over view of common antigen antibody reactions, their applications, sensitivity, advantage and disadvantage with pictorial illustrations for postgraduate and undergraduate reading
Amoeba is a unicellular protist that does not have a definite shape and feeds through phagocytosis, ingesting algae, bacteria, and other protozoa. Digestion occurs intracellularly, with food vacuoles containing enzymes breaking down carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins inside the cytoplasm, and nutrients being absorbed while waste is expelled through the surface of the cell.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that range from unicellular to multicellular, lack chlorophyll, and reproduce via spores. They play important roles in decomposition as saprophytes and have both beneficial and harmful effects. Beneficially, they are used in food production and to produce antibiotics, while some are plant and human pathogens. Fungi exhibit a variety of structures, including hyphae that make up the vegetative mycelium, and reproduce both sexually, forming spores, and asexually through processes like budding or fission.
Microbiology can be divided into different branches that study various microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. The document goes on to define prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and provides their key distinguishing characteristics. It also describes some important types of microbes in more detail - bacteria are single-celled microbes that come in different shapes, viruses replicate inside host cells and don't have their own metabolism, fungi reproduce through spores and lack chlorophyll, algae are photosynthetic but lack roots/stems/leaves, and protozoa are eukaryotic microbes found in various habitats.
Agglutination is the clumping together of antigens and antibodies. It occurs when the antibodies bind to particulate antigens. This causes the antigens to crosslink and form visible aggregates. Common applications of agglutination tests include blood typing (ABO and Rh), diagnosis of typhoid (Widal test), and identification of antibodies against Rh antigens (Coombs test). The titer or end point of an agglutination test refers to the highest dilution at which antigen-antibody clumping is still visible.
Edward Jenner was an English physician born in 1749 who discovered vaccination for smallpox. He observed that dairy workers who had previously contracted cowpox did not later get smallpox. In 1796, he took material from a cowpox blister and inoculated an 8-year old boy, later exposing him to smallpox with no illness resulting. Jenner published his findings in 1798. By 1800, over 100,000 people worldwide had been vaccinated. Jenner's discovery led to the eradication of smallpox and saved millions of lives. He received honors but died in 1823 before being elected to the College of Physicians.
Biotherapy – the use of living organisms for the treatment of human and animal illness – is a practice known since antiquity. But it is not antiquated!
over view of common antigen antibody reactions, their applications, sensitivity, advantage and disadvantage with pictorial illustrations for postgraduate and undergraduate reading
Amoeba is a unicellular protist that does not have a definite shape and feeds through phagocytosis, ingesting algae, bacteria, and other protozoa. Digestion occurs intracellularly, with food vacuoles containing enzymes breaking down carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins inside the cytoplasm, and nutrients being absorbed while waste is expelled through the surface of the cell.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that range from unicellular to multicellular, lack chlorophyll, and reproduce via spores. They play important roles in decomposition as saprophytes and have both beneficial and harmful effects. Beneficially, they are used in food production and to produce antibiotics, while some are plant and human pathogens. Fungi exhibit a variety of structures, including hyphae that make up the vegetative mycelium, and reproduce both sexually, forming spores, and asexually through processes like budding or fission.
Microbiology can be divided into different branches that study various microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. The document goes on to define prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and provides their key distinguishing characteristics. It also describes some important types of microbes in more detail - bacteria are single-celled microbes that come in different shapes, viruses replicate inside host cells and don't have their own metabolism, fungi reproduce through spores and lack chlorophyll, algae are photosynthetic but lack roots/stems/leaves, and protozoa are eukaryotic microbes found in various habitats.
Agglutination is the clumping together of antigens and antibodies. It occurs when the antibodies bind to particulate antigens. This causes the antigens to crosslink and form visible aggregates. Common applications of agglutination tests include blood typing (ABO and Rh), diagnosis of typhoid (Widal test), and identification of antibodies against Rh antigens (Coombs test). The titer or end point of an agglutination test refers to the highest dilution at which antigen-antibody clumping is still visible.
Edward Jenner was an English physician born in 1749 who discovered vaccination for smallpox. He observed that dairy workers who had previously contracted cowpox did not later get smallpox. In 1796, he took material from a cowpox blister and inoculated an 8-year old boy, later exposing him to smallpox with no illness resulting. Jenner published his findings in 1798. By 1800, over 100,000 people worldwide had been vaccinated. Jenner's discovery led to the eradication of smallpox and saved millions of lives. He received honors but died in 1823 before being elected to the College of Physicians.
Biotherapy – the use of living organisms for the treatment of human and animal illness – is a practice known since antiquity. But it is not antiquated!
The document discusses various topics related to immunology including innate immunity, acquired immunity, active immunity, passive immunity, factors influencing innate immunity, a comparison of active and passive immunity, the mechanisms of innate immunity, local immunity, herd immunity, adoptive immunity, vaccines, cell-mediated immunity, and antibody-mediated immunity. It also briefly mentions severe combined immunodeficiency disorder, otherwise known as "bubble boy disease".
