Photodetectors have found useful applications in various power and electronic fields such as in microwave power amplifications and fibre optic data communications. Different types of photodetectors, especially the PIN photodiodes and Avalanche photodiodes, are the most useful photodetectors in microwave and fibre optic communications. In this paper, the authors x rayed the different types of photodetectors, the photodetectors' principles, the fiber optic communication architecture and principles and finally carried out the comparative analysis of PIN and Avalanche photodiodes. Obodoeze Fidelis Chukwujekwu | Obiokafor Ifeyinwa Nkemdilim "Technical Report: Comparative Analysis of Photodetectors for Appropriate Usage in Optical Communication Applications" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46406.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/46406/technical-report-comparative-analysis-of-photodetectors-for-appropriate-usage-in-optical-communication-applications/obodoeze-fidelis-chukwujekwu
Another Path for Measuring Industrial Parametersijtsrd
Is there accurate and cost effective solution for measuring industrial parameters like, flow, level, pressure, temperature, weight, volume, density in present era Industrial parameters can easily measured by using resistivity and conductivity of materials only. Cost effective way to measure parameters of gas, liquid and Solid materials by measuring change in mili or micro amperes only. Let us understand by below mentioned examples and measuring techniques. Mr. Darnesh "Another Path for Measuring Industrial Parameters" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46462.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/46462/another-path-for-measuring-industrial-parameters/mr-darnesh
Design and Construction of 0 500V 3KVA Variac with Digital Displayijtsrd
The design and construction of 3KVA variac ranging from 0 500V with a digital display was carried out due to the fact that every electrical, electronic and laboratory appliances equipments are designed and manufactured to operate based on the expectation that the input voltage would be at certain value. In Nigeria, household electrical electronic appliances and also laboratory equipments are most time under threat of low voltage supply. Since the electric power supply distribution companies are unable to provide the consistent and adequate voltage level 220V demanded by these sensitive appliances. The design and construction of a 3000VA variac variable transformer with an input voltage of 230V to give an output of 0 500V is aimed at providing solutions to this driving issue of low voltage and also to update in the growing trend of digitalization using a digital display. The method applied to achieve this project include faradays law of induction, ohms law, e.m.f equation of transformer and voltage transformer ratio k ,where the number of turns in for the primary is 136turns and the secondary is 297turns approx. . The major components used to achieve this work are the copper wires and the laminated steels core also known as the toroidal core. The designed and constructed variac was tested with an input of 230V and the output result of 500Vmaximum was confirmed ok. If designed and properly constructed with standard electrical components and materials it could be used in sub stations as step up for distributions of electricity. It should be designed with heavy gauge coils, higher rated toroidal core and attached an indicator to indicate with beep sound when it is being overloaded above its capacity. Makinde Kayode | Man Alhaji Sulaiman | Lawal Olawale Kazeem "Design and Construction of 0-500V 3KVA Variac with Digital Display" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29153.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/29153/design-and-construction-of-0-500v-3kva-variac-with-digital-display/makinde-kayode
Introduction of all kinds of organic materials and their applications. More information about organic materials is on Alfa Chemistry.
http://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/optoelectronic-materials-132.htm
Another Path for Measuring Industrial Parametersijtsrd
Is there accurate and cost effective solution for measuring industrial parameters like, flow, level, pressure, temperature, weight, volume, density in present era Industrial parameters can easily measured by using resistivity and conductivity of materials only. Cost effective way to measure parameters of gas, liquid and Solid materials by measuring change in mili or micro amperes only. Let us understand by below mentioned examples and measuring techniques. Mr. Darnesh "Another Path for Measuring Industrial Parameters" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46462.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/46462/another-path-for-measuring-industrial-parameters/mr-darnesh
Design and Construction of 0 500V 3KVA Variac with Digital Displayijtsrd
The design and construction of 3KVA variac ranging from 0 500V with a digital display was carried out due to the fact that every electrical, electronic and laboratory appliances equipments are designed and manufactured to operate based on the expectation that the input voltage would be at certain value. In Nigeria, household electrical electronic appliances and also laboratory equipments are most time under threat of low voltage supply. Since the electric power supply distribution companies are unable to provide the consistent and adequate voltage level 220V demanded by these sensitive appliances. The design and construction of a 3000VA variac variable transformer with an input voltage of 230V to give an output of 0 500V is aimed at providing solutions to this driving issue of low voltage and also to update in the growing trend of digitalization using a digital display. The method applied to achieve this project include faradays law of induction, ohms law, e.m.f equation of transformer and voltage transformer ratio k ,where the number of turns in for the primary is 136turns and the secondary is 297turns approx. . The major components used to achieve this work are the copper wires and the laminated steels core also known as the toroidal core. The designed and constructed variac was tested with an input of 230V and the output result of 500Vmaximum was confirmed ok. If designed and properly constructed with standard electrical components and materials it could be used in sub stations as step up for distributions of electricity. It should be designed with heavy gauge coils, higher rated toroidal core and attached an indicator to indicate with beep sound when it is being overloaded above its capacity. Makinde Kayode | Man Alhaji Sulaiman | Lawal Olawale Kazeem "Design and Construction of 0-500V 3KVA Variac with Digital Display" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29153.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/29153/design-and-construction-of-0-500v-3kva-variac-with-digital-display/makinde-kayode
Introduction of all kinds of organic materials and their applications. More information about organic materials is on Alfa Chemistry.
http://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/optoelectronic-materials-132.htm
In this PPT the Topic "Nature Of Materials" is Covered briefly. I'm Ayush Bhardwaj the creator of this PPT is from the Lovely Professional University, India.
