Teaching methods

Course: Teaching MethodologyCourse: Teaching Methodology
Book: Techniques and Principles inBook: Techniques and Principles in
Language TeachingLanguage Teaching
Author: Diana Larsen-FreemanAuthor: Diana Larsen-Freeman
Second Edition, 12 chaptersSecond Edition, 12 chapters
Slide production: Dr. H. IravaniSlide production: Dr. H. Iravani
Shahriar CenterShahriar Center
Number of slides: 345Number of slides: 345

Ten factors in each chapterTen factors in each chapter
1.1. Teacher’s goalsTeacher’s goals
2.2. Teacher’s role vs. students’Teacher’s role vs. students’
rolerole
3.3. Features of teaching &Features of teaching &
learninglearning
4.4. The nature of interactionThe nature of interaction

5.5. Dealing with students’Dealing with students’
feelingsfeelings
6.6. Language vs. cultureLanguage vs. culture
7.7. Language areas and skills toLanguage areas and skills to
emphasizeemphasize
8.8. The role of the nativeThe role of the native
languagelanguage

9.9. Dealing with evaluationDealing with evaluation
10.10.Dealing with students’ errorsDealing with students’ errors
 Two types of exercises:Two types of exercises:
checking your understandingchecking your understanding
and applying what you studiedand applying what you studied

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:GTTeaching:GT
Grammar TranslationGrammar Translation (GT) is the(GT) is the
first method we discuss.first method we discuss.
GTGT appeared in the first half ofappeared in the first half of
the 19the 19thth
century and was one ofcentury and was one of
thethe nonscientificnonscientific methods.methods.

LanguageLanguage
Why is GT a classical method?Why is GT a classical method?
GT was to help studentsGT was to help students
appreciate L2 literature.appreciate L2 literature.
L2 grammar helps them learn LlL2 grammar helps them learn Ll
grammar & grow mentally.grammar & grow mentally.

LanguageLanguage
Thinking about the experienceThinking about the experience
GTGT- a teacher proof method- in- a teacher proof method- in
Iran. It is the output of GermanIran. It is the output of German
scholarship.scholarship.

LanguageLanguage
PrinciplesPrinciples
1.1. Learning to read L2 literatureLearning to read L2 literature
– written language is superior– written language is superior
to spoken language. L2to spoken language. L2
culture was literature and fineculture was literature and fine
arts.arts.

LanguageLanguage
2. Translation from L2 to L1 and2. Translation from L2 to L1 and
vise versa: a central goalvise versa: a central goal
3. Communication:not3. Communication:not
emphasizedemphasized
4. Reading and writing: superior4. Reading and writing: superior
5. Authority and fussy5. Authority and fussy
correctionscorrections

LanguageLanguage
6. L1 equivalents for L2 words6. L1 equivalents for L2 words
7. L1/ L2 similarities: emphasized7. L1/ L2 similarities: emphasized
8. Form superior to content8. Form superior to content
9. Deduction over Induction9. Deduction over Induction
10. L2 learning: a mental10. L2 learning: a mental
exerciseexercise

LanguageLanguage
11. Explicit and conscious11. Explicit and conscious
knowledge of L2 Grammarknowledge of L2 Grammar
12. Memorization of grammatical12. Memorization of grammatical
paradigmsparadigms

LanguageLanguage
SummarySummary
Reviewing the principlesReviewing the principles
Reviewing the techniquesReviewing the techniques

LanguageLanguage
Activity:Activity:
Explain the differences betweenExplain the differences between
learning about L2 and learninglearning about L2 and learning
to use L2.to use L2.

LanguageLanguage
GT was challenged by:GT was challenged by:
1.1. Natural methodologistsNatural methodologists
2.2. Linguists interested inLinguists interested in
phoneticsphonetics
3.3. The reform movementThe reform movement

LanguageLanguage
Natural method gave rise to theNatural method gave rise to the
Direct method – the nextDirect method – the next
chapter. However, GT still haschapter. However, GT still has
its own proponents and is usedits own proponents and is used
in some parts of the world.in some parts of the world.
Why?Why?

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:DMTeaching:DM
The Direct Method (DM) rose toThe Direct Method (DM) rose to
prominence at the beginning ofprominence at the beginning of
the 20the 20thth
century and it is one ofcentury and it is one of
the nonscientific methods,the nonscientific methods,
similar to Grammar Translation.similar to Grammar Translation.

LanguageLanguage
DM is a movement toward aDM is a movement toward a
scientific method. Gouinscientific method. Gouin
started a method based onstarted a method based on
child language acquisition.child language acquisition.

LanguageLanguage
Franke wrote on the directFranke wrote on the direct
association between form andassociation between form and
meaning.meaning.
Saussure made a distinctionSaussure made a distinction
between language andbetween language and
substance.substance.

LanguageLanguage
To Saussure language is formTo Saussure language is form
not substance.not substance.
In addition, Sauveur bannedIn addition, Sauveur banned
translation and use of mothertranslation and use of mother
tongue in the classroom.tongue in the classroom.

LanguageLanguage
The weaknesses of GT made DMThe weaknesses of GT made DM
very popular.very popular.
Basic principle:The use of L1 isBasic principle:The use of L1 is
sin and the connection betweensin and the connection between
L2 and meaning should beL2 and meaning should be
direct.direct.

LanguageLanguage
PrinciplesPrinciples
1. Language is mainly speech.1. Language is mainly speech.
Culture includes more thanCulture includes more than
fine arts. Reading is taughtfine arts. Reading is taught
from the beginning.from the beginning.

LanguageLanguage
2. Concrete objects are used to2. Concrete objects are used to
make the direct link betweenmake the direct link between
form (language) and meaning.form (language) and meaning.
3. Mother tongue has almost no3. Mother tongue has almost no
role.role.

LanguageLanguage
4. Demonstration is preferred to4. Demonstration is preferred to
explanation and translation.explanation and translation.
5. Vocabulary in use is5. Vocabulary in use is
emphasized to boost thinkingemphasized to boost thinking
in English. (Real use in realin English. (Real use in real
sentences)sentences)

LanguageLanguage
6. Oral communication is the6. Oral communication is the
goal.goal.
7. Pronunciation receives7. Pronunciation receives
primary attention - focus onprimary attention - focus on
form.form.
8. Self correction is preferred to8. Self correction is preferred to
teacher’s correction.teacher’s correction.

LanguageLanguage
9. Lessons should provide the9. Lessons should provide the
chances for real lifechances for real life
conversation.conversation.
10. Grammar is taught10. Grammar is taught
inductively or implicitly.inductively or implicitly.

LanguageLanguage
11. Like reading,writing is11. Like reading,writing is
practiced frompracticed from
beginning.Four languagebeginning.Four language
skills are together.skills are together.
12. Lessons are topic based and12. Lessons are topic based and
not structurally designed.not structurally designed.

LanguageLanguage
13. Language and culture are13. Language and culture are
interwoven.interwoven.
Notes on Direct Method:Notes on Direct Method:
Fluency over accuracyFluency over accuracy
(unlike GT)(unlike GT)

LanguageLanguage
Immediate correctionImmediate correction by selfby self
correction or teacher’s indirectcorrection or teacher’s indirect
correction. An error is like acorrection. An error is like a
sin.sin.
Students’ knowledgeStudents’ knowledge aboutabout L2L2
is not evaluated (as it was inis not evaluated (as it was in
GT).GT).

LanguageLanguage
The weaknesses of DirectThe weaknesses of Direct
MethodMethod
Overemphasized naturalOveremphasized natural
language acquisition usage forlanguage acquisition usage for
classroom learning situation.classroom learning situation.

LanguageLanguage
Lacking a firm basis in AppliedLacking a firm basis in Applied
Linguistics and psychology ofLinguistics and psychology of
learning.learning.
Placing so much emphasis onPlacing so much emphasis on
the teacher rather thanthe teacher rather than
textbook.textbook.

LanguageLanguage
By 1920s, Direct Method (BerlitzBy 1920s, Direct Method (Berlitz
Method in the U. S.) started toMethod in the U. S.) started to
decline. DM led to Audio-lingualdecline. DM led to Audio-lingual
Method (ALM) in the UnitedMethod (ALM) in the United
States.States.

LanguageLanguage
At the same time SituationalAt the same time Situational
Language Teaching (OralLanguage Teaching (Oral
Approach) was popular inApproach) was popular in
Europe and ContrastiveEurope and Contrastive
Analysis gained importance.Analysis gained importance.

LanguageLanguage
About the same time EclecticismAbout the same time Eclecticism
– the idea that language– the idea that language
teaching should undergoteaching should undergo
ongoing reform – was alsoongoing reform – was also
proposed and supported.proposed and supported.

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:ALMTeaching:ALM
GT and Direct Method wereGT and Direct Method were
popular until World War II. Thepopular until World War II. The
Audio-lingual Method (ALM)Audio-lingual Method (ALM)
was developed in the U. S.was developed in the U. S.
during World War II. Why?during World War II. Why?

LanguageLanguage
Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) isAudio-Lingual Method (ALM) is
thethe first scientific methodfirst scientific method sincesince
it has roots in both psychologyit has roots in both psychology
and linguistics.and linguistics.

Language Teaching:ALMLanguage Teaching:ALM
Psychology:Psychology:
SkinnerSkinner
(1930s-50s)(1930s-50s)
BehaviorismBehaviorism
Linguistics:Linguistics:
BloomfieldBloomfield
(1930s-50s)(1930s-50s)
StructuralismStructuralism

LanguageLanguage
Principle:Principle:
1.1. Form appears inside theForm appears inside the
context, not in isolation. Forcontext, not in isolation. For
example, a dialogue is used toexample, a dialogue is used to
introduce a new structure.introduce a new structure.

LanguageLanguage
2.2. L1 and L2 have two systemsL1 and L2 have two systems
and they are treated differentlyand they are treated differently
to avoid interferenceto avoid interference..
3.3. The teacher is the model. HisThe teacher is the model. His
native-like accent does matter.native-like accent does matter.

