diseases, 18: 253–259.
[4]. Thapar, N. and Sanderson, I.R. (2004). Diarrhoea in children: an interface between developing and developed countries. Lancet,
363: 641– 653.
[5]. Sobel, J. D. (2009). Vulvovaginal candidiasis. Lancet, 369: 1961–1971.
[6]. Abdu, K. B., Khan, M. E. and Rumah M. M. (2008). Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of extracts from the root
bark of Carissa edulis, against human / animal pathogens. Continental Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2: 1 – 6.
[7]. Yang, Y.S., Ku, C. H and Lin, J.C (2010). Impact of Extendedspectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella
pneumoniae on the outcome of community-onset bacteremic urinary tract infections. Journal of Microbiology Immunology and
Infection, 43: 194–199.
[8]. Ben-Ami, R, Rodrı´guez-Ban˜o, J. and Arslan, H. (2009). A multinational survey of risk factors for infection with extended-
spectrum beta lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae in nonhospitalized patients. Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases,
49: 682–90.
[9]. Paterson, D. L. and Bonomo, R. A. (2005). Extended-spectrum betalactamases: a clinical update. Clinical Microbiology Reviews,
18: 657–686.
[10]. Nordmann, P., Naas, T. and Poirel, L. (2011). Global spread of carbapenemase producing Enterobacteriaceae. Emerg Infect Dis, 17:
1791-1798.
[11]. Canto´n, R., Valverde, A., Novais, A., Baquero, F. and Coque, T. (2007). Evolution and current situation of ESBL. Enfermedades
Infecciosas Microbiologia Clinica, 25: 2–10.
[12]. Namboodiri, S. S., Opintan, J. A., Lijek, R. S., Newman, M. J. and Okeke, N. I. (2011). Quinolone resistance in Escherichia coli
from Accra, Ghana. BMC Microbiology, 11: 44.
[13]. Breurec, S., Guessennd, N., Timinouni, M., Le, T., Cao, V., Ngandjio, A., Randrianirina, F., Thiberge, J., Kinana, A., Dufougeray,
A., Perrier-Gros-Claude, J., Boisier, P., Garin, B. and Brisse, S. (2013). Klebsiella pneumoniae resistant to third-generation
cephalosporins in five African and two Vietnamese major towns: multiclonal population structure with two major international
clonal groups, CG15 and CG258. Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 19: 349–355.
[14]. Poirel, L., Potron, A. and Nordmann, P. (2012). OXA-48-like carbapenemases: the phantommenace. Journal of Antimicrobial
Chemotherapy, 67: 1597–1606.
[15]. Woodford, N., Turton, J. F. and Livermore, D. M. (2011). Multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: the role of high-risk clones in the
dissemination of antibiotic resistance. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 35: 736–755.
[16]. Papp-Wallace, K. M., Endimiani, A. Taracila, M. A., Bonomo, R. A. (2011). Carbapenems: Past, Present, and Future. Antimicrobial
Agents and Chemotherapy, 55: 4943–4960.
[17]. Ojcius, D. (2007). In the News. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5: 10-11.
[18]. Harrois, D., Breurec, S., Seck, A.,Delaunel, A.,, Le H., S., Pardos de la, M., Andara, G., Sontag, L., Perrier-Gros-Claude, J. D.,
Sire, J. M., Garin, B. and Weill, F. X. (2013). Prevalence and characterization of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing clinical
Salmonella enterica isolates in Dakar, Senegal, from 1999 to 2009. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, doi: 10.1111/1469-
0691.12339.
[19]. Karuppayil, S. M., Rathod, V. S. and Raut, J. S. (2012). In vitro antifungal susceptibility reveals occurrence of azole resistance
among clinical isolates of candida albicans. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 5: 170-173.
8. The efficacy of some medicinal plants used locally within Transmara west, Narok County, Kenya ..
DOI: 10.9790/3008-120101115122 www.iosrjournals.org 122 | Page
[20]. Akharaiyi, F. C. and Boboye, B. (2010). Antibacterial and Phytochemical Evaluation of Three Medicinal Plants. Journal of Natural
Products, 3: 27-34.