In this PPT I covered Types Of Materials, their conductivity and many more.
I hope you like my creations.
This Media Is Under Creative Commons Attribution.
Thank You!
This article tells about what is an Opto electronic oscillator, working of the oscillator, multi-loop Opto-electronic oscillator, and its applications.
IoT Based Infrared Remote Controlled AC Fan Regulatorijtsrd
This paper presents the design and implementation of an infrared remote controlled ac fan regulator. The regulator consists of IR sensor, monostable multi vibrator, decade counter, transformer, comparator, opto isolator and TRIAC. The user will be able to operate the regulator with any remote control used for TV, VCR, Air Conditioner, DVD player etc. The remote transmits a beam of light and this light is picked and decoded by the receiver unit. The receiver only activates when it receives the beam of light. Every time when the button is pressed, the speed of the fan is increased smoothly up to ten different speed levels. The fan regulator has been simulated and experimentally tested. It is found that the system works satisfactorily and the experimental results are almost same. Details of each unit are described in the paper. Abdullah Al Zubaer | Md. Ariful Islam | Md. Habibur Rahman | Md. Alamgir Hossain | Sujit Kumar Mondal "IoT Based Infrared Remote Controlled AC Fan Regulator" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/33484/iot-based-infrared-remote-controlled-ac-fan-regulator/abdullah-al-zubaer
Wireless Mobile Charger Design Based on Inductive Couplingijtsrd
This research described the construction and implementation of the contactless wireless mobile phone battery charging which becomes popularity nowadays. The power was transferred to the destination by means of inductive coupling between two coils. In transmitter part, the desired frequency was produced from Arduino by means of PWM Pulse Width Modulation . This frequency was used to drive the induction coil by using MOSFET driver. The MOSFET operated as a switch in terms of T on and T off. The power in transmitter coil was transmitted to surroundings by means of electromagnetic field. The receiver coil was induced by electromagnetic field and produces DC voltage. That converted DC voltage was filtered by capacitor and then regulates to required voltage by using voltage regulator. Optimal frequency range for maximum power transfer is gained by performing theatrical approach and experimental test. Zaw Min Min Htun | Htay Win Mar "Wireless Mobile Charger Design Based on Inductive Coupling" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd27882.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/27882/wireless-mobile-charger-design-based-on-inductive-coupling/zaw-min-min-htun
Impact of gamma-ray irradiation on dynamic characteristics of Si and SiC powe...IJECEIAES
Power electronic devices in spacecraft and military applications requires high radiation tolerant. The semiconductor devices face the issue of device degradation due to their sensitivity to radiation. Power MOSFET is one of the primary components of these power electronic devices because of its capabilities of fast switching speed and low power consumption. These abilities are challenged by ionizing radiation which damages the devices by inducing charge built-up in the sensitive oxide layer of power MOSFET. Radiations degrade the oxides in a power MOSFET through Total Ionization Dose effect mechanism that creates defects by generation of excessive electron–hole pairs causing electrical characteristics shifts. This study investigates the impact of gamma ray irradiation on dynamic characteristics of silicon and silicon carbide power MOSFET. The switching speed is limit at the higher doses due to the increase capacitance in power MOSFETs. Thus, the power circuit may operate improper due to the switching speed has changed by increasing or decreasing capacitances in power MOSFETs. These defects are obtained due to the penetration of Cobalt60 gamma ray dose level from 50krad to 600krad. The irradiated devices were evaluated through its shifts in the capacitance-voltage characteristics, results were analyzed and plotted for the both silicon and silicon carbide power MOSFET.
Optical detectors, as the name implied, can detect the amount of light received. It is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can then be amplified and processed.
this a presentation on transparent electronics. check out a really wonderful technology evolved in...............
Presented by :
1. ISLAM MD RAISUL 13-23674-1
2. HASAN,RAKIB-UL 13-23538-1
3. AZAM MD. AKIBUL 13-23680-1
4. RAHMAN MD. RIFAT 13-23747-1
5. RAHMAN ASHIKUR 13-23293-1
AIUB (EEE)
Course Name : POWER STATION
Design of Handphone Wireless Charger System Using Omnidirectional AntennaTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Using cable as power transmission medium cause problem in flexibility and aesthetics. Wireless
power transmission for charging handphone releasednowadays still using antenna with radiation pattern
focus in one direction, that is just toward the top, and if the antenna was shifted then power transmitted will
be lose. The purpose of this research is to produce wireless power charger system used for charging
handphone power using resonator based on omnidirectional antenna and test the performance.
The device in this research was designed in two main part, that is transmitter and receiver. In
transmission section, there is power supply used for supplying power to oscillator to generate oscillating
signal in the form of electrical power to be transmitted to receiver via antenna in the form magnetic field. In
receiver section, receiver antenna received the power transmitted that is still in the reach of magnetic field
generated by transmitter. The power that is still in the form of oscillating signal, then stabilized for the
purpose of handphone power using rectifier and voltage regulator.
Design has been made successfully to the form of handphone battery power wireless
chargerusing omdirectional antenna which consist of two main part, that is transmitter and receiver. The
transmitted power is 3.058 watt with frequency 714 KHz, and receiver received the power and then
stabilized the signal to produce output power 58.706 miliwatt. This device can transmit power in all
directions horizontally (angle 360°). This device also tested with some kind of obstacle, with the result
almost all obstacle still could transmit the power except metal.