LanguageLanguage
4.4. Language learning is habitLanguage learning is habit
formation and habits shouldformation and habits should
be repeated to get fixed inbe repeated to get fixed in
mind.mind.
5.5. Errors are barriers for habitErrors are barriers for habit
formation (inhibition).formation (inhibition).

LanguageLanguage
6.6. Communication is the priorCommunication is the prior
goal.goal.
7.7. A sentence includes severalA sentence includes several
slots and each slot needs aslots and each slot needs a
special part of speech.special part of speech.

LanguageLanguage
A. John is satisfied with the ------.A. John is satisfied with the ------.
(a noun is needed after(a noun is needed after
preposition)preposition)
B. John is satisfied with the ------B. John is satisfied with the ------
concert. ( a noun or anconcert. ( a noun or an
adjective)adjective)

LanguageLanguage
8. Positive reinforcement is8. Positive reinforcement is
preferred to no/negativepreferred to no/negative
reinforcement.reinforcement.
Note: Behaviorism: stimulus,Note: Behaviorism: stimulus,
response and reinforcement.response and reinforcement.

LanguageLanguage
Stimulus → Organism →Stimulus → Organism →
Response Behavior →Response Behavior →
1. Positive Reinforcement, or1. Positive Reinforcement, or
2. No / Negative Reinforcement2. No / Negative Reinforcement

LanguageLanguage
Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, …Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, …
Organism = L2 learnerOrganism = L2 learner
Response BehaviorResponse Behavior== verbal behaviorverbal behavior
Positive Reinforcement = 1.approvalPositive Reinforcement = 1.approval
by teacher/peers, 2.selfby teacher/peers, 2.self
satisfactionsatisfaction

LanguageLanguage
9. Stimuli can be9. Stimuli can be
verbal/nonverbalverbal/nonverbal
Note: Behaviorism, like linguisticNote: Behaviorism, like linguistic
Structuralism, is anStructuralism, is an anti-anti-
mentalistmentalist,, empirically basedempirically based
approach.approach.

LanguageLanguage
10. Language is a set of patterns10. Language is a set of patterns
or structures. Pattern practiceor structures. Pattern practice
leads to the over-learning of aleads to the over-learning of a
desired verbal behavior (habitdesired verbal behavior (habit
formation).formation).

LanguageLanguage
Linguistic StructuralismLinguistic Structuralism ::
A. Language is a system ofA. Language is a system of
forms, from smaller units suchforms, from smaller units such
as sounds to bigger units suchas sounds to bigger units such
as sentences.as sentences.

LanguageLanguage
B. Structuralism studies theB. Structuralism studies the
distribution of units within thedistribution of units within the
system (e.g., phoneme vs.system (e.g., phoneme vs.
allophone).allophone).

LanguageLanguage
C. Structuralism is a reaction toC. Structuralism is a reaction to
mentalist and traditionalmentalist and traditional
approach to grammar.approach to grammar.
D. In Structuralism all languagesD. In Structuralism all languages
are equally developed.are equally developed.

LanguageLanguage
E. Language is equal to speech.E. Language is equal to speech.
F. Language can be learned byF. Language can be learned by
mastering the building blocksmastering the building blocks
(elements) of the Form system.(elements) of the Form system.

LanguageLanguage
G. Rule-ordered processesG. Rule-ordered processes
involveinvolve additionaddition,, deletiondeletion, and, and
transpositiontransposition of grammaticalof grammatical
elements.elements.

LanguageLanguage
11. Automatic repetition is the11. Automatic repetition is the
result of overlearning - Drillingresult of overlearning - Drilling
and mechanical repetition.and mechanical repetition.
12.The teacher is an orchestra12.The teacher is an orchestra
leader.leader.

LanguageLanguage
From the three language learningFrom the three language learning
activities – 1. Mechanical drills,activities – 1. Mechanical drills,
2. meaningful exercises, and 3.2. meaningful exercises, and 3.
communicative activities – thecommunicative activities – the
first one is practiced.first one is practiced.

LanguageLanguage
13. Learning the structural13. Learning the structural
patterns comes beforepatterns comes before
vocabulary. Studentsvocabulary. Students
sometimes repeat unknown orsometimes repeat unknown or
meaningless words (Form ismeaningless words (Form is
more important).more important).

LanguageLanguage
14. L2 learning is equal to L114. L2 learning is equal to L1
acquisition. Rules are inducedacquisition. Rules are induced
(implicit) from examples.(implicit) from examples.
15. Contrastive analysis of L115. Contrastive analysis of L1
and L2 shows the areas ofand L2 shows the areas of
difficulty.difficulty.

LanguageLanguage
16. The “Natural Order” is to be16. The “Natural Order” is to be
adopted for L2 acquisition.adopted for L2 acquisition.
Note: In ALM acquisition isNote: In ALM acquisition is
preferred to learning. Thepreferred to learning. The
former is implicit.former is implicit.

17. Culture is discussed within17. Culture is discussed within
the context of language.the context of language.

Techniques:Techniques:
Dialogue memorizationDialogue memorization
Backward build up drillsBackward build up drills
Repetition drillsRepetition drills
Chain drillsChain drills

Single-slot substitution drillsSingle-slot substitution drills
Multiple slot substitution drillsMultiple slot substitution drills
Transformation drillsTransformation drills
Question and answer drillsQuestion and answer drills
Use of minimal pairsUse of minimal pairs

Completing the dialogueCompleting the dialogue
Grammar gameGrammar game

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:SWTeaching:SW
The Silent Way: AlthoughThe Silent Way: Although
Audiolingualism is widely usedAudiolingualism is widely used
all over the world, it wasall over the world, it was
heavily criticized in the earlyheavily criticized in the early
1960s.1960s.

LanguageLanguage
Both Behaviorism (psychologicalBoth Behaviorism (psychological
foundation) and Structuralismfoundation) and Structuralism
(linguistic foundation) were(linguistic foundation) were
attacked by linguists andattacked by linguists and
psychologists.psychologists.

LanguageLanguage
Behaviorism was followed byBehaviorism was followed by
Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology..
Structuralism was followed byStructuralism was followed by
Transformational-generativeTransformational-generative
linguisticslinguistics..

LanguageLanguage
Basic concepts:Basic concepts:
1. Human is creative, so mimicry,1. Human is creative, so mimicry,
memorization, repetition andmemorization, repetition and
parrot learning (Behaviorism)parrot learning (Behaviorism)
do not lead to real learningdo not lead to real learning..

LanguageLanguage
2. Language is not confined to a2. Language is not confined to a
limited number of structureslimited number of structures
(as opposed to Structuralism).(as opposed to Structuralism).
Best evidence: new sentencesBest evidence: new sentences
that children make in early life.that children make in early life.

LanguageLanguage
3. Language learning is not the3. Language learning is not the
outcome of habit formationoutcome of habit formation
(Behaviorism). It is the process(Behaviorism). It is the process
of creative rule formationof creative rule formation
(Cognitive Psychology).(Cognitive Psychology).

LanguageLanguage
4.4. Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology putsputs
more emphasis on thoughtful,more emphasis on thoughtful,
mentalist and creativementalist and creative
processes. Learners formprocesses. Learners form
hypothesis to discover thehypothesis to discover the
rules of L2rules of L2

LanguageLanguage
5. Language learning is not the5. Language learning is not the
passive process of stimulus →passive process of stimulus →
response → behavior. Learnersresponse → behavior. Learners
are actively involved inare actively involved in
discovering L2 rules.discovering L2 rules.

LanguageLanguage
Note: In general, CognitiveNote: In general, Cognitive
science deals with thescience deals with the
scientific study of thinking,scientific study of thinking,
reasoning and the intellectualreasoning and the intellectual
processes of the mind.processes of the mind.

LanguageLanguage
6.a. Generative Transformational6.a. Generative Transformational
theory (proposed by Chomskytheory (proposed by Chomsky
in 1957) is a model for thein 1957) is a model for the
description of all languages.description of all languages.

LanguageLanguage
6.b. GT theory, with a system of6.b. GT theory, with a system of
rules, shows the knowledgerules, shows the knowledge
that a native speaker uses inthat a native speaker uses in
forming grammaticalforming grammatical
sentences.sentences.

LanguageLanguage
6.c. In GT theory internalized6.c. In GT theory internalized
grammar of a language –grammar of a language –
Competence – enables one toCompetence – enables one to
create and understand totallycreate and understand totally
new sentences.new sentences.

LanguageLanguage
6.d. Competence enables us to6.d. Competence enables us to
tell what are and what are nottell what are and what are not
possible sentences in apossible sentences in a
language (implicit knowledge).language (implicit knowledge).

LanguageLanguage
6.e.6.e. CompetenceCompetence is different fromis different from
PerformancePerformance which is thewhich is the
actual use of the language byactual use of the language by
individuals.individuals.

LanguageLanguage
7. Errors are inevitable, natural7. Errors are inevitable, natural
signs of learning/acquisition.signs of learning/acquisition.
They show the learner isThey show the learner is
testing his hypotheses.Thetesting his hypotheses.The
progress is gradual and step byprogress is gradual and step by
step.step.

LanguageLanguage
8. All four skills are worked on8. All four skills are worked on
from the beginning. In addition.from the beginning. In addition.
Form and meaning are bothForm and meaning are both
important.important.

LanguageLanguage
Gattegno’s “Silent Way”Gattegno’s “Silent Way” was notwas not
the outcome of Cognitivethe outcome of Cognitive
Psychology, but in line with thePsychology, but in line with the
theory. That is, both assign antheory. That is, both assign an
active role to the learner.active role to the learner.

