This document discusses the concept of language and its characteristics. It defines language as a system of signs and symbols that humans use to communicate with each other. Some key characteristics of language include its arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, and that it is a uniquely human entity. The document also examines the four main language skills - speaking, listening, reading, and writing - and describes how each skill is acquired and used. Finally, it outlines some of the main functions of language, including communication, transmission of culture, expression of ideas, and enabling human society through cooperation.

1. TheConceptofLanguage
Language
Language,likeanyother concept,hasseveral definitions.Thisis,of course,dueto the fact that peopleseem to view thingsfrom
different perspectives.However, most definitionsof languageseem tohave some similarities.Thiscanbeseeninsomeof the
definitionsof the concept:
"Languageisthe expressionof ideasby meansof speech-soundscombinedintowords.Wordsare combinedintosentences,this
combinationansweringtothat of ideasintothoughts." HenrySweet
BernardBlochandGeorgeL. Trager,onthe other hand,hadthis to say, "A languageisa system of arbitraryvocal symbolsby
meansof whichasocialgroupcooperates."
"Languagerefersto the cognitivefacultythat enableshumanstolearnand usesystems of complexcommunication."
All the above definitionstellus that languageisa system of signs that we use incommunicatingwithourselvesandwith one
another. Thesignsarespeech-sounds,asillustratedby the first definition.However, languagealsohaswritten signswhicharethe
alphabetsthat we usein writing. Therefore,communication,inany language,isonlypossibebecauseofthe linguistic symbolsthat
functionaccordingtosomerulesandconventions.
It is these rulesthat give us the underlyingconventionsonhow to form Phonemesintomorphemes.Theserulesalsotellus howto
derive words from morphemes.It is the samerules that govern every aspectof a languagesuchasits grammar,syntax,
phonology,etc.
Thedefinitionsalso,especiallythe last one,illustrate that languageisconnectedwiththementalprocessofunderstanding.Thisis
easilydiscernablewhenonelooksathow languageisacquired,especially,in children.However,it goes beyondhow we learn a
language.Communicationisonlypossiblebecauseofthementalprocessof encodinganddecodinginformation.Ofcourse,thisis
quitecomplex.Thecomplexitycouldbeseeninour inabilityto decodeinformationinalanguagewhosesystem wehave not
acquired.However,our mentalfacultywould,at the sametime,be opento learningthe symbolsof any languageshouldone
decidetolearnit.
Finally,the definitionssimplytellus that languageiswhatenablesus to utter distinctsounds,jointhem into words, and into
meaningfulsentencesforthe purposeof communicatingourideasandthoughts.
CharacteristicsofLanguage
Languagehasseveral characteristicswhichmakeitpossibleforit to be useful to us as a meansofcommunication.The
characteristicsaremany.However, we wouldstart by lookingatthose that seem to be uniquetohumanlanguage.
1. Displacement
2. Arbitrariness
3. Productivity
4. Culturaltransmission
5. Discreteness
6. Duality
7. It is a humanentity
8. Languageisliving
Thefollowingcharacteristics,onthe otherhand, are alsosharedby somespecies:
1. Use of the vocal-auditorychannel2.Reciprocity3. Specialization
4. Non-directionality5. Rapidfade

2. TheFourLanguageSkills
Speaking,listening,writingandreadingarethe four languageskills.Thefirsttwo skills seem to bethe mostbasic skillsin every
language.Speakingandlisteningarethefirst two linguistic skillsthat humansacquireinlearningalanguage.Theremainingtwo
skills, readingandwriting,usually, requiresomeformalinstruction.Additionally,readingandwriting, especiallythelatter, would
requirea familiarizationwithsomewrittensymbols. Consequently,readingandwritingare referredto as skillsof literacy while
listeningandspeakingarereferred to as skills of oracy. Listeningandreadingarealso classifiedasreceptiveskillswhilespeaking
andwriting areseen as expressive skills.
TheListeningSkill
Listeningis the first languageskillthat is acquiredinlearningalanguage.Weonly get onto speaka languageaftergainingsome
exposureto the speech-soundsofthe languageasthey areused in expressingideasandthoughts. Therefore,listeninginvolves
understandingthespeech-soundsofa languageaswellas the abilityto decodethesoundsinan utterance.It has to do with
receptionandinterpretationofthe sounds. Therefore,listeningalsorequiresanabilityto assignmeaningtothe various sound
combinationsinalanguage.
Listeningis, therefore, "an active processwhichinvolvesthe immediateandunconsciousrecognitionofthesignificantelementsof
speech."It involves recognition,selectionandinterpretation.Consequently,attention, reception,response,retentionandc ritical
judgmentarenecessaryinlistening.(Adaji and Agamah)
Listeningis importantbecausehowonelistensconveys meaningtothe otherperson ina communicationprocess.Therefore,it
helpsto makethe communicationsuccessful.