Electrochemical performance of supercapacitor with glass wool separator under...journalBEEI
The paper presents the electrochemical performance of supercapacitor with glass wool separator under organic electrolyte of tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4). The performance was evaluated using symmetrical two-electrode system and compared to an identical supercapacitor with commercially available cellulose paper separator under 1 M TEABF4. The application of glass wool separator reduces the bulk resistance of supercapacitor by 19.6%, promotes more efficient ions transfer across active surface of electrode and significantly improves specific capacitance by 19.1% compared to cellulose paper. The application of higher concentration TEABF4 (1.5 M) even improves the overall performance of glass wool-based supercapacitor by 32.2% reduction of bulk resistance and 61.9% increment in specific capacitance compared to 1 M TEABF4. In addition, the energy and power densities are significantly improved by 64% and 165%, respectively for the one with 1.5 M TEABF4. In general, the low-cost material glass wool material has great potential to replace commercially available cellulose paper as separator in developing much better supercapacitor.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
In this PPT the Topic "Nature Of Materials" is Covered briefly. I'm Ayush Bhardwaj the creator of this PPT is from the Lovely Professional University, India.
In this PPT I covered Types Of Materials, their conductivity and many more.
I hope you like my creations.
This Media Is Under Creative Commons Attribution.
Thank You!
This article tells about what is an Opto electronic oscillator, working of the oscillator, multi-loop Opto-electronic oscillator, and its applications.
IoT Based Infrared Remote Controlled AC Fan Regulatorijtsrd
This paper presents the design and implementation of an infrared remote controlled ac fan regulator. The regulator consists of IR sensor, monostable multi vibrator, decade counter, transformer, comparator, opto isolator and TRIAC. The user will be able to operate the regulator with any remote control used for TV, VCR, Air Conditioner, DVD player etc. The remote transmits a beam of light and this light is picked and decoded by the receiver unit. The receiver only activates when it receives the beam of light. Every time when the button is pressed, the speed of the fan is increased smoothly up to ten different speed levels. The fan regulator has been simulated and experimentally tested. It is found that the system works satisfactorily and the experimental results are almost same. Details of each unit are described in the paper. Abdullah Al Zubaer | Md. Ariful Islam | Md. Habibur Rahman | Md. Alamgir Hossain | Sujit Kumar Mondal "IoT Based Infrared Remote Controlled AC Fan Regulator" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/33484/iot-based-infrared-remote-controlled-ac-fan-regulator/abdullah-al-zubaer
Wireless Mobile Charger Design Based on Inductive Couplingijtsrd
This research described the construction and implementation of the contactless wireless mobile phone battery charging which becomes popularity nowadays. The power was transferred to the destination by means of inductive coupling between two coils. In transmitter part, the desired frequency was produced from Arduino by means of PWM Pulse Width Modulation . This frequency was used to drive the induction coil by using MOSFET driver. The MOSFET operated as a switch in terms of T on and T off. The power in transmitter coil was transmitted to surroundings by means of electromagnetic field. The receiver coil was induced by electromagnetic field and produces DC voltage. That converted DC voltage was filtered by capacitor and then regulates to required voltage by using voltage regulator. Optimal frequency range for maximum power transfer is gained by performing theatrical approach and experimental test. Zaw Min Min Htun | Htay Win Mar "Wireless Mobile Charger Design Based on Inductive Coupling" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd27882.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/27882/wireless-mobile-charger-design-based-on-inductive-coupling/zaw-min-min-htun
Impact of gamma-ray irradiation on dynamic characteristics of Si and SiC powe...IJECEIAES
Power electronic devices in spacecraft and military applications requires high radiation tolerant. The semiconductor devices face the issue of device degradation due to their sensitivity to radiation. Power MOSFET is one of the primary components of these power electronic devices because of its capabilities of fast switching speed and low power consumption. These abilities are challenged by ionizing radiation which damages the devices by inducing charge built-up in the sensitive oxide layer of power MOSFET. Radiations degrade the oxides in a power MOSFET through Total Ionization Dose effect mechanism that creates defects by generation of excessive electron–hole pairs causing electrical characteristics shifts. This study investigates the impact of gamma ray irradiation on dynamic characteristics of silicon and silicon carbide power MOSFET. The switching speed is limit at the higher doses due to the increase capacitance in power MOSFETs. Thus, the power circuit may operate improper due to the switching speed has changed by increasing or decreasing capacitances in power MOSFETs. These defects are obtained due to the penetration of Cobalt60 gamma ray dose level from 50krad to 600krad. The irradiated devices were evaluated through its shifts in the capacitance-voltage characteristics, results were analyzed and plotted for the both silicon and silicon carbide power MOSFET.
Optical detectors, as the name implied, can detect the amount of light received. It is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can then be amplified and processed.
this a presentation on transparent electronics. check out a really wonderful technology evolved in...............
Presented by :
1. ISLAM MD RAISUL 13-23674-1
2. HASAN,RAKIB-UL 13-23538-1
3. AZAM MD. AKIBUL 13-23680-1
4. RAHMAN MD. RIFAT 13-23747-1
5. RAHMAN ASHIKUR 13-23293-1
AIUB (EEE)
Course Name : POWER STATION
Design of Handphone Wireless Charger System Using Omnidirectional AntennaTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Using cable as power transmission medium cause problem in flexibility and aesthetics. Wireless
power transmission for charging handphone releasednowadays still using antenna with radiation pattern
focus in one direction, that is just toward the top, and if the antenna was shifted then power transmitted will
be lose. The purpose of this research is to produce wireless power charger system used for charging
handphone power using resonator based on omnidirectional antenna and test the performance.