LanguageLanguage
In both Silent way and CognitiveIn both Silent way and Cognitive
Psychology,Psychology, teaching isteaching is
subordinate to learning: Bothsubordinate to learning: Both
of them are learning andof them are learning and
learner centeredlearner centered, not teaching, not teaching
centered.centered.

LanguageLanguage
Principles:Principles:
1. The teacher goes1. The teacher goes from familiarfrom familiar
to unfamiliarto unfamiliar. For example, he. For example, he
starts with L2 sounds whichstarts with L2 sounds which
are similar to L1 sounds.are similar to L1 sounds.

LanguageLanguage
2. The teacher speaks very little,2. The teacher speaks very little,
only when needed. His silenceonly when needed. His silence
motivates the learners tomotivates the learners to
participate more and be active.participate more and be active.

LanguageLanguage
3. The teacher is not the model.3. The teacher is not the model.
His gestures work.Student’sHis gestures work.Student’s
“self criteria” for correctness“self criteria” for correctness
are emphasized. The studentare emphasized. The student
takes the responsibility oftakes the responsibility of
learning.learning.

LanguageLanguage
4. Students’ actions show if they4. Students’ actions show if they
have learned.have learned.
5. Students help each other.5. Students help each other.
6. The teacher uses gestures and6. The teacher uses gestures and
L1 to help them learn.L1 to help them learn.

LanguageLanguage
7. & 8. Students’ familiar7. & 8. Students’ familiar
knowledge (old context) helpsknowledge (old context) helps
them learn the unfamiliar (newthem learn the unfamiliar (new
context). The teacher’scontext). The teacher’s
interference is very little.interference is very little.

LanguageLanguage
9. Reading is worked on from the9. Reading is worked on from the
beginning but after speaking.beginning but after speaking.
10. The teacher's silence leads to10. The teacher's silence leads to
the student's autonomy: learnerthe student's autonomy: learner
centeredness.centeredness.

LanguageLanguage
11. Meaning is achieved through11. Meaning is achieved through
perceptions (senses), notperceptions (senses), not
translation.translation.
12.Group cooperation is the12.Group cooperation is the
norm.norm.
13. Little praise and punishment.13. Little praise and punishment.

LanguageLanguage
14. Errors are important. They14. Errors are important. They
are the road signs.are the road signs.
15. Self correction over teacher’s15. Self correction over teacher’s
correction.correction.
16. Students listen to each other.16. Students listen to each other.

LanguageLanguage
17. Learning rates are different.17. Learning rates are different.
Perfection is not the target.Perfection is not the target.
18. The teacher frees his time by18. The teacher frees his time by
his silence.his silence.
19. Students are attentive.19. Students are attentive.

LanguageLanguage
20. Meaningful practice is20. Meaningful practice is
preferred to repetition.preferred to repetition.
21. Logical presentation of21. Logical presentation of
language elements fromlanguage elements from
familiar to unfamiliar.familiar to unfamiliar.

LanguageLanguage
22. & 23. Autonomy is gained by22. & 23. Autonomy is gained by
exploring and making choices.exploring and making choices.
24. Feedback from students24. Feedback from students
informs the teacher.informs the teacher.
25.No homework:sleeping25.No homework:sleeping
practicepractice

LanguageLanguage
26. Syllabus is structure based.26. Syllabus is structure based.
27. Structures are not presented27. Structures are not presented
in a linear way.in a linear way.
28. Skills (speaking, reading and28. Skills (speaking, reading and
writing) reinforce one another.writing) reinforce one another.

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:SUGTeaching:SUG
Suggestopedia (Superlearning):Suggestopedia (Superlearning):
psychological barriers are thepsychological barriers are the
main causes of failure inmain causes of failure in
language learning. Theselanguage learning. These
barriers should be removed.barriers should be removed.

LanguageLanguage
These barriers are fear of badThese barriers are fear of bad
performance, limited ability toperformance, limited ability to
learn, and failure, so our fulllearn, and failure, so our full
mental powers are notmental powers are not
revealed.revealed.

LanguageLanguage
Suggestology: how to harnessSuggestology: how to harness
and redirect mental capacityand redirect mental capacity
foe maximum learning. It isfoe maximum learning. It is
based on Desuggestion andbased on Desuggestion and
SuggestionSuggestion

LanguageLanguage
Desuggestion: unloading mentalDesuggestion: unloading mental
reserves of unwantedreserves of unwanted
memories.memories.
Suggestion: loading the reservesSuggestion: loading the reserves
with facilitating memories.with facilitating memories.

LanguageLanguage
Basics of Suggestology:Basics of Suggestology:
1. Authority: the teacher’s C. V.,1. Authority: the teacher’s C. V.,
his belief in the method and hishis belief in the method and his
manner are valued (the placebomanner are valued (the placebo
effect).effect).

LanguageLanguage
2. Infantalization: students take2. Infantalization: students take
the role of a child (games,the role of a child (games,
songs, gymnastic exercises,songs, gymnastic exercises,
… ).… ).

LanguageLanguage
1.1. Learning is facilitated inLearning is facilitated in
comfort.comfort.
2.2. Peripheral learning is valued.Peripheral learning is valued.

LanguageLanguage
3. Students must respect and3. Students must respect and
trust the teacher’s authority.trust the teacher’s authority.
4. The teacher “desuggests” the4. The teacher “desuggests” the
barriers: L2 learning is fun.barriers: L2 learning is fun.

LanguageLanguage
5. Students’ imagination is5. Students’ imagination is
activated (Suggestion).activated (Suggestion).
6. Students’ confidence is raised6. Students’ confidence is raised
(Suggestion).(Suggestion).

LanguageLanguage
7. Choosing new names and7. Choosing new names and
biographies enhances feelingbiographies enhances feeling
of security (suggestion).of security (suggestion).
8. Easy to handle dialogs come8. Easy to handle dialogs come
first.first.

LanguageLanguage
9. Students’ attention is off the9. Students’ attention is off the
Form (structure) and onForm (structure) and on
communication.communication.
10. The lessons indirectly10. The lessons indirectly
enhance positive Suggestions.enhance positive Suggestions.

LanguageLanguage
11. Grammar and vocabulary are11. Grammar and vocabulary are
taught very superficially.taught very superficially.
12. Mother tongue and12. Mother tongue and
translation are used to transfertranslation are used to transfer
meaning.meaning.

LanguageLanguage
13. Double planedness: language13. Double planedness: language
message is the consciousmessage is the conscious
level; music is thelevel; music is the
subconscious level. They gosubconscious level. They go
together. Decoration of thetogether. Decoration of the
environment is so important.environment is so important.

LanguageLanguage
14. To overcome the barriers, a14. To overcome the barriers, a
pseudo-passive state ispseudo-passive state is
needed.needed.
15. Homework is done at night15. Homework is done at night
and in the morning.and in the morning.

LanguageLanguage
16. Dramatization and fantasy16. Dramatization and fantasy
reduce the barriers to learning.reduce the barriers to learning.
17. The arts (music, drama, … )17. The arts (music, drama, … )
should be part of the processshould be part of the process
of learning.of learning.

LanguageLanguage
18. Novelty is the to motivation18. Novelty is the to motivation
(learning activities are varied).(learning activities are varied).
19. Infantalization is the key19. Infantalization is the key
factor. A childlike attitude tofactor. A childlike attitude to
learning helps a lot.learning helps a lot.

LanguageLanguage
20. In some activities the20. In some activities the
conscious attention focuses onconscious attention focuses on
using L2, not on the structureusing L2, not on the structure
and form.and form.
21.Errors are tolerated and21.Errors are tolerated and
corrected indirectly later.corrected indirectly later.

LanguageLanguage
Two kinds of materials:Two kinds of materials:
1. Direct support: texts and tapes1. Direct support: texts and tapes
2. Indirect support: classroom2. Indirect support: classroom
decoration and musicdecoration and music

LanguageLanguage
Zero beginners are differentZero beginners are different
from false beginners.from false beginners.
Students are required to talk exStudents are required to talk ex
tempore (not from memorizedtempore (not from memorized
lines).lines).

LanguageLanguage
Students are immersed in theStudents are immersed in the
method and forget their pastmethod and forget their past
(new names).(new names).
Words are taught in word pairs.Words are taught in word pairs.

LanguageLanguage
The texts should beThe texts should be
emotionally and motivationallyemotionally and motivationally
powerful. They have literarypowerful. They have literary
value.value.
Musical background leads toMusical background leads to
relaxed body and alert mind.relaxed body and alert mind.

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:CLLTeaching:CLL
Community Language Learning:Community Language Learning:
Students as “whole persons”Students as “whole persons”
feelings + intellect + physicalfeelings + intellect + physical
reactions + instinctive protectivereactions + instinctive protective
reactions + desire to learnreactions + desire to learn

LanguageLanguage
Counseling LearningCounseling Learning →→
Community Language LearningCommunity Language Learning
(By: Charles A. Curran)(By: Charles A. Curran)
His theory is based on adultHis theory is based on adult
learninglearning..

LanguageLanguage
Adults feel frightened in a newAdults feel frightened in a new
learning situation: the inherentlearning situation: the inherent
change and chances of makingchange and chances of making
mistakes frightens them. So themistakes frightens them. So the
teacher should play ateacher should play a
counselorcounselor..

LanguageLanguage
CLL is a humanistic approachCLL is a humanistic approach
taken from Carl Rodger’staken from Carl Rodger’s
approach (1950): the focus isapproach (1950): the focus is
onon Affective (emotional)Affective (emotional)
DomainDomain; it is client (learner); it is client (learner)
centered.centered.

LanguageLanguage
Factors of Affective Domain:Factors of Affective Domain:
Empathy, self-esteem, attitudeEmpathy, self-esteem, attitude
extroversion, inhibition,extroversion, inhibition,
imitation, anxiety, and so on.imitation, anxiety, and so on.

LanguageLanguage
Language process is not justLanguage process is not just::
sender → message → receiversender → message → receiver
It is interactional andIt is interactional and
communicative. It is a socialcommunicative. It is a social
processprocess..