It helpsone to understandspokenEnglishwithoutmuchdifficulty.Additionally, it enablesoneto easilydifferentiatebetweensimilar
but different soundsin a language.
Listeningenablesusto identify the mainorimportantideasin an utterance.Thus,enablingthelistenertoproperlyinterpretea
message.
Typesof ListeningSkills
1. Conversational
Conversationallisteningsimplyinvolves comprehensionandparticipationinconversation.Ittakes placeusuallyin discussionsand
debates.
2. Empathizing
Thisinvolves drawingoutthe speakerandsourcingoutinformationina supportive andhelpfulway. Thisisachievedby imagining
yourself in the other person's position.You try to understandwhatthe speakeris thinking,and trying to let them feel comfortable.
You try to relateto theiremotionalexperiences.
3. Recreationallistening
Thisissimplylisteningforpleasureor recreationalpurposes.Thepurpose,accordingtoAdaji andUgwuanyi, "is to relate what you
heardto otherrelevant issues."
4. Exploratory listening
Thistype of listeningskillhasto dowith listeningfor new information.It dealswithexposingyourself to unfamiliarstoriesoritems.
5. Criticallistening
Criticallisteningiswhenyou listen to determinefactsfrom falsehoodor any otherinconsistence.
6. Synthesizing
Thisinvolves proactivelyguidingaconversationtowardsan objective.You listenand respondina way that suggests whichideas
canbeused andhow they mightbeimplemented.You mayalsosuggest newideasthat maybeconsidered.
7. Analyzing
Thisiswhenyou listento seek out concreteinformationandtryto disentanglefactfrom emotion.You rely onanalyticalquestions
to understandthe ideasbehindthe speakerspresentation.
TheSpeakingSkill

3. Speakinginvolves the articulationofmeaningfulsoundsfrom theindividualsoundelementsofa language.Therefore,itrequires
knowledgeofthe oral formsin a languageandtherules guidingtheirusageto producemeaning.
TheReadingSkill
AccordingtoOyetunde (1999),"Readingis a processof obtaininginformationfrom print.It is a complexprocessthatinvolves
interactionbetweenthereaderandthe author." Thisis partlybecauseareaderis usuallyexposedto someelementsfrom the
experiencesofthe writer.
Readingisboth a perceptualandcognitiveprocessbecauseitdemandsunderstanding andinterpretationofmeaning.Thisiswhy
the essenceof readingisunderstanding.
Readingisimportantbecauseitis neededinorder to readbooks; and booksare the "store houseof knowledge."
Readingalsoenablesindividualstofurther their education.After all,we are onlyableto further oureducationthroughreadingfrom
onestage to another.
TechniquesofReading
Thefollowingtechniquesofreadinghave beengiven by somescholars:
1. SQ3Rby Robinson(1961):
Survey:- You readthe most significantelementsofthe chaptersuchas the title, the introductorystatement andthe mainheadings.
You then examineanyillustrationsandreadthe summary,wherethere is one.Theaim isto get a basic ideaof the chapter.
Question:-Formulatequestionsfrom thesurvey. Thequestionsshouldbeformulatedaroundthemainheadingsinthechapter.
Read:-Thisinvolves readingto find out answersto your questions.
Recite:-Reciteanswersto the questionsthat you raisedearlier.
2. TheEvoker by Pauk (1963):
Thisappliesmostlyto the readingof literaturesuchas prose, poetry anddrama.It has the followingmeaning:
Explore:-Read the wholeworkto have a basic understandingofits message.
Vocabulary:- Takenoteof the mainwordsand the unfamiliarones.Dothe samefor places,peopleandevents. Thentry to
understandor get theirmeanings.
OralReading:-Readthe work orally.
Key ideas:- Thisinvolvesfindingout the mainideasor themesbehindthematerial.Thisisvery importantbecausethemessageof
any literarywork cannotbeseparatedfrom its theme.
Evaluation:- You shouldevaluatethe contributionofthe key words andsentencestowardsformulatingthemainideasor themesof
the material.
Recapitulate:-Yourereadthe work.
3. REAP by Eanetand Manzo(1976):
Read:-Read the work.
Encode:-Thisinvolvestranslatingthe read materialintothe student's language.
Annotate:- Thestudentwrites the messageofthe work.
Ponder:-Thisinvolves the student ponderingorthinkingover the messageofthe author.
4. SCQP by Oyetunde(1997):
Summarize:-Thisinvolvesstoppingat somepointsin readingthework to summarizewhathas beenread.
Clarify:- Thestudentshouldclarifyanything that is not clear.Thiscouldbeachievedbyre-readingorsimplydiscussingwithothers
the parts that arenot clear.
Question:-Thisinvolves trying to predictwhatsort of questionsthe teachermightaskin a test. Thestudentshouldwrite out the
questionsandtry to answer them.