The device in this research was designed in two main part, that is transmitter and receiver. In
transmission section, there is power supply used for supplying power to oscillator to generate oscillating
signal in the form of electrical power to be transmitted to receiver via antenna in the form magnetic field. In
receiver section, receiver antenna received the power transmitted that is still in the reach of magnetic field
generated by transmitter. The power that is still in the form of oscillating signal, then stabilized for the
purpose of handphone power using rectifier and voltage regulator.
Design has been made successfully to the form of handphone battery power wireless
chargerusing omdirectional antenna which consist of two main part, that is transmitter and receiver. The
transmitted power is 3.058 watt with frequency 714 KHz, and receiver received the power and then
stabilized the signal to produce output power 58.706 miliwatt. This device can transmit power in all
directions horizontally (angle 360°). This device also tested with some kind of obstacle, with the result
almost all obstacle still could transmit the power except metal.
Electrochemical performance of supercapacitor with glass wool separator under...journalBEEI
The paper presents the electrochemical performance of supercapacitor with glass wool separator under organic electrolyte of tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4). The performance was evaluated using symmetrical two-electrode system and compared to an identical supercapacitor with commercially available cellulose paper separator under 1 M TEABF4. The application of glass wool separator reduces the bulk resistance of supercapacitor by 19.6%, promotes more efficient ions transfer across active surface of electrode and significantly improves specific capacitance by 19.1% compared to cellulose paper. The application of higher concentration TEABF4 (1.5 M) even improves the overall performance of glass wool-based supercapacitor by 32.2% reduction of bulk resistance and 61.9% increment in specific capacitance compared to 1 M TEABF4. In addition, the energy and power densities are significantly improved by 64% and 165%, respectively for the one with 1.5 M TEABF4. In general, the low-cost material glass wool material has great potential to replace commercially available cellulose paper as separator in developing much better supercapacitor.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Implementation and demonstration of li fi technologyeSAT Journals
Abstract Li-Fi is a wireless communication system in which light is used as a carrier signal instead of traditional radio frequency as in Wi-Fi. Li-Fi is a technology that uses light emitting diodes to transmit data wirelessly. Li-Fi is a form of Visible Light Communication (VLC). VLC uses rapid pulses of light to transmit information wirelessly that cannot be detected by the human eye. This paper demonstrates the working of Li-Fi by simulating a simple circuit which gave us the required output. Li-Fi technology was first demonstrated by Harald Hass, a German Physicist from the University of Edinburgh Keywords—Li-Fi, VLC, Optical Communication, Wireless Communication, LED, Visible Light Spectrum.
This is the PPT for optical fibre communication to increase the knowledge of telecommunication for increasing data science so this ppt is helpful for our future
‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
2. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD46406 | Volume – 5 | Issue – 6 | Sep-Oct 2021 Page 570
A photodetector is made up of semiconductor materials and absorbs incident photos and convert them into
electrons. Fig.1.2 shows the working principle of a photodetector.
Fig.1.2. A photodetector working principle
A. Principles of Photodetection
Photodetection principle is based on two types of photoelectric effects which are as follow:-
1. External photoelectric effect
2. Internal photoelectric effect
1. External photoelectric effect:
In external photoelectric effect, electrons become free from the metal surfaces by energy absorption obtained by
streams of incident photons. Photomultiplier tube and vacuum photodiode are the implications of external
photoelectric effect.
2. Internal photoelectric effect:
In internal photoelectric effect, free charge carriers are generated by absorption of incident photons in semi-
conductor junction detectors. PIN photodiodes, PN junction photodiodes and Avalanche Photodiodes are typical
examples that utilize this effect.
A Photodiode works in the following principle- the reverse-biased photodiode is under luminance (incident
photons) represents the energy band gap diagram which is absorbed via the window. The absorbed energy raises
a bound electron across the band gap from the valance to the conduction band as depicted Fig.1.3.
A free hole is left in the valence to the conduction band. Under electric field the generated free charge carriers
produce the drift current.
Fig.1.3. Photodiode energy band diagram
B. Photodiode equivalent circuit
The simplified photodiode equivalent model (Fig.1.4) represents the key elements. The irradiance (light
intensity) is proportional to current source ID which is in parallel with diode.
Performance is dependent upon parasitic components RD and CD can play an imperative role.
Fig.1.4. Photodiode Equivalent Circuit
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C. Modes of Operation of Photodiodes
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive mode
and Avalanche diode mode.
Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the
lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range and non-linear necessity of the voltage formed. A
photodiode that operates in this mode is usually used as solar or photo-voltaic cell.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased.
The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response
time and the junction capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise.
Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which permits
multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo produced electron-hole pair. This leads to an internal
gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device response.
D. Basic requirements of a Photodetector for a good performance
The basic requirements or properties of a Photodetector to perform well are summarized as follow:
1. Sensitivity at the required wavelength.
2. Efficient conversion of photos to electrons.
3. Responsitivity or fast response to operate at high frequencies.
4. Low noise for reduced errors.
5. Sufficient area for efficient coupling to optical fiber.
6. High reliability.
7. Low cost.
8. Rise time.
Other significant photodetecor parameters include the following:-
1. Quantum Efficiency : It is the ratio of primary electron-hole pairs created photon to the photon incident on
the diode material.
2. Detector Responsivity: This is the ratio of output current to input optical power. Hence, this is the efficiency
of the device. The unit of responsivity is amperes per watt.
3. Spectral Response Range: This is the range of wavelenght over which the device will operate. The spectral
response refers to the curve of detector responsivity as a function of wavelenght.