LanguageLanguage
CLL is a holistic approach:CLL is a holistic approach:
Cognitive + Affective factorsCognitive + Affective factors
Classroom interaction isClassroom interaction is
between peers (symmetrical) orbetween peers (symmetrical) or
learner-knower (asymmetrical)learner-knower (asymmetrical)

LanguageLanguage
1.1. The teacher starts a friendlyThe teacher starts a friendly
relationship.relationship.
2.2. The teacher’s explanation ofThe teacher’s explanation of
the activities brings security.the activities brings security.

LanguageLanguage
3. Language is for3. Language is for
communication.communication.
4. The teacher’s standing4. The teacher’s standing
position can be effective inposition can be effective in
reducing tension and fosteringreducing tension and fostering
interaction.interaction.

LanguageLanguage
5. The teacher is caring about5. The teacher is caring about
the students limitations andthe students limitations and
fears. They learn with differentfears. They learn with different
paces.paces.
6. Time limits are revealed;6. Time limits are revealed;
security follows!security follows!

LanguageLanguage
7. The teacher and students are7. The teacher and students are
whole persons (Affective +whole persons (Affective +
Cognitive factors).Cognitive factors).

LanguageLanguage
8. Learners have different8. Learners have different
strategies, paces and styles ofstrategies, paces and styles of
learning. The teacher makeslearning. The teacher makes
them feel relaxed (Affectivethem feel relaxed (Affective
factors).factors).

LanguageLanguage
9. The teacher is a counselor.9. The teacher is a counselor.
Negative feelings blockNegative feelings block
learning.learning.
10. L1 is part of the process of10. L1 is part of the process of
learning. Understanding shouldlearning. Understanding should
be guaranteed.be guaranteed.

LanguageLanguage
11. Activities should be clear11. Activities should be clear
/clarified (Affective factors)./clarified (Affective factors).
12. The tasks are given one by12. The tasks are given one by
one to reduce the barriers.one to reduce the barriers.

LanguageLanguage
13. Students go from total13. Students go from total
dependence on the teacher todependence on the teacher to
independence and initiative.independence and initiative.
14. Relaxed reflection and14. Relaxed reflection and
thinking fosters the process.thinking fosters the process.

LanguageLanguage
15. Having a choice results in15. Having a choice results in
developing an inner wisdom.developing an inner wisdom.
16. Careful listening is needed to16. Careful listening is needed to
learn to discriminate and seelearn to discriminate and see
the similarities and differences.the similarities and differences.

LanguageLanguage
17. Group work and cooperation17. Group work and cooperation
is preferred to competition.is preferred to competition.
18. Indirect correction reduces18. Indirect correction reduces
tension.tension.

LanguageLanguage
19. Interaction among the peers19. Interaction among the peers
(students) leads to trust and(students) leads to trust and
less threat.less threat.
20. Learning takes place if the20. Learning takes place if the
task neither too new nor tootask neither too new nor too
familiar.familiar.

LanguageLanguage
21. Thinking about learning21. Thinking about learning
experiences is as positive asexperiences is as positive as
reflecting on L2.reflecting on L2.
22. In early stages, the syllabus22. In early stages, the syllabus
is learner dependent (oriented).is learner dependent (oriented).

LanguageLanguage
Curran: there are sixCurran: there are six elementselements
for nondefensive learningfor nondefensive learning::
Security, aggressionSecurity, aggression
(assertiveness),(assertiveness),
attention, reflection, retentionattention, reflection, retention
(integration), discrimination(integration), discrimination

LanguageLanguage
Evaluation in CLL is not fixed,Evaluation in CLL is not fixed,
but it should be in line with thebut it should be in line with the
principles. The test is mainlyprinciples. The test is mainly
integrative, not discrete point.integrative, not discrete point.
Self evaluation is also valued.Self evaluation is also valued.

LanguageLanguage
In CLL culture and language areIn CLL culture and language are
inseparable. The teacher andinseparable. The teacher and
students form a communitystudents form a community
(learning is persons). They(learning is persons). They
trust each other and thetrust each other and the
process.process.

LanguageLanguage
Teaching:TPRTeaching:TPR
Total Physical Response is anTotal Physical Response is an
example of “Comprehensionexample of “Comprehension
Approach”.Approach”.
The importance is given toThe importance is given to
Listening Comprehension.Listening Comprehension.

LanguageLanguage
The idea of ComprehensionThe idea of Comprehension
Approach comes from childApproach comes from child
language acquisition. Speakinglanguage acquisition. Speaking
is a natural product of listening.is a natural product of listening.

LanguageLanguage
Many methods are based on L1Many methods are based on L1
acquisition. Krashen andacquisition. Krashen and
Terrell’s “natural Approach”:Terrell’s “natural Approach”:

LanguageLanguage
communication through picturescommunication through pictures
and words is fostered, but L1 isand words is fostered, but L1 is
also used. Natural Approach isalso used. Natural Approach is
similar to Direct Method, but insimilar to Direct Method, but in
former L1 is allowed.former L1 is allowed.

LanguageLanguage
In Winitz and Reed’sIn Winitz and Reed’s selfself
instructional programinstructional program and inand in
Winitz’Winitz’ The LearnablesThe Learnables,,
students listen and look atstudents listen and look at
relevant pictures.relevant pictures.

LanguageLanguage
In Asher’s TPR students listenIn Asher’s TPR students listen
and respond in actions.and respond in actions.

LanguageLanguage
TP is based on “Trace Theory”:TP is based on “Trace Theory”:
the more a memory connectionthe more a memory connection
is traced, the storage ofis traced, the storage of
memory associations is easiermemory associations is easier
(Heb’s Law).(Heb’s Law).

LanguageLanguage
Tracing and retracing can beTracing and retracing can be
both verbal (language) andboth verbal (language) and
motor (actions). Themotor (actions). The
combination of the two fosterscombination of the two fosters
the recall.the recall.

LanguageLanguage
TPR is humanistic in saying thatTPR is humanistic in saying that
gamelike movements reducegamelike movements reduce
stress. TPR is basicallystress. TPR is basically
structuralist (imperative verbsstructuralist (imperative verbs
at the center).at the center).

LanguageLanguage
TPR claims that nonabstractionsTPR claims that nonabstractions
(verbs and concrete nouns)(verbs and concrete nouns)
help us learn abstractions.help us learn abstractions.

LanguageLanguage
Language chunks are practicedLanguage chunks are practiced
rather than single items.rather than single items.
No grammar explanation isNo grammar explanation is
givengiven

LanguageLanguage
The theory of psychology isThe theory of psychology is
BahavioristBahaviorist::
Verbal Stimulus → ResponseVerbal Stimulus → Response

LanguageLanguage
The learning hypotheses:The learning hypotheses:
1. Innate bio program: listening1. Innate bio program: listening
before speaking (Naturalbefore speaking (Natural
Approach) and synchronizedApproach) and synchronized
with body.with body.

LanguageLanguage
2. Affective Filter: meaning2. Affective Filter: meaning
through movementsthrough movements
3. Brain Lateralization: motor3. Brain Lateralization: motor
activities are right brainactivities are right brain
centered (following Piaget).centered (following Piaget).

LanguageLanguage
Students master L2 through rightStudents master L2 through right
hemisphere motor activitieshemisphere motor activities
while the left one (languagewhile the left one (language
center!) is watching andcenter!) is watching and
learning.learning.

LanguageLanguage
1. Meaning is transferred1. Meaning is transferred
through actions. Right brainthrough actions. Right brain
(nonverbal center) is involved.(nonverbal center) is involved.
Chunks are preferred to singleChunks are preferred to single
words.words.

LanguageLanguage
2. Listening before speaking.2. Listening before speaking.
3. Actions accompany the3. Actions accompany the
language. The teacher actslanguage. The teacher acts
first.first.
4. The basic structure is4. The basic structure is
imperative (only volunteersimperative (only volunteers
act).act).

LanguageLanguage
5. Students first observe and5. Students first observe and
then perform the actions.then perform the actions.
6. Feeling of success and little6. Feeling of success and little
anxiety facilitate learning.anxiety facilitate learning.

LanguageLanguage
7.Changing order of commands7.Changing order of commands
blocks sheer memorization.blocks sheer memorization.
8. Correction should be indirect8. Correction should be indirect
and through actions.and through actions.

LanguageLanguage
9. Novelty of commands can be9. Novelty of commands can be
motivating.motivating.
10. Language learning should be10. Language learning should be
fun (funny commands).fun (funny commands).

LanguageLanguage
11. Spoken language comes first.11. Spoken language comes first.
12. Speaking emerges very12. Speaking emerges very
naturally. They choose tonaturally. They choose to
speake.speake.

LanguageLanguage
13. The teacher is tolerant of the13. The teacher is tolerant of the
errors. Delicate points anderrors. Delicate points and
details are put off for later anddetails are put off for later and
higher levels.higher levels.

Language Teaching:Language Teaching:
CLTCLT
The Communicative LanguageThe Communicative Language
TeachingTeaching
UNIT 9UNIT 9

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT
This is a British Approach thatThis is a British Approach that
followed Oral Approach orfollowed Oral Approach or
Situational Language TeachingSituational Language Teaching
(simultaneous with Direct(simultaneous with Direct
Method).Method).

The decline of SLT – similar toThe decline of SLT – similar to
Direct Method – was due toDirect Method – was due to
Chomsky’s influence.In BritainChomsky’s influence.In Britain
functional and communicativefunctional and communicative
aspects gained prominence.aspects gained prominence.

While in the U.S. innateness andWhile in the U.S. innateness and
Generativity of language wereGenerativity of language were
important (under Chomsky’simportant (under Chomsky’s
influence), in Britaininfluence), in Britain
communication was importantcommunication was important

Many methods claim to beMany methods claim to be
communicative.communicative.
They also say that structure andThey also say that structure and
vocabulary are important.vocabulary are important.