This document discusses immunological tolerance and autoimmunity. It defines central and peripheral tolerance as mechanisms by which the immune system learns to distinguish self from non-self. Central tolerance involves deletion of self-reactive lymphocytes in the thymus and bone marrow. Peripheral tolerance mechanisms include clonal deletion, anergy, and suppression. Failure of tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases, which are influenced by genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors. Common triggers include molecular mimicry between microbial and self-antigens.
Interleukins are a group of cytokines that play a critical role in immunological regulation and homeostasis. They are produced by leukocytes and other cells like macrophages. Interleukin-1 triggers inflammatory responses. Interleukin-6 regulates immune response and inflammation. Interleukin-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that suppresses immune function. Interleukin-12 stimulates Th1 cellular immune responses by dendritic cells and phagocytes during infection. The Interleukin-17 family activates antibacterial responses through various pathways.
This document provides an overview of fungi, including their classification, structures, reproduction, and role in infections and other applications. It describes the four main classes of fungi based on sexual spore formation - zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. Fungi can cause superficial infections of the skin/nails or deeper subcutaneous and systemic infections. They also have several useful properties like producing food, antibiotics, and industrial fermentation agents.
hypersensitivity reactions type 3 and 4jaffar khan
Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated or misdirected immune response that results in tissue injury. It occurs upon re-exposure to a substance an individual is already sensitized to. Reactions can be immediate or delayed. Gell and Coombs classified hypersensitivity into four types based on time course and immune mechanism involved. Type III is immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity. Immune complexes activate complement and recruit neutrophils, causing tissue damage. Typical manifestations are Arthus reactions and serum sickness. Type IV is cell-mediated delayed hypersensitivity involving activation of sensitized T cells upon re-exposure. Contact hypersensitivity and tuberculin reactions are examples.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria in having true nuclei and organelles. Most fungi are multicellular and have cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on their morphology and reproductive structures. Important characteristics include whether they are molds, yeasts, or dimorphic. Laboratory identification of fungi involves microscopic examination of stained smears and cultures as well as culture characteristics. Direct visualization with KOH preparations and histopathology are used to diagnose fungal infections.
Louis Pasteur in 1859 used swan-necked flasks to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation by showing that liquids in the flasks did not grow microbes due to being protected from dust and microbes in the air. Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox in the late 1700s by inoculating people with material from cowpox lesions. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 after observing a mold that produced a chemical clearing surrounding bacteria on a culture plate.
This document provides an introduction to medical mycology and microbiology. It discusses the following key points:
1. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are too small to see with the naked eye, including their physiology, reproduction, relationships with other organisms, and significance.
2. Major subdivisions of microbiology include bacteriology, mycology, virology, and protozoology.
3. Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms that can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds) and obtain nutrients through absorption. They play important roles in decomposition and antibiotic production but can also cause diseases.
4. Medical mycology
Antigen is a substance that induces an immune response through the formation of antibodies or activation of T cells. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, or lipids. Immunogens are antigens that are capable of inducing an immune response on their own due to their large size, while haptens require a carrier molecule. Antigenicity refers to the ability to bind antibodies, while immunogenicity is the ability to induce an immune response. Factors like molecular size, chemical composition, dose, and route of administration can influence a substance's immunogenicity. Adjuvants are substances that enhance the immune response to an immunogen when used together.
Immuniy, Antigen and Antibody, Hypersensitivity reactions and ocular corelati...Raju Kaiti
This document discusses antigen, antibody, and complement systems and types of immune responses and hypersensitivity reactions. It provides an overview of innate and adaptive immunity, cells involved in the immune system including B cells, T cells, and macrophages. It describes the properties of antigens and antibodies as well as the components, functions, and activation pathways of the complement system. The document also discusses the four types of hypersensitivity reactions (type I-IV) and provides examples of conditions that fall under each type of hypersensitivity.
This is a book of immunology , helpfull for graduation and post graduation's students.
You may contact with me if any query @ aki-d-biotechnologist-mba@hotmail.com
Immunology is the study of the physiological mechanisms that defend the body against pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. The immune system uses innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity acts from the start of an infection non-specifically, while adaptive immunity develops antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes that provide immunological memory. Key cells involved include lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Antibodies, cytokines and cellular responses work together to recognize and eliminate invading pathogens.
The document discusses various aspects of antigen-antibody reactions, including:
1) Antigen-antibody reactions involve the specific binding between epitopes on antigens and paratopes on antibodies. This binding can result in agglutination or precipitation.
2) Reactions are based on non-covalent bonds and involve multiple binding sites on multivalent antibodies binding to epitopes on antigens.
3) Common techniques that rely on antigen-antibody reactions include precipitation, agglutination, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and radioimmunoassay.