[21]. Ricardo, R. M. (2006). Bioactive Phytocompounds: New Approaches in the Phytosciences. Modern Phytomedicine, ISBN: 3-527-
31530-6. Accessed on 13th
December 2013.
[22]. Tajkarimi, M. M., Ibrahim, S. A. and Cliver, D. O. (2010). Antimicrobial herb and spice compounds in food. Food Control,
21:1199–1218.
[23]. Kiringe, J.W. (2006). A Survey of Traditional Health Remedies Used by the Maasai of Southern Kajiado District, Kenya.
Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 4: 61-73.
[24]. Jeruto, P., Mutai, C., Ouma, G., Lukhoba, C., Nyamaka, R. L. and Manani, S. D. (2010). Ethnobotanical survey and propagation of
some endangered medicinal plants from south Nandi district of Kenya. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 8: 1016-1043.
[25]. Seema, D., Gupta, A. K. and Meenu, S. (2012). Ethano-Medicinal use of Plants Belonging to Families Fabaceae and Solanaceae,
Hamirpur District (H.P.). International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 2: 3140- 3153
[26]. Kremen, V., Raymond, I., and Lances, K. (2008). An interdisciplinary tool for monitoring and conservation impacts in Madagascar.
Conservation Biology, 12: 549-563.
[27]. Case, D. D. (1990). The Community's Toolbox: The idea, methods and tools for participatory assessment, monitoring and
evaluation in community forestry. FAO/RWEDP, Rome.
[28]. Mariita, R. M., Okemo, P. O., Orodho, J. A., Kirimuhuzya, C. , Otieno, J. N. and Magadula, J. J. (2010). Efficacy of 13 medicinal
plants used by indigenous communities around lake victoria, Kenya, against tuberculosis, diarrhea causing bacteria and Candida
albicans. International Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 2: 771-791.
[29]. Veeramuthu, D., Muniappan, A. and Savarimuthu, I. (2006). Antimicrobial activity of some ethnomedicinal plants used by Paliyar
tribe from Tamil Nadu, India. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6: 35-46.
[30]. Jorgensen, J. H. and Turnidge, J. D. (2007). Antibacterial susceptibility tests: dilution and disk diffusion methods. Manual of
Clinical Microbiology, 9: 1152-1172.
[31]. Hleba, L., Kacaniova, M., Vukovic, N., Petrova, J., Felsociova, S., Pavelkova, A. and Rovna, K. (2013). Antibacterial activity of
some wild medical plants extract to antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli. Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Food
Sciences, 2: 1215-1224.
[32]. Rani, P. and Khullar, N. (2004). Antimicrobial evaluation of some medicinal plants for their anti-enteric potential against multi-drug
resistant Salmonella typhi. Phytotherapy research, 18: 670-673.
[33]. Giner, M. J., Vegara, S., Funes, L. Nuria, M., Saura, D., Micolb, V. and Valeroa, M. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of food-
compatible plant extracts and chitosan against naturally occurring micro-organisms in tomato juice. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 92: 1917–1923.
[34]. Wardah, M. D., Khoo, T. J., Ramliza, R., Tzar, M. N. and Christophe, W. (2013). Antibacterial Effects of Ellagitannins from
Acalypha wilkesiana var. macafeana hort.:Surface Morphology Analysis with Environmental Scanning Electron Microcopy and
Synergy with Antibiotics. Phytotherapy Research, 27: 1313–1320.
[35]. Edelmann, A., Pietzcke, T. and Wellinghausen, N. (2007). Comparison of direct disk diffusion and standard microtitre broth
dilution susceptibility testing of blood culture isolates. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 56: 202-207.
[36]. Obasi, N. B. and Igbochi, A. C. (1992). Antibacterial activity of a chemical isolate from stem bark of Blighia unijugata. African
Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Science, 23: 4750 – 4761.