Communicative Approach:theseCommunicative Approach:these
are good but not enough. Weare good but not enough. We
can not get ready forcan not get ready for
communication if justcommunication if just
vocabulary and structure arevocabulary and structure are
worked on.worked on.

Communication includesCommunication includes
functions. Functions are whatfunctions. Functions are what
we do with the language:we do with the language:
arguing, persuading,arguing, persuading,
promising, rejection orpromising, rejection or
accepting an invitation, …accepting an invitation, …

All these functions happenAll these functions happen
inside a social context. Wilkin’sinside a social context. Wilkin’s
Functional Notional ApproachFunctional Notional Approach
formed the basis offormed the basis of
Communicative Approach.Communicative Approach.

Functions are what we do withFunctions are what we do with
the language, but Notionalthe language, but Notional
categories are: time, sequence,categories are: time, sequence,
quantity, location, frequency.quantity, location, frequency.

Communicative Approach,Communicative Approach,
Communicative LanguageCommunicative Language
Teaching, functional ApproachTeaching, functional Approach
and Notional Functionaland Notional Functional
Approach have almost the sameApproach have almost the same
goals.goals.

Knowledge of forms, meaningsKnowledge of forms, meanings
and functions can be positive ifand functions can be positive if
they help the learner in thethey help the learner in the
process ofprocess of meaning exchangemeaning exchange ..

There are two versions ofThere are two versions of
Communicative Approach:Communicative Approach:
1. Weak Version (standard): the1. Weak Version (standard): the
goal is to provide chances togoal is to provide chances to
use English for communication.use English for communication.

This is called ‘learning to use’ orThis is called ‘learning to use’ or
‘language for communication’.‘language for communication’.
2. Strong Version: language as2. Strong Version: language as
communication – usingcommunication – using
language to learn.language to learn.

The linguistic theory behindThe linguistic theory behind
Communicative Approach isCommunicative Approach is
Dell Hymes’ communicativeDell Hymes’ communicative
competence (1972).competence (1972).

He believed that Chomsky’sHe believed that Chomsky’s
‘linguistic competence’ was too‘linguistic competence’ was too
limited. Linguistic competencelimited. Linguistic competence
doesn't justify social anddoesn't justify social and
functional rules of thefunctional rules of the
language.language.

Hymes’ competence deals withHymes’ competence deals with
both knowledge (both knowledge (usageusage) and) and
useuse..

1. Authentic language in real1. Authentic language in real
context:sports columns from acontext:sports columns from a
recent newspaperrecent newspaper

2. Ability to figure out someone’s2. Ability to figure out someone’s
intentions:communicativeintentions:communicative
competencecompetence

3.Language: a vehicle for3.Language: a vehicle for
communication, not the objectcommunication, not the object
of study (language forof study (language for
communication).communication).

4. One function in different4. One function in different
linguistic forms (the goal is tolinguistic forms (the goal is to
convey meaning with a nyconvey meaning with a ny
possible and suitable form).possible and suitable form).

5. Language use at higher levels5. Language use at higher levels
(supra sentential, text or(supra sentential, text or
discourse level).discourse level).

Note: Discourse orNote: Discourse or
communication has threecommunication has three
elements: 1. Real communicationelements: 1. Real communication
(information gap), 2. Task based(information gap), 2. Task based
activities, 3. Meaningfulnessactivities, 3. Meaningfulness
(authenticity).(authenticity).

In discourse analysis: cohesionIn discourse analysis: cohesion
(physical connectedness) and(physical connectedness) and
coherence (connectedness incoherence (connectedness in
meaning)meaning)

6. The importance of games as6. The importance of games as
real communication (taskreal communication (task
based activities)based activities)
Note: Immediate feedbackNote: Immediate feedback
ensures the learner of theensures the learner of the
result.result.

7. Opportunities for self7. Opportunities for self
expressionexpression
8. Errors as natural outcome of8. Errors as natural outcome of
development of communicationdevelopment of communication
skills.skills.

9. Establishment of situations to9. Establishment of situations to
promote communication (strippromote communication (strip
story).story).

10. Cooperation and team work10. Cooperation and team work
as a chance to negotiateas a chance to negotiate
meaning.meaning.
11. Role play as an example of11. Role play as an example of
social context (language forsocial context (language for
communication)communication)

12. Language forms with respect12. Language forms with respect
to social communicative normsto social communicative norms
(talking to your boss vs. talking(talking to your boss vs. talking
to your colleague)to your colleague)

13. The teacher as an advisor13. The teacher as an advisor
giving guidelines to groupsgiving guidelines to groups
14. A choice about what to say14. A choice about what to say
(linguistic competence) and(linguistic competence) and
how to say (communicativehow to say (communicative
one).one).

15. Grammar and vocabulary15. Grammar and vocabulary
from functions, situationalfrom functions, situational
context and roles.context and roles.

16. Listening to authentic16. Listening to authentic
language as homework.language as homework.

What is the goal of the teacher?What is the goal of the teacher?
To develop communicativeTo develop communicative
competence in the learners.competence in the learners.
Form, meaning and functionForm, meaning and function
are all critical.are all critical.

What are the roles of theWhat are the roles of the
teacher?teacher?
1. Facilitator of learning process,1. Facilitator of learning process,
2. Manager of classroom2. Manager of classroom
activities, 3. Advisor, 4. Co-activities, 3. Advisor, 4. Co-
communicatorcommunicator

What is the role of the student?What is the role of the student?
The learner is a communicator,The learner is a communicator,
actively engaged in transferringactively engaged in transferring
meaning and a responsiblemeaning and a responsible
manager of the social activities.manager of the social activities.

Characteristics of the process?Characteristics of the process?
Usage and use are bothUsage and use are both
important. Activities – role play,important. Activities – role play,
problem solving tasks, games –problem solving tasks, games –
are communication oriented.are communication oriented.

Note: information gap is a criticalNote: information gap is a critical
issue: a real interaction is madeissue: a real interaction is made
to exchange meaning – toto exchange meaning – to
reveal make unknownreveal make unknown
information.information.

The nature of student-teacherThe nature of student-teacher
interaction?interaction?
The teacher is the initiator ofThe teacher is the initiator of
activities. The interaction isactivities. The interaction is
basically student-student.basically student-student.

How about the student’sHow about the student’s
feelings?feelings?
The students are more motivatedThe students are more motivated
if they do something real andif they do something real and
purposeful with the language.purposeful with the language.

Note: Team work andNote: Team work and
cooperation also fosters thecooperation also fosters the
feeling of security. Theyfeeling of security. They
integrate L2 with theirintegrate L2 with their
personality.personality.

How are language/cultureHow are language/culture
viewed?viewed?
Language: form, meaning andLanguage: form, meaning and
function. Culture is part of realfunction. Culture is part of real
communication (e.g., the use ofcommunication (e.g., the use of
nonverbal behavior).nonverbal behavior).

The important areas ofThe important areas of
language?language?
Functions over forms. TheFunctions over forms. The
syllabus is functional and asyllabus is functional and a
variety of form are introducedvariety of form are introduced
in each function.in each function.

Note: at first easier functions areNote: at first easier functions are
used to introduce easier forms.used to introduce easier forms.
In general function determinesIn general function determines
form not the other way round.form not the other way round.

Note: the students learn aboutNote: the students learn about
cohesion and coherence in realcohesion and coherence in real
communication, not in ancommunication, not in an
explicit way (by scrambling andexplicit way (by scrambling and
unscrambling the text).unscrambling the text).

What is the role of L1?What is the role of L1?
L1 has almost no role.L1 has almost no role.
Communication happens in L2Communication happens in L2
context.context.

How is evaluationHow is evaluation
accomplished?accomplished?
Both accuracy and fluency areBoth accuracy and fluency are
evaluated. The ideal learner is aevaluated. The ideal learner is a
the best communicator. Thethe best communicator. The
use of forms is not valuable byuse of forms is not valuable by
itself.itself.

Note: Evaluation here is informalNote: Evaluation here is informal
and happens in the process ofand happens in the process of
acting communicatively. Butacting communicatively. But
the test is a communicative testthe test is a communicative test
which deals with functions.which deals with functions.

Note: the tests are integrativeNote: the tests are integrative
such as writing a letter to asuch as writing a letter to a
friend which is a function andfriend which is a function and
conveys meaning. It si also aconveys meaning. It si also a
social activity.social activity.

How are the errors treated?How are the errors treated?
Errors of form are tolerated as aErrors of form are tolerated as a
natural outcome. Linguisticnatural outcome. Linguistic
knowledge is not very criticalknowledge is not very critical
for communicative ability.for communicative ability.

Techniques and materials:Techniques and materials:
1. Authentic materials (real1. Authentic materials (real
world)world)
2, scrambled sentences2, scrambled sentences
(cohesion and coherence)(cohesion and coherence)

3. Language games (information3. Language games (information
gap, choice and feedback)gap, choice and feedback)
4. Picture strip story (information4. Picture strip story (information
gap, team work, problemgap, team work, problem
solving and negotiatingsolving and negotiating
meaning)meaning)

5. Role play (different social5. Role play (different social
contexts lead to different rolescontexts lead to different roles
and each role uses certainand each role uses certain
forms for each function).forms for each function).

The goals of the teacher?The goals of the teacher?
To accelerate the process ofTo accelerate the process of
learning for communication.learning for communication.
The learner’s mental powersThe learner’s mental powers
must be trapped bymust be trapped by
dessuggesting.dessuggesting.

The role of the teacher?The role of the teacher?
He is the authority. He should beHe is the authority. He should be
trusted and respected (placebotrusted and respected (placebo
effect).effect).

Features of teaching/learning?Features of teaching/learning?
A. Students are comfortable.A. Students are comfortable.
Furniture and decoration areFurniture and decoration are
important. Music accompanies.important. Music accompanies.

