Allergies are the result of your immune system's response to a substance. Immune responses can be mild, from coughing and a runny nose, to a life-threatening reaction know as anaphylaxis.
A person becomes allergic when their body develops antigens against a substance.
The purpose of the immune system is to defend itself and keep microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
The immune system is made up of a complex and vital network of cells and organs that protect the body from infection.
The organs involved with the immune system are called the lymphoid organs. They affect growth, development, and the release of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
The blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are important parts of the lymphoid organs.
They carry the lymphocytes to and from different areas in the body.
Each lymphoid organ plays a role in the production and activation of lymphocytes.
Lymphoid organs include:
Adenoids (two glands located at the back of the nasal passages)
Appendix (a small tube that is connected to the large intestine)
Blood vessels (the arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows)
Bone marrow (the soft, fatty tissue found in bone cavities)
Lymph nodes (small organs shaped like beans, which are located throughout the body and connect via the lymphatic vessels)
Lymphatic vessels (a network of channels throughout the body that carries lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream)
Peyer's patches (lymphoid tissue in the small intestine)
Spleen (a fist-sized organ located in the abdominal cavity)
Thymus (two lobes that join in front of the trachea behind the breast bone)
Tonsils (two oval masses in the back of the throat)
Lymphoid organs include:
Adenoids (two glands located at the back of the nasal passages)
Appendix (a small tube that is connected to the large intestine)
Blood vessels (the arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows)
Bone marrow (the soft, fatty tissue found in bone cavities)
Lymph nodes (small organs shaped like beans, which are located throughout the body and connect via the lymphatic vessels)
Lymphatic vessels (a network of channels throughout the body that carries lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream)
Peyer's patches (lymphoid tissue in the small intestine)
Spleen (a fist-sized organ located in the abdominal cavity)
Thymus (two lobes that join in front of the trachea behind the breast bone)
Tonsils (two oval masses in the back of the throat)
Anaphylactic shock, also called anaphylaxis, is a severe, life-threatening reaction to certain allergens.
Body tissues may swell, including tissues in the throat.
Anaphylactic shock is also characterized by a sudden drop in blood pressure.
The following are the most common symptoms of anaphylactic shock.
However, each person may experience symptoms differently.
The presentation includes an overview of hypersensitivity and type 1 hypersensitivity with certain pictures elaborating the mechanism. The presentation also talks about asthma very briefly as an example of type 1 hypersensitivity.
The presentation includes an overview of hypersensitivity and type 1 hypersensitivity with certain pictures elaborating the mechanism. The presentation also talks about asthma very briefly as an example of type 1 hypersensitivity.
hypersensitivity Undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system. Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune response that results in tissue damage and is manifested in the individual on a second or subsequent contact with an antigen. Hypersensitivity reactions can be classified as either immediate or delayed. Obviously immediate reactions appear faster than delayed ones, but the main difference between them is the nature of the immune response to the antigen.
PREPARED BY DR MUHAMMAD MUQEEM MANGI BASED ON GUYTON AND HALL 14TH EDITION WITH NET HELP, FOR THE MEDICAL STUDENTS OF FIRST YEAR MBBS ,DENTAL STUDENTS , DOCTORS OF PHYSIOTHERAPY AND PARAMEDICAL PERSONEL
1. Type I Hypersensitivity:
Type I hypersensitive reactions are the commonest type among all types which is mainly induced by certain type of antigens i.e. allergens. Actually anaphylaxis means “opposite of protection” and is mediated by IgE antibodies through interaction with an allergen
Skin Pigmentation disorders and its management .pptxJagruti Marathe
Some of the most common are pigmented birthmarks, macular stains, hemangiomas, port wine stains, while disorders include albinism, melasma, vitiligo and pigmentation loss due to skin damage. Birthmarks and other skin pigmentation (coloration) disorders affect many people.
Skin pigmentation disorders are conditions that affect the color of the skin. Some common types of skin pigmentation disorders include:
Pigmented birthmarks
Macular stains
Hemangiomas
Port wine stains
Albinism
Melasma
Vitiligo
Skin pigment loss due to sun damage
Other factors that can affect skin pigmentation include: Pregnancy, Addison's disease, Sun exposure.