[37]. Soetan, K. O., Aiyelaagbe O. O., Oyekunle, M. A. and Fafunso, M. A. (2006). Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of saponins
extract of Sorghum bicolor L. Moench. African Journal of Biotechnology, 5: 2405-2407.
[38]. Edeoga, H. O., Okwu, D. E. and Mbaebie, B. O. (2005). Phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. African
Journal of Biotechnology. 4: 685-688.
[39]. Obadoni, B. O., and Ochuko, P. O. (2001). Phytochemical studies and comparative efficacy of the crude extracts of some
homostatic plants in Edo and Delta states of Nigeria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Science, 8: 203-208.
[40]. Okello, S. V., Nyunja, R. O., Netondo, G. W. and Onyango, J. C. (2010). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Sabaots
of Mt. Elgon. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 7: 1 – 10.
[41]. Atta, A. H. and Mouneir, S. M. (2005). Evaluation of some medicinal plant extracts for antidiarrhoeal activity. Phytotherapy
Research, 19: 481– 485.
[42]. Endale, B., Berhan, M., Mebrahtom, G., Adane, W. and Gobena, A. (2014). Evaluation of In-vitro Anti-Mycobacterial Activity of
Selected Medicinal Plants in Mekelle, Ethiopia. World Applied Sciences Journal, 31: 1217-1220.
[43]. Gizachew, A., Shemsu, U., Fentabi, G., Alemu, T., Haile, A. and Nigatu, K. (2014). Antimicrobial and Phytochemical Screening of
Methanol Extracts of Three Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia. Advances in Biological Research, 8: 101-106.
[44]. Bussmann, R. W., Njoroge, G. N. and Grace, N. G. (2006). Diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnotherapeutic remedies
among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). Journal of Ethnobiological Ethnomedicine, 2: 35- 41.
[45]. Jeruto, P. , Mutai, C., Lukhoba, C. and Ouma, G. (2011). Phytochemical constituents of some medicinal plants used by the Nandis
of South Nandi district, Kenya. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 9: 1201- 1210.
[46]. Ruttoh, E. K. (2009). Antimicrobial efficacy of selected plants use by traditional medical practioners in Kerio, Kenya. Nairobi,
Kenya. M.Sc. Dissertation. Kenyatta University, 78-87.
[47]. Duraipandiyan, V. and Ignacimuthu, S. (2011). Antifungal activity of traditional medicinal plants from Tamil Nadu, India. Asian
Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2: 204-215.
[48]. Nedi, T., Mekonnen, N. and Urgak, K. (2004). Diuretic effect of the crude extracts of Carissa edulis in rats. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 95: 57-61.
[49]. Muthaura, C. N., Rukunga, G. M., Chhabra, S. C. Omar, S. A., Guantai. A. N., Gathirw, J. W.,Tolo, F. M., Mwitari, P. G., Keter,
L. K.,Kirira, P. G. Kimani, C. W. Mungai, G. M. and Njagi, E. N. (2007). Antimalarial Activity of Some Plants Traditionally used
in Meru district of Kenya. Phytotherapy Research, 21: 860–867.
[50]. Aremu, A. O., Ndhlala, A. R., Fawole, O. A., Light, M. E., Finnie, J. F. and Van Staden, J. (2010). In vitro pharmacological
evaluation and phenolic content of ten South African medicinal plants used as anthelmintics. South African Journal of Botany, 76:
558–566.
[51]. Bensch, K., Tiralongo, J., Schmidt, K., Matthias, A., Bone, K. M., Lehmann, R., and Tiralongo. E. (2011). Investigations into the
antiadhesive activity of herbal extracts against Campylobacter jejuni. Phytotherapy Research, 25: 1125–1132.
[52]. Enzo, A. P. (2006). Phytochemicals from Traditional Medicinal Plants used in the Treatment of Diarrhoea: Modes of Action and
Effects on Intestinal Function. Phytotherapy research, 20: 717–724.
[53]. Gaill, W. and Jon, A. W., (1995). Antimicrobial susceptibility test; dilution and disc diffusion methods. Clinical Microbiology, 6:
1327-1332.