B. Posters displayingB. Posters displaying
grammatical information are ongrammatical information are on
the wall (peripheral learning).the wall (peripheral learning).
New names and biographiesNew names and biographies
(new identities)(new identities)

C. lengthy dialogs in L2 with L1C. lengthy dialogs in L2 with L1
translation and notes ontranslation and notes on
vocabulary and grammar. In thevocabulary and grammar. In the
first major phase (receptive) thefirst major phase (receptive) the
teacher reads the dialog alongteacher reads the dialog along
the music.the music.

D.D. Now the whole brain (left andNow the whole brain (left and
right) is involved (similar toright) is involved (similar to
TPR). The students also see heTPR). The students also see he
translation.translation.

In the second major phaseIn the second major phase
(activation) the students(activation) the students
engage in various activities:engage in various activities:
dramatization, games, songs,dramatization, games, songs,
question and answer exercises.question and answer exercises.

The nature of interaction?The nature of interaction?
The teacher initiates. The whenThe teacher initiates. The when
they feel relaxed the studentsthey feel relaxed the students
also initiate interaction.also initiate interaction.

How are the feelings dealt with?How are the feelings dealt with?
They have to be relaxed andThey have to be relaxed and
confident. Learning comesconfident. Learning comes
naturally not by forcenaturally not by force
(suggestion and desuggestion).(suggestion and desuggestion).

How is language/culture viewed?How is language/culture viewed?
A. Communication is a two planeA. Communication is a two plane
activity. In the first planeactivity. In the first plane
language happens. In thelanguage happens. In the
second nonverbal factorssecond nonverbal factors
affect.affect.

B. culture includes the life of L2B. culture includes the life of L2
speakers and the fine arts.speakers and the fine arts.

What areas/skills areWhat areas/skills are
emphasized?emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized.Vocabulary is emphasized.
Grammar is dealt with explicitlyGrammar is dealt with explicitly
(conscious attention) but(conscious attention) but
minimally. Speaking is valued.minimally. Speaking is valued.

The role of L1?The role of L1?
L1 makes the dialog clear andL1 makes the dialog clear and
easy so the students geteasy so the students get
relaxed.relaxed.

How is evaluation done?How is evaluation done?
It is done on the class activitiesIt is done on the class activities
not through formal testsnot through formal tests
(Suggestology).(Suggestology).

How are the errors treated?How are the errors treated?
At the early stages no directAt the early stages no direct
correction happens. Later theycorrection happens. Later they
receive indirect correction onreceive indirect correction on
form.form.

The goals of the teacher?The goals of the teacher?
Natural communication, learningNatural communication, learning
about their own learning andabout their own learning and
taking responsibility for it,taking responsibility for it,
acting nondefensively:as wholeacting nondefensively:as whole
persons.persons.

The teacher’s role?The teacher’s role?
He is a counselor first. He is caringHe is a counselor first. He is caring
and supportive.and supportive.

The student’s role?The student’s role?
At first they are totallyAt first they are totally
dependent like a client to adependent like a client to a
counselor. Five stages to movecounselor. Five stages to move
from dependence tofrom dependence to
independence.independence.

Features of teaching andFeatures of teaching and
learning?learning?
A. At first they speak in L1 andA. At first they speak in L1 and
the teacher gives L2 translationthe teacher gives L2 translation
in chunks.in chunks.

B. Later a transcript is made ofB. Later a transcript is made of
the dialog and L1 words arethe dialog and L1 words are
written under that. Activitieswritten under that. Activities
follow: grammar points, makingfollow: grammar points, making
new sentences, pronunciation.new sentences, pronunciation.

The nature of interaction?The nature of interaction?
A. The nature changes over time.A. The nature changes over time.
Sometimes the teacherSometimes the teacher
removes himself from the circleremoves himself from the circle
to encourage them to interact.to encourage them to interact.

B. Sometimes he gives L1B. Sometimes he gives L1
translation.At later timetranslation.At later time
students take morestudents take more
responsibility. Both areresponsibility. Both are
decision makers (student-decision makers (student-
teacher centeredness).teacher centeredness).

How are the feelings treated?How are the feelings treated?
Precise instructions,L1Precise instructions,L1
equivalents, establishing timeequivalents, establishing time
limits,easy to handle lessons,limits,easy to handle lessons,
and taking responsibility bringand taking responsibility bring
securitysecurity..

How is language/culture viewed?How is language/culture viewed?
Language is for communication.Language is for communication.
Culture is integrated withCulture is integrated with
language.language.

What areas are emphasized?What areas are emphasized?
In early stages the studentsIn early stages the students
design the syllabus. The mostdesign the syllabus. The most
important skills areimportant skills are
understanding and speakingunderstanding and speaking
the language.the language.

What is the role of L1?What is the role of L1?
Security is initially enhanced bySecurity is initially enhanced by
having L1 equivalents.having L1 equivalents.

How is evaluationHow is evaluation
accomplished?accomplished?
There is no particular mode ofThere is no particular mode of
evaluation. But teacher madeevaluation. But teacher made
integrative tests is moreintegrative tests is more
common than discrete pointcommon than discrete point
tests.tests.

How are the errors responded?How are the errors responded?
Without calling everyone’sWithout calling everyone’s
attention to error, the teacherattention to error, the teacher
corrects it indirectly.corrects it indirectly.

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...
Chapter 10Chapter 10
Content-based, task-based, andContent-based, task-based, and
Participatory ApproachesParticipatory Approaches

Three approaches that makeThree approaches that make
communication centralcommunication central
Content based instructionContent based instruction
Task-based approachTask-based approach
Participatory approachParticipatory approach

These approaches do not focusThese approaches do not focus
on form or function.on form or function.
They give more importance toThey give more importance to
process of learningprocess of learning over linguisticover linguistic
content.content.

Here instead of ‘learning to useHere instead of ‘learning to use
English’ we try to ‘use English toEnglish’ we try to ‘use English to
learn’.learn’.
Here instead of ‘English forHere instead of ‘English for
communication’ we try to gaincommunication’ we try to gain
‘English as communication’.‘English as communication’.

ESP (English for special purposes) isESP (English for special purposes) is
content oriented or content based. Englishcontent oriented or content based. English
for pilots, nurses, businessmen are somefor pilots, nurses, businessmen are some
examples.examples.

What is the special contribution of ESP?What is the special contribution of ESP?
It integrates language and content.It integrates language and content.

What was the purpose of ‘language acrossWhat was the purpose of ‘language across
the curriculum’ movement?the curriculum’ movement?
It was for native speakers in EnglandIt was for native speakers in England
(1970s) to integrate reading and writing(1970s) to integrate reading and writing
into all other subjects.into all other subjects.

In ESP, the selection and sequence ofIn ESP, the selection and sequence of
language items arise from communicativelanguage items arise from communicative
needs, not predetermined syllabi (plural ofneeds, not predetermined syllabi (plural of
syllabus).syllabus).

OBSERVATIONS ANDOBSERVATIONS AND
PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

The subject matter (content) is theThe subject matter (content) is the
platform for language learning. Languageplatform for language learning. Language
learning is not happening in generallearning is not happening in general
English text and discourse.English text and discourse.

Previous knowledge is the basis. It helpsPrevious knowledge is the basis. It helps
them learn better. So if the text is aboutthem learn better. So if the text is about
geography we begin with Iran.geography we begin with Iran.

Relevance of language to the students’Relevance of language to the students’
academic needs motivates them. Foracademic needs motivates them. For
example, nurses like to know theexample, nurses like to know the
terminology of their major. This is a meansterminology of their major. This is a means
to an end, not an end in iteself.to an end, not an end in iteself.

In other words, here the language is theIn other words, here the language is the
medium of instruction and not the purposemedium of instruction and not the purpose
(end) of that.(end) of that.

If the content of communication isIf the content of communication is
interesting to the students, learninginteresting to the students, learning
happens with greater speed and depth.happens with greater speed and depth.

With the presence of contextual clues,With the presence of contextual clues,
vocabulary learning is easier. (cloze testvocabulary learning is easier. (cloze test
and fill in the blanks)and fill in the blanks)

Authenticity means content + use.Authenticity means content + use.
Even with authentic texts, the learnersEven with authentic texts, the learners
need support by providing examples.need support by providing examples.

Learners work with meaningful, cognitivelyLearners work with meaningful, cognitively
demanding, and authenticdemanding, and authentic texts and taskstexts and tasks
(learning by doing)(learning by doing)..

They work within the framework of allThey work within the framework of all
language skills, not just conversationally.language skills, not just conversationally.
This is what real communication is. This isThis is what real communication is. This is
an example of anan example of an immersion programimmersion program..

ADJUNCT MODEL:ADJUNCT MODEL:
In adjunct model, the students take aIn adjunct model, the students take a
normal academic course and a languagenormal academic course and a language
course related to that academic course.course related to that academic course.
Content teacher and language teacherContent teacher and language teacher
teach their courses in a way to help theteach their courses in a way to help the
other course too.other course too.

Sheltered language instruction (contentSheltered language instruction (content
based):based):
Both native and non native speakers of aBoth native and non native speakers of a
language take academic courses but forlanguage take academic courses but for
non native speakers ‘sheltered’ instructionnon native speakers ‘sheltered’ instruction
is provided to help them through theis provided to help them through the
difficult process of studying content in adifficult process of studying content in a
foreign language.foreign language.

All what we said is also applicable if weAll what we said is also applicable if we
combine language and vocational/jobcombine language and vocational/job
purposes.purposes.

Whole Language Approach:Whole Language Approach:
Language is taught holistically not inLanguage is taught holistically not in
pieces like grammar and vocabulary (itpieces like grammar and vocabulary (it
comes from Gestalt psychology where thecomes from Gestalt psychology where the
whole is emphasized rather than thewhole is emphasized rather than the
pieces and segments).pieces and segments).