Some treatments for skin pigmentation disorders include:
Over-the-counter or prescription creams
Topical pimecrolimus or tacrolimus
Light therapy
Melanocytes in the basal epidermis control skin pigmentation through synthesis of melanin, a complex process thought to be primarily regulated by alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (αMSH)
Light therapy exposes your skin to a type of ultraviolet (UV) light that can restore your natural skin color. If a large area of your body needs treatment, your dermatologist may prescribe a type of light therapy called phototherapy. During phototherapy, you expose your skin to UV light for a specific amount of time.
Dermatological testing as perBISpecification.pptxJagruti Marathe
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standard Body of India.
BIS is responsible for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
BIS through its core activities of standardization and conformity assessment, has been benefiting the national economy by providing safe, reliable and quality goods; minimizing health hazards to consumers; protecting the environment, promoting exports and imports substitute; controlling over proliferation of varieties etc.
Dermatological testing assesses a product's potential to cause skin irritation or allergic reactions. A product is considered dermatologically tested if a qualified dermatologist supervises the testing and verifies the results. Some dermatological tests include: Repeat-insult patch testing: Stability testing: Cosmetics toxicology test:
hypersensitivity Undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system. Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune response that results in tissue damage and is manifested in the individual on a second or subsequent contact with an antigen. Hypersensitivity reactions can be classified as either immediate or delayed. Obviously immediate reactions appear faster than delayed ones, but the main difference between them is the nature of the immune response to the antigen.
PREPARED BY DR MUHAMMAD MUQEEM MANGI BASED ON GUYTON AND HALL 14TH EDITION WITH NET HELP, FOR THE MEDICAL STUDENTS OF FIRST YEAR MBBS ,DENTAL STUDENTS , DOCTORS OF PHYSIOTHERAPY AND PARAMEDICAL PERSONEL
1. Type I Hypersensitivity:
Type I hypersensitive reactions are the commonest type among all types which is mainly induced by certain type of antigens i.e. allergens. Actually anaphylaxis means “opposite of protection” and is mediated by IgE antibodies through interaction with an allergen
Skin Pigmentation disorders and its management .pptxJagruti Marathe
Some of the most common are pigmented birthmarks, macular stains, hemangiomas, port wine stains, while disorders include albinism, melasma, vitiligo and pigmentation loss due to skin damage. Birthmarks and other skin pigmentation (coloration) disorders affect many people.
Skin pigmentation disorders are conditions that affect the color of the skin. Some common types of skin pigmentation disorders include:
Pigmented birthmarks
Macular stains
Hemangiomas
Port wine stains
Albinism
Melasma
Vitiligo
Skin pigment loss due to sun damage
Other factors that can affect skin pigmentation include: Pregnancy, Addison's disease, Sun exposure.
Some treatments for skin pigmentation disorders include:
Over-the-counter or prescription creams
Topical pimecrolimus or tacrolimus
Light therapy
Melanocytes in the basal epidermis control skin pigmentation through synthesis of melanin, a complex process thought to be primarily regulated by alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (αMSH)
Light therapy exposes your skin to a type of ultraviolet (UV) light that can restore your natural skin color. If a large area of your body needs treatment, your dermatologist may prescribe a type of light therapy called phototherapy. During phototherapy, you expose your skin to UV light for a specific amount of time.
Dermatological testing as perBISpecification.pptxJagruti Marathe
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standard Body of India.
BIS is responsible for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
BIS through its core activities of standardization and conformity assessment, has been benefiting the national economy by providing safe, reliable and quality goods; minimizing health hazards to consumers; protecting the environment, promoting exports and imports substitute; controlling over proliferation of varieties etc.
Dermatological testing assesses a product's potential to cause skin irritation or allergic reactions. A product is considered dermatologically tested if a qualified dermatologist supervises the testing and verifies the results. Some dermatological tests include: Repeat-insult patch testing: Stability testing: Cosmetics toxicology test:
Cosmetic pharmacology refers to the use of drugs to improve cognition in normal healthy individuals, for the purpose of enhancement rather than treatment of a formal pathology.
Some case reports with the antidepressant Prozac indicated that patients seemed "better than well," and authors hypothesized that this effect might be observed in individuals not afflicted with psychiatric disorders.
Following these case reports much controversy arose over the veracity and ethics of the cosmetic use of these antidepressants.
Opponents of cosmetic pharmacology state that such drug use is unethical and dangerous, and that the concept of cosmetic pharmacology is a manifestation of naive consumerism resulting from pharmaceutical marketing campaigns.