4. Noise Characteristics: This is the level of noise produced in the device. This is critical to the operation of the
device at low levels of input light.
5. Response Time: This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond to variation in the input light
intensity.
6. Rise Time : This is the time for the detector output current to change from 10 to 90% of its final value when
the optic input power variation is a step.
7. Gain: The Avalanche Photo Device (APD) have more gain than PIN diode due to the effect of impact
ionisation as it is operated at high electric field.
E. Significance of Photodiodes
Photodiodes are unique among light photodetectors in that when illuminated, they generate an output which is
proportional to light level. Their characteristics and featurs can be summarised as follows:-
1. Low cost visible and near-IR photo detector
2. Excellent linearity in output photocurrent according to light intensity
3. Fast response times
4. Available in a wide range of packages
5. Low noise
6. Mechanically rugged yet compact and light weight.
7. Available as duals, quads or as linear arrays.
8. Usbale with almost any visible or near infrared light source such as LEDs, neon, fluorescent, incandescent
bulbs, lasers, flame sources, sunlight, etc.
F. Applications of PIN Photodiodes and Avalanche Photodiodes
PIN Photodiode, an example of photodiode, is the most widely used in the following domain or applications:
Audio CD players
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DVD Players
Computer CD drives
Optical Communication Systems
Nuclear radiation detectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD):
Avalanche Photodiode (APD) level of gain is of importance for high voltage requirements. They are used in the
following domains:-
Laser range finders
Fast receiver modules for optical data communications
High speed Laser scanner ( 2D bar code reader)
PET scanner
Speed gun
Microscopy and particle detection
Photodetector is the fundamental element of optical receiver, followed by amplifiers and signal conditioning
circuitry.
Some other photodiodes are utilised in some applications as follow:-
Optical position sensors
Beam alignment
Laser range finders
Photography
Analytical Instrumentation
Spectroscopy
Medical Imaging Instruments
Surface characterisation
G. Classification or types of Photo detectors
There are basically two types of Photodetectors as used in optical communication applications. They types are as
follow:
1. Photoconductive detector
2. Junction photodetector
1. Photoconductive detector
Photoconductive photodetector is widely known as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) or photoresistors. It detects
the presence of light and its intensity. On light incidence, the electrical conductivity and hence resistance of this
device changes from several mega ohms (in dark condition) to few kilo ohms in light condition and thereby
detects the presence of light and its intensity.
Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photoresistors are often used in circuits where it is necessary to detect the
presence or the level of light. They can be described by a variety of names from light dependent resistor, LDR,
photoresistor, or even photo cell, photocell or photoconductor.
Although other devices such as photodiodes or photo-transistor can also be used, LDRs or photoresistors are
particularly convenient electronic components to use. They provide large change in resistance for changes in
light level.
In view of their low cost, ease of manufacture, and ease of use LDRs have been used in a variety of different
applications. At one time LDRs were used in photographic light meters, and even now they are still used in a
variety of applications where it is necessary to detect light levels.
It is relatively easy to understand the basics of how an LDR works without delving into complicated
explanations. It is first necessary to understand that an electrical current consists of the movement of electrons
within a material.
Good conductors have a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the action of a
potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and therefore it is hard to
make them move and hence a current to flow.
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An LDR or photoresistor is made any semiconductor material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance
because there are very few electrons that are free and able to move - the vast majority of the electrons are locked
into the crystal lattice and unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance.
As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice and some of
their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some of them sufficient energy to break free from the
crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity; this results in a lowering of the resistance of the
semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance. Fig.1.5 depict a typical leaded light dependent resistor, its
basic structure and symbol while Fig.1.6 shows a typical leaded light dependent resistor. Fig.1.7 depicts the
circuit symbols of light dependent resistor, LDR.
The process is progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more electrons are released
to conduct electricity and the resistance falls further.
Fig.1.5: Typical leaded light dependent resistor, basic structure and symbol
Fig.1.6: Typical leaded light dependent resistor
The LDR symbol used in circuits is based around the resistor circuit symbol, but shows the light, in the form of
arrows shining on shown in Fig.1.7. By this, it follows the same convention used for photodiode and
phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are used to show the light falling on these components. The light
dependent resistor or photo resistor circuit symbols are shown for both the newer style resistor symbol, i.e. a
rectangular box and the older zig-zag line resistor circuit symbols. The working principle of LDR is shown in
Fig.1.8.
Fig.1.7: light dependent resistor symbol
Fig.1.8. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) working principle
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2. Junction Photodetector
There are several types of Junction Photodetectors. They include the following:-
P-n junction photodiode
PIN photodiode
Avalanche photodiode
Schottky photodiode
Phototransistor
P-n Junction Photodiode:
In general, p-n junction, as depicted in Fig.1.9, like current rectification, can also be used for light detection
purpose.
Fig.1.9. P-n junction photodiode
The PIN Photodiode:
The Pn junction photodiode has two drawbacks:
1. Depletion layer capacitance is not sufficiently small to allow Photodetection at high modulation frequencies
(RC time constant limitation).
2. Narrow SCL (at most a few microns). Long wavelengths incidence photons are absorbed outside SCL, low
QE.