Holistic approaches are ‘top down’ in theHolistic approaches are ‘top down’ in the
sense that they work from meaning tosense that they work from meaning to
linguistic form.linguistic form.

In ‘bottom up’ methods, the students startIn ‘bottom up’ methods, the students start
with pieces and then try to put the pieceswith pieces and then try to put the pieces
together to make a wholetogether to make a whole
(audiolingualism).(audiolingualism).

In ‘whole language learning’ errors areIn ‘whole language learning’ errors are
natural parts of learning process. Herenatural parts of learning process. Here
Vygotsky’s idea about social nature ofVygotsky’s idea about social nature of
learning is encouraged.learning is encouraged.

In ‘language experience approach’, whichIn ‘language experience approach’, which
is an example of ‘holistic learning’,is an example of ‘holistic learning’,
students read texts about their own lifestudents read texts about their own life
experience. Students mention their storiesexperience. Students mention their stories
in the first language and the teacherin the first language and the teacher
converts them into L2. This is done toconverts them into L2. This is done to
facilitate learning.facilitate learning.

Process writing and journal keeping areProcess writing and journal keeping are
also examples of Whole Learning. In thealso examples of Whole Learning. In the
former, writing is seen as a process informer, writing is seen as a process in
which the teacher and studentswhich the teacher and students
collaborate to build up ideas. It is not justcollaborate to build up ideas. It is not just
an assignment to be done by students.an assignment to be done by students.

The latter is like keeping a diary in whichThe latter is like keeping a diary in which
students write their feelings and anythingstudents write their feelings and anything
else they want to communicate with theelse they want to communicate with the
teacher. The teacher ‘dialogues’ with theteacher. The teacher ‘dialogues’ with the
writings and writes responses on them butwritings and writes responses on them but
does not correct the form.does not correct the form.

Task-Based InstructionTask-Based Instruction

Task based approach also uses naturalTask based approach also uses natural
context. ‘Do to Learn’ is the basic concept.context. ‘Do to Learn’ is the basic concept.
You learn better while you perform andYou learn better while you perform and
interact with other students. ‘probleminteract with other students. ‘problem
solving’ is the key concept. In problemsolving’ is the key concept. In problem
solving you develop new knowledge bysolving you develop new knowledge by
focusing on the old.focusing on the old.

Observations andObservations and
experiencesexperiences

The tasks in the class are clear andThe tasks in the class are clear and
purposeful.purposeful.
The task needs to be challenging.The task needs to be challenging.
The task develops by teacher-learnerThe task develops by teacher-learner
interaction.interaction.

The teacher uses normal language withThe teacher uses normal language with
normal speed.normal speed.
The teacher helps them find correctThe teacher helps them find correct
answers.answers.
Language is used to perform a task, notLanguage is used to perform a task, not
just for linguistic development.just for linguistic development.

Authentic activity through authenticAuthentic activity through authentic
language use is encouraged.language use is encouraged.
The focus is on meaning.The focus is on meaning.
They receive feedback for what they did.They receive feedback for what they did.

Three types of tasks (Probhu)Three types of tasks (Probhu)
1. Information gap activity: exchanging1. Information gap activity: exchanging
information to perform a task (studentsinformation to perform a task (students
exchange information about their weeklyexchange information about their weekly
schedules)schedules)

2. Opinion gap activity: students give their2. Opinion gap activity: students give their
feelings to perform (finding solutions forfeelings to perform (finding solutions for
unemployment)unemployment)

3. Reasoning gap activity: students derive3. Reasoning gap activity: students derive
new information from the data they werenew information from the data they were
given (finding he best way to a city bygiven (finding he best way to a city by
looking at and discussing a map)looking at and discussing a map)

The last type - reasoning gap – involvesThe last type - reasoning gap – involves
more engagement and is moremore engagement and is more
challenging.challenging.

Long and Crooks (1993): three other typesLong and Crooks (1993): three other types
of tasks (syllabi)of tasks (syllabi)
1. Procedural: the example is the lesson1. Procedural: the example is the lesson
given in the bookgiven in the book

2. Communication interaction: the2. Communication interaction: the
students along with the teacher decidestudents along with the teacher decide
upon the task to do.upon the task to do.
3. Meaningful interaction: working on3. Meaningful interaction: working on
meaning while drawing attention to form.meaning while drawing attention to form.

What is ‘Project Work Approach’?What is ‘Project Work Approach’?
Here the students elect a project to do, forHere the students elect a project to do, for
example they decide to publish a schoolexample they decide to publish a school
news paper.news paper.

The first step is planning throughThe first step is planning through
collaboration.collaboration.
The second step is collecting information.The second step is collecting information.
The final step is reviewing their report.The final step is reviewing their report.

In all stages, the teacher acts as aIn all stages, the teacher acts as a
counselor and consultant not as a projectcounselor and consultant not as a project
director.director.

Participatory ApproachParticipatory Approach
By: Paula FreireBy: Paula Freire

It begins with meaningful content. FormIt begins with meaningful content. Form
emerges from content.emerges from content.
The content is not about subject matter,The content is not about subject matter,
but about issues of interest.but about issues of interest.

Freire engaged the students withFreire engaged the students with
immediate social problemsimmediate social problems
(unemployment, low income, addiction).(unemployment, low income, addiction).

The purpose is not just linguisticThe purpose is not just linguistic
development, but for taking actions anddevelopment, but for taking actions and
thinking about the problems.thinking about the problems.
Education is not value free (it is valueEducation is not value free (it is value
loaded where feelings are involved)loaded where feelings are involved)

As an example: compare discussingAs an example: compare discussing
addiction with talking about the use ofaddiction with talking about the use of
elevators in carrying things.elevators in carrying things.

Observations and PrinciplesObservations and Principles

The class activity is tuned to outside worldThe class activity is tuned to outside world
events.events.
The syllabus is not predetermined orThe syllabus is not predetermined or
apriori. It is a posteriori, determinedapriori. It is a posteriori, determined
through discussion.through discussion.

For example, the first session they tak andFor example, the first session they tak and
read about addiction and they find out thatread about addiction and they find out that
the main reason is unemployment, so thethe main reason is unemployment, so the
next session they discuss unemployment.next session they discuss unemployment.

Education is very effective if it isEducation is very effective if it is
experience oriented. This also motivatesexperience oriented. This also motivates
them.them.
Students see themselves as activeStudents see themselves as active
participants in the social life.participants in the social life.

Language form follows and is geared toLanguage form follows and is geared to
content. Form is not dealt with in isolation.content. Form is not dealt with in isolation.
Students can create materials to be usedStudents can create materials to be used
in the following session.in the following session.

Self evaluation is encouraged. TheSelf evaluation is encouraged. The
students see the outcome and evaluatestudents see the outcome and evaluate
the process of learning.the process of learning.

Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...

Learning Strategy Training,Learning Strategy Training,
Cooperative Learning, andCooperative Learning, and
Multiple IntelligencesMultiple Intelligences

These are three methodologicalThese are three methodological
innovations.innovations.
The focus of all is on the learner; they areThe focus of all is on the learner; they are
learner oriented (opposite of teacherlearner oriented (opposite of teacher
oriented methods such as Grammaroriented methods such as Grammar
translation).translation).

Learning Strategy TrainingLearning Strategy Training

What is a learning strategy?What is a learning strategy?
The techniques or devices a learner mayThe techniques or devices a learner may
use to acquire knowledge. (Rubin 1975)use to acquire knowledge. (Rubin 1975)

What are the features of good languageWhat are the features of good language
learners?learners?
They are willing and accurate guessers.They are willing and accurate guessers.
They have great desire to communicateThey have great desire to communicate
although they may look foolish.although they may look foolish.

They pay attention to both meaning andThey pay attention to both meaning and
form.form.
They practice and monitor their own andThey practice and monitor their own and
others’ speech.others’ speech.

These strategies should be taught.These strategies should be taught.
Learning strategies training is as importantLearning strategies training is as important
as language training. (Wenden 1985)as language training. (Wenden 1985)

Observations and PrinciplesObservations and Principles

Prior knowledge and experiences arePrior knowledge and experiences are
used to build up new knowledge.used to build up new knowledge.
Studying strategies of learning leads toStudying strategies of learning leads to
academic success.academic success.
Learning should be taught, as well asLearning should be taught, as well as
language.language.

Autonomy is encouraged: students shouldAutonomy is encouraged: students should
become independent and self regulatedbecome independent and self regulated
learners. Self assessment-evaluatinglearners. Self assessment-evaluating
one’s own progress- also helps autonomy.one’s own progress- also helps autonomy.

Learners should be capable of transferringLearners should be capable of transferring
strategies to new learning situations. Ifstrategies to new learning situations. If
they are trained to use prefixes tothey are trained to use prefixes to
understand meaning, they need tounderstand meaning, they need to
practice it at home.practice it at home.

Remember that the methodological trendsRemember that the methodological trends
in chapter 11 complement the onesin chapter 11 complement the ones
presented in chapter 10.presented in chapter 10.

For example, strategies should be taughtFor example, strategies should be taught
within the framework of content area texts.within the framework of content area texts.

The strategies we practiced in chapter 11The strategies we practiced in chapter 11
are ‘metacognitive strategies’ according toare ‘metacognitive strategies’ according to
Chamot and O’Malley (1994).Chamot and O’Malley (1994).

Metacognitive strategies are used to plan,Metacognitive strategies are used to plan,
monitor, and evaluate a learning task.monitor, and evaluate a learning task.
They also include: arranging theThey also include: arranging the
conditions that boost learning; setting longconditions that boost learning; setting long
and short term goals; checking one’sand short term goals; checking one’s
comprehension during listening orcomprehension during listening or
reading.reading.

Chamot and O’Malley also identify twoChamot and O’Malley also identify two
other categories: cognitive strategiesother categories: cognitive strategies
which involve learners’ interaction andwhich involve learners’ interaction and
manipulation of materials, and ...manipulation of materials, and ...