Proponents state that drugs used to treat many pathologies are just as dangerous, it is an individual's (rather than government's, or physician's) decision whether to use a drug for cosmetic purposes, and there are few if any legitimate ethical qualms with cosmetic pharmacology.
Thousands of metabolic processes in myriad body cells produce hundreds of waste products.
The urinary system removes them by filtering and cleansing the blood as it passes through the kidneys.
Another vital function is the regulation of the volume, acidity, salinity, concentration, and chemical composition of blood, lymph, and other body fluids. Under hormonal control, the kidneys continually monitor what they release into the urine to maintain a healthy chemical balance.
A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
The heart contributes to homeostasis by pumping blood through blood vessels to the tissues of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove wastes.
Blood to reach body cells and exchange materials with them, it must be pumped continuously by the heart through the body’s blood vessels.
The heart beats about 100,000 times every day, which adds up to about 35 million beats in a year, and approximately 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime.
The left side of the heart pumps blood through an estimated 100,000 km (60,000 mi) of blood vessels, which is equivalent to traveling around the earth’s equator about three times.
The right side of the heart pumps blood through the lungs, enabling blood to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide.
Nervous System
Your nervous system is your body’s command center. Originating from your brain, it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty). Diseases, accidents, toxins and the natural aging process can damage your nervous system.
nervous system uses specialized cells called neurons to send signals, or messages, all over your body. These electrical signals travel between your brain, skin, organs, glands and muscles.
The messages help you move your limbs and feel sensations, such as pain. Your eyes, ears, tongue, nose and the nerves all over your body take in information about your environment. Then nerves carry that data to and from your brain.
Different kinds of neurons send different signals. Motor neurons tell your muscles to move. Sensory neurons take information from your senses and send signals to your brain. Other types of neurons control the things your body does automatically, like breathing, shivering, having a regular heartbeat and digesting food.
ANATOMY :The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells. These special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do.
The main parts of the nervous system are:
Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain uses your nerves to send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve and helps the messages get through.
Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that branch out from your CNS all over your body. This system relays information from your brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous system contains your:
Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements.
Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking about them.
housands of disorders and conditions can affect your nerves. An injured nerve has trouble sending a message. Sometimes it’s so damaged that it can’t send or receive a message at all. Nerve injury can cause numbness, a pins-and-needles feeling or pain. It may be difficult or impossible for you to move the area that’s injured.
Skin is the largest organ in the body and covers the body's entire external surface. It is made up of three layers, the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis, all three of which vary significantly in their anatomy and function. The skin's structure is made up of an intricate network which serves as the body’s initial barrier against pathogens, UV light, and chemicals, and mechanical injury. It also regulates temperature and the amount of water released into the environment. This article discusses the relevant anatomical structures of the skin’s epidermal layer, its structure, function, embryology, vascular supply, innervation, surgical considerations, and clinical relevance.
Skin Thickness
The thickness of each layer of the skin varies depending on body region and categorized based on the thickness of the epidermal and dermal layers. Hairless skin found in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is thickest because the epidermis contains an extra layer, the stratum lucidum. The upper back is considered thickest based on the thickness of the dermis, but it is considered “thin skin” histologically because the epidermal thickness lacks the stratum lucidum layer and is thinner than hairless skin.
Layers of Epidermis
The layers of the epidermis include the stratum basale (the deepest portion of the epidermis), stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum (the most superficial portion of the epidermis).
Stratum basale, also known as stratum germinativum, is the deepest layer, separated from the dermis by the basement membrane (basal lamina) and attached to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. The cells found in this layer are cuboidal to columnar mitotically active stem cells that are constantly producing keratinocytes. This layer also contains melanocytes.
Stratum spinosum, 8-10 cell layers, also known as the prickle cell layer contains irregular, polyhedral cells with cytoplasmic processes, sometimes called “spines”, that extend outward and contact neighboring cells by desmosomes. Dendritic cells can be found in this layer.
Stratum granulosum, 3-5 cell layers, contains diamond shaped cells with keratohyalin granules and lamellar granules. Keratohyalin granules contain keratin precursors that eventually aggregate, crosslink, and form bundles. The lamellar granules contain the glycolipids that get secreted to the surface of the cells and function as a glue, keeping the cells stuck together.