The PIN photodiode can reduce these two problems. The PIN diode derived its name from the fact that it has
three main layers. Rather than just having a P-type and an N-type layer, it has three layers such as:
P-type layer
Intrinsic layer
N-type layer
The working principle of the PIN diode exactly same as a normal diode. The main difference is that the
depletion region, because that normally exists between both the P and N regions in a reverse biased or unbiased
diode is larger. In any PN junction diode, the P region contains holes as it has been doped to make sure that it
has a majority of holes. Likewise the N-region has been doped to hold excess electrons. The layer between the P
and N regions includes no charge carriers as any electrons or holes merge. As the depletion region of the diode
has no charge carriers it works as an insulator. The depletion region exists within a PIN diode, but if the PIN
diode is forward biased, then the carriers come into the depletion region and as the two carrier types get together,
the flow of current will starts. Figs.1.10, 1.11 and 1.12 show the structure of PIN photodiode, Reverse-biased
PIN Photodiode and PIN photodiode circuit respectively. Fig.1.13. represents the energy band diagram of PIN
photodiode.
Applications of PIN Diodes:
The main applications of PIN mainly include the following areas:-
The PIN diode is used as a high voltage rectifier. The intrinsic layer in the diode offers a partition between
the both the layers, permitting higher reverse voltages to be tolerated
The PIN diode is used as an ideal radio frequency switch. The intrinsic layer among the P and N layers
increases the space between them. This also reduces the capacitance between both the regions, thus raising
the level of isolation when the PIN diode is reverse biased.
The PIN diode is used as a photodetector to convert the light into the current which takes place in the
depletion layer of a photo diode, rising the depletion layer by inserting the intrinsic layer progresses the
performance by increasing the volume in where light change occurs.
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This diode is an ideal element to give electronics switching in applications of electronics. It is mainly useful
for RF design applications and also for providing the switching, or an attenuating element in RF attenuators
and RF switches. The PIN diode is capable to give much higher levels of consistency than RF relays that are
frequently the only other alternative.
Fig.1.10. Structure of PIN Diode
Fig.1.11. Reverse-biased PIN Photodiode
Fig.1.12. PIN photodiode circuit
Fig.1.13. Energy Band diagram of PIN photodiode
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Avalanche Photodiode (APD):
The Avalanche Photodiode (APD) is another n+1-I-p+ which provides very high gain 200 and can detect even
very low-level of light due to several reasons. This detector is widely used in dedicated optical communication.
The thickness of I-region is very large compared with the other region of the device, so incoming light quickly
passes through n+ and p layers and spend major time in this region creating large electron and hole pairs. This is
known as absorption region of the device. See Fig.1.14.
Fig.1.14. Working principle of Avalanche Photodiode
Schottky photodiode:
Schottky photodiode is one of the simple metal semiconductor junctions. The advantage of this type of
photodiode is its high speed which arises from the fact that it is a majority carrier device. And its depletion layer
is one sided only (n side). The Schottky photodiode is shown in Fig.1.15.
Fig.1.15. Schottky Photodiode
Phototransistor:
This is a special class of photodetector like the Avalanche Photodiode. Phototransistor, as shown in Fig.1.16,
provides high gain; the device on receiving a weak signal amplifies it internally and then passes on its output
terminal.
Fig.1.16.Phototransistor photodiode working principle
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2.1. FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A. Fiber Optic Communication System
The fiber optic communication is the ideal choice for gigabits and beyond gigabits transmission of data. This
type of communication is used to transmit voice, video, telemetry and data over long distances and local area
networks (LAN) or computer networks at very fast speed. A fiber optic communication system uses light wave
technology to transmit the data over a fiber by changing electronic signals into light.
Some exceptional characteristic features of this type of communication system like large bandwidth, smaller
diameter, light weight, long distance signal transmission, low attenuation, transmission security, and so on make
this communication a major building block in any telecommunication infrastructure. The subsequent information
on fiber optic communication system highlights its characteristic features, basic elements and other details.
Fig.2.1 depicts the basic fiber optic communication system [1].
Fig.2.1. The basic fiber optic communication system[1]
Three Basic Elements of a Fiber Optic Communication System:
There are three main basic elements of fiber optic communication system. They are:-
Compact Light Source
Low loss Optical Fiber
Photo Detector
Accessories like connectors, switches, couplers, multiplexing devices, amplifiers and splices are also essential
elements in this communication system.
1. Compact Light Source
The light emitting diodes are used for short distances and low data rate applications due to their low bandwidth
and power capabilities. The Laser diode structure is of two types the Can and Frame types as shown in Fig.2.2.
Two such LEDs structures include Surface and Edge Emitting Systems. The surface emitting diodes are simple
in design and are reliable, but due to its broader line width and modulation frequency limitation edge emitting
diode are mostly used. Edge emitting diodes have high power and narrower line width capabilities.
Fig.2.2. the Laser Diode Structure
For longer distances and high data rate transmission, Laser Diodes are preferred over LED due to its high power,
high speed and narrower spectral line width characteristics. But these are inherently non-linear and more
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sensitive to temperature variations. Nowadays many improvements and advancements have made these sources
more reliable. Table 2.1 depicts the comparison/differences between the Laser Diodes and LED according to the
variation in the properties. Both these sources are modulated using either direct or external modulation
techniques.
Table 2.1. The LED versus Laser Diodes
2. Low Loss Optical Fiber
Optical fiber is a cable, as shown in Fig.2.3, which is also known as cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of
low loss material. An optical fiber also considers the parameters like the environment in which it is operating,
the tensile strength, durability and rigidity. The Fiber optic cable is made of high quality extruded glass (si) or
plastic, and it is flexible. The diameter of the fiber optic cable is in between 0.25 to 0.5mm (slightly thicker than
a human hair).
Fig.2.3. Fiber Optic Cable
A Fiber Optic Cable consists of four parts.