Social / affective strategies where learnersSocial / affective strategies where learners
interact with other persons. Affectiveinteract with other persons. Affective
factors include feelings and attitudes.factors include feelings and attitudes.

Cooperative LearningCooperative Learning

Cooperative learning means learning inCooperative learning means learning in
group (an affective/social strategy). Thegroup (an affective/social strategy). The
wayway they cooperate is important.they cooperate is important.

‘‘positive interdependence’ is encouraged.positive interdependence’ is encouraged.
Each students helps the other to learnEach students helps the other to learn
vocabulary items. Cooperation instead ofvocabulary items. Cooperation instead of
competition and individualistic learning.competition and individualistic learning.

Groups are fixed for some time andGroups are fixed for some time and
include people of different ethnic,include people of different ethnic,
religious, social background and mixedreligious, social background and mixed
gender.gender.

By working in groups they take differentBy working in groups they take different
roles and learn to cooperate in differentroles and learn to cooperate in different
circumstances.circumstances.

Self evaluation and assessment andSelf evaluation and assessment and
judgment about others’ work is urged.judgment about others’ work is urged.
Social skills-asking for apology, repetition,Social skills-asking for apology, repetition,
help, ...- are taught.help, ...- are taught.

They take the test individually to learn toThey take the test individually to learn to
accept the outcome of cooperative effort.accept the outcome of cooperative effort.
Teachers teach languageTeachers teach language andand
cooperationcooperation..

Multiple IntelligencesMultiple Intelligences

In addition to different strategies ofIn addition to different strategies of
learning, students have different strengthslearning, students have different strengths
and weaknesses. In other words, theyand weaknesses. In other words, they
havehave different learning or cognitivedifferent learning or cognitive
stylesstyles..

For instance, visual learners vs. auralFor instance, visual learners vs. aural
learners.learners.
Data gatherers vs. rule formers ( theData gatherers vs. rule formers ( the
former have fluency with little accuracy;former have fluency with little accuracy;
the latter have the reverse)the latter have the reverse)

Students have seven different intelligencesStudents have seven different intelligences
that can be developed:that can be developed:
1.1. Logical/mathematical (ability to useLogical/mathematical (ability to use
numbers and reasoning)numbers and reasoning)
2.2. Visual/spatial (awareness of size,Visual/spatial (awareness of size,
dsitance, color, movement, ...)dsitance, color, movement, ...)

3.3. Body/kinesthetic (the ability to use one’sBody/kinesthetic (the ability to use one’s
body to express oneself and solvebody to express oneself and solve
problems).problems).
4.4. Musical/rhythmic (the ability to cope withMusical/rhythmic (the ability to cope with
melody and rhythm).melody and rhythm).
5.5. Interpersonal (cooperation and mutualInterpersonal (cooperation and mutual
understanding).understanding).

6.6. Intrapersonal (understanding oneself andIntrapersonal (understanding oneself and
practicing self discipline.practicing self discipline.
7.7. Verbal/linguistic (using languageVerbal/linguistic (using language
effectively and creatively).effectively and creatively).

It is assumed that everyone has all theseIt is assumed that everyone has all these
abilities but at different levels. Eachabilities but at different levels. Each
activity may be built up by using one oractivity may be built up by using one or
more of these intelligences and teachersmore of these intelligences and teachers
should be aware of them.should be aware of them.

Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994)Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994)
provide examples that fit each type ofprovide examples that fit each type of
intelligence:intelligence:
1.1. Logical/mathematical (puzzles andLogical/mathematical (puzzles and
games, logical, sequential presentations,games, logical, sequential presentations,
classifications and categorizationsclassifications and categorizations

2.2. Visual/spatial (charts and grids, videos,Visual/spatial (charts and grids, videos,
drawing)drawing)
3.3. Body/kinesthetic (hands-on activities,Body/kinesthetic (hands-on activities,
field trips, pantomime)field trips, pantomime)
4.4. Musical/rhythmic (singing, playing music,Musical/rhythmic (singing, playing music,
jazz chants)jazz chants)

5.5. Interpersonal (pair work, project work,Interpersonal (pair work, project work,
group problem solving)group problem solving)
6.6. Intrapersonal (self evaluation, journalIntrapersonal (self evaluation, journal
keeping, options for homework)keeping, options for homework)
7.7. Verbal/linguistic (note-taking, storyVerbal/linguistic (note-taking, story
telling, debates)telling, debates)

A teacher may develop special lessons toA teacher may develop special lessons to
develop each intelligence. For example,develop each intelligence. For example,
providing vocabulary lessons in the formproviding vocabulary lessons in the form
of puzzles and games to developof puzzles and games to develop
logical/mathematical intelligence.logical/mathematical intelligence.

Gardner (1999) has added the 8Gardner (1999) has added the 8thth
intelligence-the naturalist- someoneintelligence-the naturalist- someone
knowledgeable about and comfortable inknowledgeable about and comfortable in
the natural world.the natural world.

In conclusion, teachers should be aware ofIn conclusion, teachers should be aware of
the unique qualities of each student.the unique qualities of each student.

Language Teaching: ConclusionLanguage Teaching: Conclusion
ConclusionConclusion

After discussing methods individually, weAfter discussing methods individually, we
try to deal with the m collectively.try to deal with the m collectively.
Each method and approach isEach method and approach is
summarized according to three aspects ofsummarized according to three aspects of
language/culture, language learning andlanguage/culture, language learning and
language teaching (page 178) which werelanguage teaching (page 178) which were
fully discussed in the related chapters.fully discussed in the related chapters.

All these methods and approaches areAll these methods and approaches are
practiced today but with different weightspracticed today but with different weights
and distributions.and distributions.

In the present century the use ofIn the present century the use of
technology , strategies, styles,technology , strategies, styles,
innovations, interaction, cooperation, andinnovations, interaction, cooperation, and
affective factors are given primaryaffective factors are given primary
attention.attention.

The greatest similarity among methods isThe greatest similarity among methods is
the goal to communicate in the secondthe goal to communicate in the second
language.language.
All methods have been practiced inAll methods have been practiced in
classes; in future virtual education andclasses; in future virtual education and
technology based instruction will gaintechnology based instruction will gain
importance.importance.

Most methods deal with the issue ofMost methods deal with the issue of
culture very implicitly. It is sometimesculture very implicitly. It is sometimes
referred to asreferred to as the fifth skillthe fifth skill plus reading,plus reading,
writing, listening and speaking.writing, listening and speaking.

Differences among the methods: (two types)Differences among the methods: (two types)
Complementary differences: the differencesComplementary differences: the differences
that do not contradict each other. Being athat do not contradict each other. Being a
drill conductor and a counselor as teacherdrill conductor and a counselor as teacher
roles do not contradict but complementroles do not contradict but complement
each other.each other.

Contradictory differences:Contradictory differences:
For example, in Grammar translation theFor example, in Grammar translation the
use of L1 is prescribed while inuse of L1 is prescribed while in
Comprehension Approach and DirectComprehension Approach and Direct
Method it is proscribed (forbidden).Method it is proscribed (forbidden).

What is the best method ad how does aWhat is the best method ad how does a
teacher choose one?teacher choose one?
A teacher should consider the values,A teacher should consider the values,
experiences, goals, fundamental viewsexperiences, goals, fundamental views
about teaching, learning, learners andabout teaching, learning, learners and
teachers, use of technology and similarteachers, use of technology and similar
factors to decide.factors to decide.

The best method isThe best method is eclectic method.eclectic method.
Eclectic method is not a method by itself.Eclectic method is not a method by itself.
It means using different methods andIt means using different methods and
different techniques of different methodsdifferent techniques of different methods
depending on the age, gender, goal (shortdepending on the age, gender, goal (short
term and long term), ....term and long term), ....

... available audio visual devices, available... available audio visual devices, available
materials, learners’ needs, definedmaterials, learners’ needs, defined
objectives of the course, views aboutobjectives of the course, views about
learning and teaching, and views aboutlearning and teaching, and views about
dealing with strategies and styles.dealing with strategies and styles.

For example, although GrammarFor example, although Grammar
Translation looks outdated, a teacher mayTranslation looks outdated, a teacher may
decide to work on translation as andecide to work on translation as an
integrative skill. Repetition and drill workintegrative skill. Repetition and drill work
from audio lingual method is very usefulfrom audio lingual method is very useful
for children.for children.

Rule description in brief works best forRule description in brief works best for
adults since adults are rule formers.adults since adults are rule formers.
Some methods work better at a specialSome methods work better at a special
level f language proficiency.level f language proficiency.
Relativism: for each situation one methodRelativism: for each situation one method
should be applied.should be applied.

Pluralism (eclecticism): there is somePluralism (eclecticism): there is some
value to each method. Different methodsvalue to each method. Different methods
or parts of methods should be practiced inor parts of methods should be practiced in
the same context.the same context.
Principled eclecticism happens when aPrincipled eclecticism happens when a
teacher makes method of his own byteacher makes method of his own by
combining different parts of methods.combining different parts of methods.

Teachers as managers of classroomTeachers as managers of classroom
should know that a number ofshould know that a number of
methodological options exist which aremethodological options exist which are
guided by a number of factors such asguided by a number of factors such as
values, experience and commitment to avalues, experience and commitment to a
set of learning outcomes.set of learning outcomes.

If they are asked, ‘Do you use, forIf they are asked, ‘Do you use, for
example, translation or mechanicalexample, translation or mechanical
drilling?, they say: IT DEPENDS. Itdrilling?, they say: IT DEPENDS. It
depends on many factors.depends on many factors.

The main point here is that teaching as aThe main point here is that teaching as a
profession is not a product but a process;profession is not a product but a process;
we learn to teach and also we teach towe learn to teach and also we teach to
learn. It might be a lifelong process.learn. It might be a lifelong process.

The EndThe End

Teaching methods

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