Stratum lucidum, 2-3 cell layers, present in thicker skin found in the palms and soles, is a thin clear layer consisting of eleidin which is a transformation product of keratohyalin.
Stratum corneum, 20-30 cell layers, is the uppermost layer, made up of keratin and horny scales made up of dead keratinocytes, known as anucleate squamous cells. This is the layer which varies most in thickness, especially in callused skin. Within this layer, the dead keratinocytes secrete defensins which are part of our first immune
Definition :
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces between the cells.
Histology (his′-TOL-oˉ-jē; histo- = tissue; logy = study of) is the science that deals with the study of tissues.
A pathologist (pa-THOL-oˉ - jist; patho- = disease) is a physician who examines cells and tissues to help other physicians make accurate diagnoses.
1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environments.
2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of connective tissues bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms.
3. Muscular tissue is composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force. In the process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms the body.
4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions.
In biology, cell signaling or cell communication is the ability of a cell to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself.
ell signaling is a fundamental property of all cellular life in prokaryotes and eukaryotes .
Signals that originate from outside a cell (or extracellular signals) can be physical agents like mechanical pressure, voltage, temperature, light, or chemical signals (e.g., small molecules, peptides, or gas).Signaling molecules can be synthesized from various biosynthetic pathways and released through passive or active transports, or even from cell damage.
Receptors play a key role in cell signaling as they are able to detect chemical signals or physical stimuli.
Receptors are generally proteins located on the cell surface or within the interior of the cell such as the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus.
Cell surface receptors usually bind with extracellular signals (or ligands), which causes a conformational change in the receptor that leads it to initiate enzymic activity, or to open or close ion channel activity. Some receptors do not contain enzymatic or channel-like domains but are instead linked to enzymes or transporters.
Other receptors like nuclear receptors have a different mechanism such as changing their DNA binding proper properties and cellular localization to the nucleus.
Structure and functions of cell, transport across cell membrane, cell
division, cell junctions. General principles of cell communication,
the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body
The basic tenets of the cell theory are as follows:
All living things are made up of one or more cells.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things.
Cells come from pre-existing cells through the process of division.
All cells are the same in regard to chemical composition.
Cells also communicate with each other. Whether in plants, humans, or animals, they connect to create a solid, well formed organism. In humans, cells build tissues, tissues form organs, and organs work together to keep the body alive.
Experts estimate that there are around 200Trusted Source cell types in the human body.
Allergies are the result of your immune system's response to a substance. Immune responses can be mild, from coughing and a runny nose, to a life-threatening reaction know as anaphylaxis.
A person becomes allergic when their body develops antigens against a substance
The purpose of the immune system is to defend itself and keep microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
The immune system is made up of a complex and vital network of cells and organs that protect the body from infection.
The organs involved with the immune system are called the lymphoid organs. They affect growth, development, and the release of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
The blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are important parts of the lymphoid organs.
They carry the lymphocytes to and from different areas in the body.
Each lymphoid organ plays a role in the production and activation of lymphocytes.
1. Toxicology, Scope of Pharmacology in Cosmetic Tech .pptxJagruti Marathe
Cosmetology is the study and application of beauty treatment. Branches of specialty include hairstyling, skin care, cosmetics, manicures/pedicures, non-permanent hair removal such as waxing and sugaring, and permanent hair removal processes such as electrology and intense pulsed light.
Alopecia areata is a disease that happens when the immune system attacks hair follicles and causes hair loss. Hair follicles are the structures in skin that form hair. While hair can be lost from any part of the body, alopecia areata usually affects the head and face
Trichotillomania (trik-o-til-o-MAY-nee-uh), also called hair-pulling disorder, is a mental disorder that involves recurrent, irresistible urges to pull out hair from your scalp, eyebrows or other areas of your body, despite trying to stop.
Hair pulling from the scalp often leaves patchy bald spots, which causes significant distress and can interfere with social or work functioning. People with trichotillomania may go to great lengths to disguise the loss of hair.