Predict:-Tryto predictwhatwill occurnextinthe text. Readfurther to confirm yourpredictions.
TheWritingSkill

4. Writing, accordingtoOyetunde(1999),is "Theactof makinggraphic symbolsfrom oralsymbols." Therefore,itinvolves making
meaningfulsymbolsfrom speech-symbolsbasedonsomerulesandconventionssuchasthat of phonology,grammarandsyntax,
etc. Writing is saidto be the most complexofall the languageskills.It requiresorganisation,expressionandselectionof content
appropriateto a particularcontext(AdajiandUgwuanyi2005:67). Oneneedsaccuracyandcoherenceinotherto write
appropriately.Thisisbecauseit hasto dowith meaningbothonpaperand inthe mind.
SkillsRequiredToWriteWell
AccordingtoOyetunde (1991:49),the followingskillsareneededin orderto write effectively andefficiently:
1. Orallanguagebackgroundandexperience.
2. Theconceptofprint. Thismeansunderstandingthegraphicsymbolsneededtocommunicate.
3. Theconceptofletters.
4. Letter-soundrelationships.
5. Theconceptof"wordiness".
6. Theconceptofsentence.
7. Theconceptofleft to right.
8. Paragraphing.
TheFunctionsofLanguage
Fewthings in lifehave as manydifferentuses as language.Consequently,anattempt at identifying the functionsof languageisan
oversimplification.However,we wouldattemptto identifysomeof these functions,with the hope,that they wouldbroadenour
understandingofthe complexityof language.Ofcourse,the functionswouldgive us insightintonothingbut the purposeof
language,whatit does, and its uses. Definitely, this wouldbe familiargroundtoany readerbecauselanguageisapart of who we
are- as humans.The followingaresomeofthe functions:
1. Meansof Communication
Language,of course,isthe majormeansbywhichhumanscommunicate.Weuse it inpassingmessagesfrom oneparty to
another. Thisispossiblethroughbothspeechandwriting.
2. Transmission ofCulture
Languageisthe majorvehiclefor the transmissionofculturefrom onegenerationto another.It is through languagethatwe learn
the values and normsof our society. It is throughlanguagethatall the elementsofculturearepassed onto younger membersofa
society.
3. It is a meansof thought
Basicallyallhumanthoughtis donewithinthe scopeof language.We donot seem to have the abilityto formulateourthought
outsidethe scopeof language.Therefore,it is a vehicleof humanthought.
4. Diffusion of Knowledge
Knowledgeispassedon throughlanguage.It is used for instructionbothin formalandinformaleducationalsituations.It is usedin
both schoolsandhomestospreadknowledge.
5. A CohesivePoliticalForce
Languagehasalways beenusedor relieduponas a cohesivepoliticaltool.Thisiswhy somelanguagesaresometimespromoted
whilesomearediscouraged.An exampleofthis was the prohibitionofBasqueduringthe Spanishcivilwar in the 1930's.
6. It Unites people
Languageenablepeopletounitebasedon linguistic affiliations.Wetendto naturallyassociatewithpeoplewhosharea language
with us.
7. It is a meansof culturalidentity

5. Thisiscloselyrelatedto howit unitespeople.Humanculturalaffiliationsandidentityhas always beeninseperablefrom theuse of
a sharedlanguageorsomelinguistic characteristicsbetweenmembersofagroup. Thisiswhy peopleinsub-culturessuchas
"Area Boys" couldbefound usinglanguageinapeculiarform from that of the largersociety.
8. Existense of societythroughcooperation
Humansocietybasicallyexists becauseitsmembershavelanguagetofacilitatetheircooperation.Weuse it in almostevery type of
relationship.We useit inthe family, at work, in the streets, etc.We use it to move the societyforward.
9. TherapeuticFunction
Languageisusedto easeanxiety, tension, fear, worriesandpain. A soothingword goesa longway in makingonefeelbetter
despitethe intensity of a situation.
10. Meansof socialization
11. We use it inexpressingour ideas:-Languageenablesusto expressour ideas, feelingsanddesiresin suchaway that is easily
understoodby others. Thecharacteristicsofhumanlanguagemakeitpossibleforit to serve this purposefor whatever feelings,
desiresor ideasthat areto be communicatedfrom onepartyto another.
13. Thecooperationthatenableshumansocietyto exist andmakeprogressis only possiblebecauseoflanguage.After all, our
societieswouldfailwithouta sharedmeansof communicationtoenableuscooperatetowardssustainingthesesocieties.This is
why even the most multilingualsocietiesintheworldtend to have somelinguafrancabywhichthespeakersof the various
languagescouldcooperatetowardsthesustainanceandadvancementofthat society.