Core
Cladding
Buffer
Jacket
Core:
The core of a fiber cable is a cylinder of plastic that runs all along the fiber cable’s length, and offers protection
by cladding. The diameter of the core depends on the application used. Due to internal reflection, the light
travelling within the core reflects from the core, the cladding boundary. The core cross section needs to be a
circular one for most of the applications.
Cladding:
Cladding is an outer optical material that protects the core. The main function of the cladding is that it reflects
the light back into the core. When light enters through the core (dense material) into the cladding(less dense
material), it changes its angle, and then reflects back to the core.
Buffer:
The main function of the buffer is to protect the fiber from damage and thousands of optical fibers arranged in
hundreds of optical cables. These bundles are protected by the cable’s outer covering that is called jacket.
Jacket:
Fiber optic cables jackets are available in different colors that can easilymake us recognize the exact color of the
cable we are dealing with. The color yellow clearly signifies a single mode cable, and orange color indicates
multimode.
Types of Optical Fibers:
Single-Mode Fibers: Single mode fibers are used to transmit one signal per fiber; these fibers are used in
telephone and television sets. Single mode fibers have small cores.
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Multi-Mode Fibers: Multimode fibers are used to transmit many signals per fiber; these signals are used in
computer and local area networks that have larger cores.
3. Photo Detectors
The purpose of photo detectors is to convert the light signal back to an electrical signal. Two types of photo
detectors are mainly used for optical receiver in optical communication system: PIN photo diode and avalanche
photo diode. Depending on the application’s wavelengths, the material composition of these devices vary. These
materials include silicon, germanium, InGaAs, etc.
B. Photodetectors in Optical Communication
According to [2], the fiber optics transmission involves transmission of signals in the form of light from one
point to the other. Furthermore, a fiber optic communication network consists of transmitting and receiving
circuitry, a light source and detector devices. An optical detector is a device that converts light signals into
electrical signals, which can then be amplified and processed.
Photodetectors can dictate or determine the performance of a fiber optic communication link. A photodetector
acts as an optical receiver in fiber optic communication system. Two purposes of a photodetector in a fiber optic
communication system include the following:-
1. For terminal reception of the communication link at the transmitter end,
2. For photoelectric conversion of the relay system.
Out of the different types of Photodetectors, the two most commonlyused suitable for fiber optic communication
system are:-
PIN Photodiode and
Avalanche Photodiode (APD).
C. Photoelectric detection and optical receiver
According to authors in [2], at the transmitting end of the optical fiber communication system, the light source is
modulated with a low-frequency baseband electrical signal, and then the modulated light signal is transmitted via
the optical fiber. Due to factors such as attenuation and dispersion of optical fibers, when a dimmed signal is
transmitted to the receiving end, it becomes weak and has waveform distortion. The role of the optical receiver is
to detect the weak light signal first, then convert it into an electrical signal, and then restore to the original
baseband signal through amplification, shaping, regeneration, and decoding. Therefore, the core component of
the optical receiver is a photodetector. In the entire optical fiber communication system, the photoelectric
detection device mainly has two purposes: one is for terminal reception of the communication system, and the
upper part of the Fig.2.4 is the schematic diagram of terminal receiving of the digital optical fiber
communication system; the second is photoelectric conversion for the relay station. After the signal processing
continues to transmit, the lower part (see Fig.2.4) depicts the relay station’s photoelectric conversion process.
Fig.2.4. Working Process Diagram of Optical Communication System [2]
D. Photoelectric detection principle
The photodetector is an optoelectronic device made by utilizing the photoelectric effect of a semiconductor. It
converts the change of the optical signal into the change of the photocurrent, and reflects the change rule of the
information. According to different conversion parameters, the semiconductor photodetector has two basic
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types: photoconductive type and photodiode type. The conductance of the photoconductive type detector
changes with the change of luminous flux. The photodiode is always operated in the reverse bias state. It belongs
to the inner photoelectric effect device, and the incident photon does not directly bombard photoelectrons, but
merely raises the internal electrons from the lower energy level to the higher energy level. The differential
resistance of the photodetector does not change with the luminous flux, and the generated photocurrent is
proportional to the luminous flux. Both types of semiconductor photodetection devices have very fast response
speeds, but have their own characteristics and different uses. In optical fiber communication systems, the most
widely used photodetector is a photodiode because of the small size and long life of such detectors.
3.1. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN PIN PHOTODIODE AND AVALANCHE
PHOTODIODE PHOTODETECTORS
A. Comparison between PIN photodiode and Avalanche Photodiode (APD) as used in Fiber Optic
Communication
According to the [3], PIN photodiodes and Avalanche Photodiodes (APD) are used as receivers to facilitate fiber
optic networks. Often, they provide extremely high-speed internet access or receive telephone and digital
television signals. The chief overall advantage of optical technology is its high data transfer rate; PIN and APD
receivers are both designed for such applications. However, there have different or distinct technologies.
Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are widely used in laser-based fiber optic systems to convert optical data into
electrical form. They are high-sensitivity, high-speed semiconductor light sensors.
The main advantage of the APD is that it has a greater level of sensitivity compared to PIN photodiode. The
avalanche action increases the gain of the diode many times, providing much higher sensitivity. However, an
APD requires a higher operating voltage. In addition, the term avalanche refers to the output being non linear; as
a result, APDs also produce a higher level of noise than a PIN diode.
Also APDs, unlike PIN devices, need a high reverse bias condition to work. That permits avalanche
multiplication of the holes and electrons created by the initial electron-hole pairs. APDs have an internal region
where electron multiplication occurs by application of an external reverse voltage. The resultant gain in the
output signal means that low light levels can be measured at high speed.