For some people, trichotillomania may be mild and generally manageable. For others, the compulsive urge to pull hair is overwhelming. Some treatment options have helped many people reduce their hair pulling or stop entirely.Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of trichotillomania often include:
Repeatedly pulling your hair out, typically from your scalp, eyebrows or eyelashes, but sometimes from other body areas, and sites may vary over time
An increasing sense of tension before pulling, or when you try to resist pulling
A sense of pleasure or relief after the hair is pulled
Noticeable hair loss, such as shortened hair or thinned or bald areas on the scalp or other areas of your body, including sparse or missing eyelashes or eyebrows
Preference for specific types of hair, rituals that accompany hair pulling or patterns of hair pulling
Biting, chewing or eating pulled-out hair
Playing with pulled-out hair or rubbing it across your lips or face
Repeatedly trying to stop pulling out your hair or trying to do it less often without success
Significant distress or problems at work, school or in social situations related to pulling out your hair
Many people who have trichotillomania also pick their skin, bite their nails or chew their lips. Sometimes pulling hairs from pets or dolls or from materials, such as clothes or blankets, may be a sign. Most people with trichotillomania pull hair in private and generally try to hide the disorder from others.
For people with trichotillomania, hair pulling can be:
Focused. Some people pull their hair intentionally to relieve tension or distress — for example, pulling hair out to get relief from the overwhelming urge to pull hair. Some people may develop elaborate rituals for pulling hair, such as finding just the right hair or biting pulled hairs.
Automatic. Some people pull their hair without even realizing they're doing it, such as when they're bored, reading or watching TV.
The same person may do both focused and automatic hair pulling, depending on the situation and mood. Certain positions or rituals may trigger hair pulling, such as resting your head on your hand or brushing your hair.
Trichotillomania can be related to emotions:
Negative emotions. For many people with trichotillomania, hair pulling is a way of dealing with negative or uncomfortable feelings, such as stress, anxiety, tension, boredom, loneliness, fatigue or frustration.
Positive feelings.
The earliest indications of the biological nature of viruses came from studies in 1892 by the Russian scientist Dmitry I. Ivanovsky and in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus W. Beijerinck.
Beijerinck first surmised that the virus under study was a new kind of infectious agent, which he designated contagium vivum
fluidum, meaning that it was a live, reproducing organism that differed from other organisms.
Both of these investigators found that a disease of tobacco plants could be transmitted by an agent, later called tobacco mosaic virus, passing through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of bacteria.
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms. Bacteria are found almost everywhere on Earth and are vital to the planet's ecosystems. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. The human body is full of bacteria, and in fact is estimated to contain more bacterial cells than human cells.
Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible with the naked eye. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'.
In biology, the classical doctrine of the nervous system determines that it is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. nervous system is your body's command center. Originating from your brain, it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty).
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair: A New Horizon in Nephrology" explores groundbreaking advancements in the use of R3 stem cells for kidney disease treatment. This insightful piece delves into the potential of these cells to regenerate damaged kidney tissue, offering new hope for patients and reshaping the future of nephrology.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Telehealth Psychology Building Trust with Clients.pptxThe Harvest Clinic
Telehealth psychology is a digital approach that offers psychological services and mental health care to clients remotely, using technologies like video conferencing, phone calls, text messaging, and mobile apps for communication.
Empowering ACOs: Leveraging Quality Management Tools for MIPS and BeyondHealth Catalyst
Join us as we delve into the crucial realm of quality reporting for MSSP (Medicare Shared Savings Program) Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs).
In this session, we will explore how a robust quality management solution can empower your organization to meet regulatory requirements and improve processes for MIPS reporting and internal quality programs. Learn how our MeasureAble application enables compliance and fosters continuous improvement.
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
Explore our infographic on 'Essential Metrics for Palliative Care Management' which highlights key performance indicators crucial for enhancing the quality and efficiency of palliative care services.
This visual guide breaks down important metrics across four categories: Patient-Centered Metrics, Care Efficiency Metrics, Quality of Life Metrics, and Staff Metrics. Each section is designed to help healthcare professionals monitor and improve care delivery for patients facing serious illnesses. Understand how to implement these metrics in your palliative care practices for better outcomes and higher satisfaction levels.
The Importance of Community Nursing Care.pdfAD Healthcare
NDIS and Community 24/7 Nursing Care is a specific type of support that may be provided under the NDIS for individuals with complex medical needs who require ongoing nursing care in a community setting, such as their home or a supported accommodation facility.
2. • Allergies are the result of your
immune system's response to a
substance. Immune responses
can be mild, from coughing and a
runny nose, to a life-threatening
reaction know as anaphylaxis.