FunctionsofEnglishLanguageinNigeria
1. Majormedium ofinter-ethnic communication
Englishis today the mainmediumbywhichthe over 520 tribesin Nigeriacommunicate.It is the mostused languageinNigeria
whenit comesto communicationbetweenpeoplewhobelongtodifferenttribes. TheYoruba manfrom the South-West would
readilyrely uponit to speak to the Fulanifrom Adamawainthe North-East- if bothunderstandsomeEnglish;and, they would,in
mostcases-even thoughit mightbe pidginEnglish.
2. It is the country's officiallanguage
TheEnglishlanguageisNigeria'sofficiallanguage.Itis languageinwhichtheconstitutionof Nigeriaiswritten. Similarly,all other
officialstatutes of the countryare written inthe Englishlanguage.It is alsothe languageinwhichmostof ourarmsof government
operatedespitethe fact that thereis someprovision for the use of the majorindigenouslanguagesinplacesliketheNationaland
State Assemblies.
3. TheLinguaFrancaforstudentsof tertiary institutions
Tertiaryinstitutionsin Nigeriatendto have a cosmopolitanmixofstudents from various parts of the country. Thesestudentsmostly
rely onthe Englishlanguageasameansto communicateamongthemselves.It thereforebreaks any communicationbarrierthat
exists due to the multilingualisminsuchinstitutionsofhigherlearning.Additionally, this functionisnoticeableevenat some
secondaryandprimaryschools.
4. Themajorlanguageforcreativewriting
It is the mainlanguageusedbycreativewriters in Nigeria.Mostof ourliterary piecesbyaccomplishedNigerianauthorssuc has
Wole Soyinka, ChinuaAchebe,Abubakar Gimba,etc.are writtenin English.
5. Themajorlanguageusedbythe media
TheEnglishlanguageisthemostused languageinNigeriabyboth the electronic andprint media.It is used for disseminating
news, soaps, talk shows,etc. In fact, virtually allthe dailynewspapershavinga nationalcoverageare publishedinthelanguage.It
is alsothe languagemostlyrelieduponbythe Nigerianmovieindustryknownas Nollywood.

6. 6. It is used for religiouspurposes
It is a majorlanguageofworshipinNigeria.However, this usagemostly appliesonlyto Christianity. Most sermonsinNigerian
churchesareconductedinEnglish.Thisalsomostlyappliesto pentecostalchurches thatbeganto emergeinthe countryfrom the
1970s.
Thelanguagedoesnotplaythis rolein Islamic worshipduetothe factthat Islamic religiouspracticesareperformedinArabic,the
languageofthe Holy Qur'an.However, the pervasive nature of the Englishlanguagehasseenit been relieduponbysomeImams
in translatingtheirFriday(Juma'ah)sermonstoworshippersbeforedeliveringthe samein Arabic.
Additionally, indigenousreligiousworshiphasalsobeenableto keepthe Englishlanguageatbay. Therefore,adherentsof
traditionalreligionssuchasIfa worshippersrelyon indigenouslanguagessuchasYorubain performingtheirreligiouspractices.
7. It plays a rolein politics
MostpoliticalactivitiesinNigeriaaredonein English.Political campaigns,especiallyat the nationallevel, aremostlycarriedout in
English.It is the mainlanguageusedinpoliticalcampaignadvertisements.It is also the languageinwhichpolitical activitiesare
carriedoutin allthe armsof government.
8. It is the majormediumfortransactingbusiness
TheEnglishlanguageisthemainlanguageofbusinessinthe country. It is the languageof the bankingandeconomic sector. Most
businesstransactionsbetweenpeople,especiallyfrom differentparts of the country, are carriedoutin the language.Thisisclearly
seenin our marketswherepidginEnglishtendsto bespokenalmostmorethan even our indigenouslanguages.
9. KnowledgeandInstruction
It is the mainlanguageofinstructioninmostNigerianinstitutionsof learning.Thereisnoway that one couldgoacquireformal
educationinNigeriawithoutcomingincontactwithEnglish.
10. It is a meansof socialidentity
Thelevelof proficiencyinthe languagedueto mainlyeducationalexposuretendstomake it a markerof socialidentityin Nigeria.
Varying proficiencylevelsin the languagemakesitpossiblefor individualsto bestratified accordingly.Consequently,those with a
highproficiencylevelin the languageareseenas the elitesin our societywhileotherswho speakonly pidginareseenas
belongingtothe lowerrungs of society.
PublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychological Association,6thEdition by AmericanPsychologicalAssociation
CallNumber:Ref BF76.7.P83 2010Lesley/SherrillStacks
Cunningham,G.,MacDonald,P. C., Gant, N. F., Leveno, K. J., Gilstrap,L. C., Hankins,G. D., . . . Clark, S. L. (1996).Language
Rulesand Concepts.Stamford,CT:Appleton& Lange.