For silicon, an APD diode will typically require between 100-200 V, and with that voltage they will provide a
current gain effect of roughly 100 V, resulting from the avalanche effect. Some diodes that use specialized
manufacturing processes enable much higher bias voltages of up to 1,500 V to be applied. The gain levels
increase when higher voltages are applied, therefore the gain of these avalanche diodes can rise to the order of
1,000. That provides an advantage in solutions where sensitivity is important.
Typical applications for APDs are laser rangefinders and long-range fiber optic telecommunication, as well as
positron emission tomography and particle physics. APD arrays are increasingly commercially available.
The avalanche photodiodes are not as widely used as their PIN counterparts. They are generally used where the
level of gain is important and because of the high voltages required and lower reliability, they are often less
convenient to use than PIN.
A PIN diode is a type of diode that has a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type
semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. There is where it derived its name PIN.
Because of their applications for ohmic contacts, the p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped. The
main difference between a PIN diode and an ordinary p-n diode is the wide intrinsic region in the PIN diode p-n
junction. Because of this, PIN diode is inferior to the normal p-n diode as a rectifier. PIN diode is very suitable
for attenuators and RF switches because of its wide intrinsic region. It is equally very suitable as photodetectors
and applied very much in high-voltage power electronics applications, such as a high-voltage rectifier. Higher
reverse voltages are tolerated in PIN diode because its intrinsic region provides a greater separation between the
p and n regions.
PIN diodes are applied in RF scenarios where the capacitance levels are low. The switching and variable
resistance properties of PIN diodes make them well adapted in switching and variable attenuator applications.
The comparative differences between Avalanche Photodiode and PIN photodiode are summarized in Table 3.1.
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TABLE 3.1. Comparative differences between Avalanche Photodiode and PIN photodiode
S/N PIN photodiodes Avalanche Photodiodes
1. It uses a lower reverse biased voltage. It uses a higher reverse biased voltage.
2. It produces a lower level of noise It produces a higher level of noise
3. It requires a lower operating voltage It requires a higher operating voltage
4.
It is a passive microwave diode (not used
in power generation or amplification)
It is an active microwave diode.
5.
It operates at a maximum frequency of
100MHz as a rectifier and up to 150 GHz
maximum as a microwave diode.
It operates at a frequency in excess of 200 GHz as a
microwave diode.
6.
It does not exhibit negative resistance
characteristics unlike the Avalanche
Photodiode, Tunnel diode, IMPATT and
TRAPATT diodes.
It exhibits negative resistance characteristics like the
Tunnel diode, IMPATT and TRAPATT diodes.
7.
It is not used in power generation or
amplification.
It is used on power generation or amplification.
8.
It provides a lower sensitivity in fiber
optic communication systems.
It produces a much higher sensitivity because of
avalanche action (about 10-150 times higher than
PIN photodiode) in fiber optic communication
systems
9. It has a slower response time (5 ns). It has a much faster response time (2 ns).
10.
It cannot be used as for higher pulse
modulation rates in fiber optic
communication systems than the APD.
It can be used for higher pulse modulation rates for
reception in fiber optic communication systems than
the PIN photodiodes.
11. It has a better linear output. It has a non-linear output.
12. It has a wider usage and applications.
It a narrower usage and applications and are used
only where level of gain is important.
13. It is easier and more convenient to use.
It is less convenient to us because of higher voltage
requirement and less reliability.
14.
It is used as weaker rectifier, attenuator,
RF switches, photodetectors and high-
voltage power electronics applications,
such as a high-voltage rectifier.
It is used in laser rangefinders and long-range fiber
optic telecommunication, as well as positron
emission tomography and particle physics
Similarities between PIN photodiode and
Avalanche Photodiode:
The similarities between the two photodiodes are as
follow:-
1. They are both used in microwave power
switching, limiting and modulation.
2. They are made from the same semi-conductor
materials.
3. They both operate in reverse-biased mode.
4. They are both used in fiber optic communication
in optical receiver as photodetector.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Photodetectors such as Avalanche Photodiodes
(AVDs) and PIN photodiodes are very important
Photodetectors in fiber optic communication systems
as well as other wide range applications. Both of them
operate at different working principles and can be
used or applied in fiber optic communication system
as optical receivers and relay processing elements.
They have different differences in operation and
applications. PIN photodiode operates at a lower
reverse biased voltage compared to APD which
operates at a higher reverse biased voltage. PIN
photodiode/photodetector is easier and more
convenient to use compared to APD but APD has a
much higher sensitivity because of avalanche action.
PIN photodiode is much reliable and does not require
a very high operating voltage like the APD. APD is
always applied where higher gain is desirable.
References
[1] Elprocus. com. “What are the Basic Elements
of a Fiber Optic Communication System?” .
Accessed online at https://www.elprocus.
com/basic-elements-of-fiber-optic-
communication-system-and-its-working
[2] FOT Blog, June 29, 2018. “Two major uses of
photodetectors in optical communication
systems”. Accessed online at
https://www.fiberoptictel.com/two-major-uses-
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of-photodetectors-in-optical-communication-
systems/ on August 16th
2019.
[3] Electronics360globalspec.com, “Industrial
Electronics: PIN vs. APD: Different Sensitivity,
Different Applications”, 21st
November 2017.
Accessed online at
https://electronics360.globalspec.com/article/10
397/pin-vs-apd-different-sensitivity-different-
applications on August 5, 2019.