• A person becomes allergic
when their body develops
antigens against a substance.
3. • The purpose of the immune system is to defend itself and keep
microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body,
and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
• The immune system is made up of a complex and vital network of cells and
organs that protect the body from infection.
• The organs involved with the immune system are called the lymphoid
organs. They affect growth, development, and the release of lymphocytes (a
type of white blood cell).
• The blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are important parts of the lymphoid
organs.
• They carry the lymphocytes to and from different areas in the body.
• Each lymphoid organ plays a role in the production and activation of
lymphocytes.
4. Lymphoid organs include:
•Adenoids (two glands located at the back of the nasal passages)
•Appendix (a small tube that is connected to the large intestine)
•Blood vessels (the arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows)
•Bone marrow (the soft, fatty tissue found in bone cavities)
•Lymph nodes (small organs shaped like beans, which are located throughout the
body and connect via the lymphatic vessels)
•Lymphatic vessels (a network of channels throughout the body that carries
lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream)
•Peyer's patches (lymphoid tissue in the small intestine)
•Spleen (a fist-sized organ located in the abdominal cavity)
•Thymus (two lobes that join in front of the trachea behind the breast bone)
•Tonsils (two oval masses in the back of the throat)
5. • Anaphylactic shock, also called anaphylaxis, is a severe, life-threatening
reaction to certain allergens.
• Body tissues may swell, including tissues in the throat.
• Anaphylactic shock is also characterized by a sudden drop in blood
pressure.
• The following are the most common symptoms of anaphylactic shock.
• However, each person may experience symptoms differently.
6. symptoms may include:
Itching and hives over most of the body
Feeling warm
Swelling of the throat and tongue or tightness in throat
Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
Dizziness
Headache
Pain or cramps
Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea
Shock
Loss of consciousness
Feeling light-headed
Anxiety
Abnormal heart rate (too fast or too slow)
7. IgE causes immediate (type I) hypersensitivities
› Characterized by immediate reaction of the
sensitized individual
Generally within minutes of exposure
Tendency to have type I hypersensitivities is
inherited
› Reactions occur in at least 20% to 30% of population
8. Sensitization occurs when antigen makes contact
with some part of body and induces response
IgE antibodies bind to receptors on mast cells and
basophiles
› Antigen readily bonds to cells fixed with IgE antibodies
Within seconds, mast cells degranulate releasing mediators that
initiate immune reaction including hives, hay fever and
anaphylaxis
9. Localized anaphylaxis
› Most allergic reactions are local
anaphylaxis
Hives
Allergic skin condition characterized by
formation of wheal and flare rash
Hay fever
Allergic condition caused by inhaled antigen
Condition marked by itching teary eyes,
sneezing and runny nose
Asthma
Respiratory allergy
Allergic mediators attracted to inflamed
respiratory tract
Results in increased mucous secretion
and bronchi spasm
10. Generalized anaphylaxis
› Rare, but more serious
› Antigen enters bloodstream and becomes
widespread
Reactions affect almost entire body
Can induce shock
› Massive release of mediators causes extensive
blood vessel dilation and fluid loss
Causes fall in pressure leading to blood flow
insufficiency
11. Immunotherapy
› General term for techniques
used to modify immune
system for favorable effect
› Procedure is to inject
individual with extremely
dilute suspension of
allergen
Called desensitization or
hyposensitization
› Concentration of allergen
gradually increased over
time
Individual gradually becomes
less sensitive
12. Immunotherapy
› Second therapeutic procedure is injection of
antibodies to bind IgE
Essentially anti-IgE antibodies
› Most IgE are bound to mast cells and basophiles
Engineered anti-IgE created
rhuMab = recombinant human Monoclonal antibody
13. Complement-fixing antibodies react with cell
surface antigens causing cell injury or death
Cells can be destroyed in type II reactions
through complement fixation and antibody-
dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)
Examples of type II hypersensitivities are
› Transfusion reactions
› Hemolytic disease of the newborn
14. Transfusion reactions
› Normal red blood cells have different surface antigens
Antigens differ from person to person
People are designated type A, B, AB or O
› Transfused blood that is antigenically different can be
lysed by recipient immune cells
› Cross-matching blood is used to ensure compatibility
between donor and recipient
› Antibody-coated cells removed by phagocyte system
› Symptoms include low blood pressure, pain, nausea and
vomiting
15. Hemolytic disease of the newborn
› Basis of disease is incompatibility of Rh
factor between mother and child
Rh factor RBC cell surface antigen
Rh positive = Rh antigen present
Rh negative = Rh antigen missing
Anti-Rh antibodies form in Rh negative
mother pregnant with Rh positive fetus
First Rh positive fetus unharmed
Second Rh positive fetus provokes
strong secondary immune response
IgG antibodies of secondary response
cross placenta causing extensive
damage to fetal red blood cells
16. Immune complexes consist of antigen and antibody
bound together
Usually adhere to Fc receptors on cells
› Complexes are destroyed and removed
Certain instances complexes persist in circulation or at
sites of formation
› Initiate blood clotting mechanism
› Activate complement contributing to inflammation
Complexes commonly deposited in skin, joints and
kidney
Complexes also cause disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC)
› Clots in small vessels
Leads to system failure
17. Delayed hypersensitivities caused by cell-
mediated immunity
› Slowly developing response to antigen
Reactions peak in 2 to 3 days instead of minutes
T cells are responsible for reactions
› Reactions can occur nearly anywhere in the body
Delayed hypersensitivity reactions responsible
for contact dermatitis, tissue damage, rejection
of tissue grafts and some autoimmune diseases
18. Tuberculin skin test
› Test involves introduction
of small quantities of
protein antigens from
tubercle bacillus into skin
› In positive skin test
injection site reddens and
gradually thickens
Reaction reaches peak in 2
to 3 days
› Reactions result from
sensitized T cells, release
of cytokines and influx of
macrophages
19. Contact hypersensitivities
› Mediated by the T cells
T cells release cytokines
Cytokines initiate inflammation that
attracts macrophages
Macrophages release mediators
to add to inflammation
› Common examples of contact
allergies include
Poison ivy and poison oak
Nickel in metal jewelry
Chromium salts in leather
Latex products
20. Major drawback to graft transplantation is possible
immunological rejection
› Differences between donor and recipient tissues basis for
rejection
› Rejection is predominantly type IV reaction
Killing of graft cells occurs through complex combination
of mechanisms
› Contact with sensitized cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells
Combination of agents commonly used to prevent graft
rejection
› Cyclosporin A
› Steroids
› Basiliximab
Monoclonal antibody preparation
Blocks binding of immune mediators
21. Body usually recognizes self antigens
› Destroys lymphocytes that would destroy self
› Malfunction in immune recognition basis for autoimmunity
Autoimmune diseases may result from reactions to
antigens that are similar to self antigens
Autoimmunity may occur after tissue injury
› Self antigens released from injured organ
Autoantibodies form and interact with injured tissues and cause
further damage
22. Spectrum of autoimmune diseases
› Reactions occur over spectrum
Organ-specific to widespread responses
› Organ-specific
Thyroid disease
Only thyroid is affected
› Widespread response
Lupus
Autoantibodies made against nuclear constituents
of all body cells
Rheumatoid arthritis
Immune response made against collagen in
connective tissue
Myasthenia gravis
Autoantibody-mediated disease
Antibody to acetylcholine receptor proteins
24. Immunodeficiency disorders are marked by
the body’s inability to make and sustain an
adequate immune response
Two basic types of disorders
› Primary or congenital
Inborn as a result of genetic defect or
developmental abnormality
› Secondary or acquired
Can be acquired as result of infection or other
stressor
25. Primary immunodeficiencies
› Generally rare
› Examples
Agammaglobulinemia
Few or no antibodies produced
Occurs in 1 in 50,000 people
Severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID)
Neither B nor T lymphocytes are functional
Occurs in 1 in 500,000 live births
Selective IgA deficiency
Little or no IgA produced
Most common disorder
One in 333 to 700 people
26. Secondary immunodeficiencies
› Result from environmental, rather than genetic factors
Malignancies, advanced age certain infections,
immunosuppressive drugs and malnutrition are just a few
› Often results from depletion of certain cells of the immune
system
Syphilis, leprosy and malaria affect T-cell population and
macrophage function
Malignancies of lymphoid system decrease antibody-mediated
immunity
› Most serious widespread immunodeficiency is AIDS
Destroys helper T cells
Inhibits initiation of cellular and antibody-mediated immunity