The document discusses various topics related to immunology including innate immunity, acquired immunity, active immunity, passive immunity, factors influencing innate immunity, a comparison of active and passive immunity, the mechanisms of innate immunity, local immunity, herd immunity, adoptive immunity, vaccines, cell-mediated immunity, and antibody-mediated immunity. It also briefly mentions severe combined immunodeficiency disorder, otherwise known as "bubble boy disease".
This document discusses immunological tolerance and autoimmunity. It defines central and peripheral tolerance as mechanisms by which the immune system learns to distinguish self from non-self. Central tolerance involves deletion of self-reactive lymphocytes in the thymus and bone marrow. Peripheral tolerance mechanisms include clonal deletion, anergy, and suppression. Failure of tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases, which are influenced by genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors. Common triggers include molecular mimicry between microbial and self-antigens.
Interleukins are a group of cytokines that play a critical role in immunological regulation and homeostasis. They are produced by leukocytes and other cells like macrophages. Interleukin-1 triggers inflammatory responses. Interleukin-6 regulates immune response and inflammation. Interleukin-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that suppresses immune function. Interleukin-12 stimulates Th1 cellular immune responses by dendritic cells and phagocytes during infection. The Interleukin-17 family activates antibacterial responses through various pathways.
This document provides an overview of fungi, including their classification, structures, reproduction, and role in infections and other applications. It describes the four main classes of fungi based on sexual spore formation - zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. Fungi can cause superficial infections of the skin/nails or deeper subcutaneous and systemic infections. They also have several useful properties like producing food, antibiotics, and industrial fermentation agents.
hypersensitivity reactions type 3 and 4jaffar khan
Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated or misdirected immune response that results in tissue injury. It occurs upon re-exposure to a substance an individual is already sensitized to. Reactions can be immediate or delayed. Gell and Coombs classified hypersensitivity into four types based on time course and immune mechanism involved. Type III is immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity. Immune complexes activate complement and recruit neutrophils, causing tissue damage. Typical manifestations are Arthus reactions and serum sickness. Type IV is cell-mediated delayed hypersensitivity involving activation of sensitized T cells upon re-exposure. Contact hypersensitivity and tuberculin reactions are examples.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria in having true nuclei and organelles. Most fungi are multicellular and have cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on their morphology and reproductive structures. Important characteristics include whether they are molds, yeasts, or dimorphic. Laboratory identification of fungi involves microscopic examination of stained smears and cultures as well as culture characteristics. Direct visualization with KOH preparations and histopathology are used to diagnose fungal infections.
Louis Pasteur in 1859 used swan-necked flasks to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation by showing that liquids in the flasks did not grow microbes due to being protected from dust and microbes in the air. Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox in the late 1700s by inoculating people with material from cowpox lesions. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 after observing a mold that produced a chemical clearing surrounding bacteria on a culture plate.
This document provides an introduction to medical mycology and microbiology. It discusses the following key points:
1. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are too small to see with the naked eye, including their physiology, reproduction, relationships with other organisms, and significance.
2. Major subdivisions of microbiology include bacteriology, mycology, virology, and protozoology.
3. Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms that can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds) and obtain nutrients through absorption. They play important roles in decomposition and antibiotic production but can also cause diseases.
4. Medical mycology
Antigen is a substance that induces an immune response through the formation of antibodies or activation of T cells. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, or lipids. Immunogens are antigens that are capable of inducing an immune response on their own due to their large size, while haptens require a carrier molecule. Antigenicity refers to the ability to bind antibodies, while immunogenicity is the ability to induce an immune response. Factors like molecular size, chemical composition, dose, and route of administration can influence a substance's immunogenicity. Adjuvants are substances that enhance the immune response to an immunogen when used together.
Immuniy, Antigen and Antibody, Hypersensitivity reactions and ocular corelati...Raju Kaiti
This document discusses antigen, antibody, and complement systems and types of immune responses and hypersensitivity reactions. It provides an overview of innate and adaptive immunity, cells involved in the immune system including B cells, T cells, and macrophages. It describes the properties of antigens and antibodies as well as the components, functions, and activation pathways of the complement system. The document also discusses the four types of hypersensitivity reactions (type I-IV) and provides examples of conditions that fall under each type of hypersensitivity.
This is a book of immunology , helpfull for graduation and post graduation's students.
You may contact with me if any query @ aki-d-biotechnologist-mba@hotmail.com
Immunology is the study of the physiological mechanisms that defend the body against pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. The immune system uses innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity acts from the start of an infection non-specifically, while adaptive immunity develops antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes that provide immunological memory. Key cells involved include lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Antibodies, cytokines and cellular responses work together to recognize and eliminate invading pathogens.
The document discusses various aspects of antigen-antibody reactions, including:
1) Antigen-antibody reactions involve the specific binding between epitopes on antigens and paratopes on antibodies. This binding can result in agglutination or precipitation.
2) Reactions are based on non-covalent bonds and involve multiple binding sites on multivalent antibodies binding to epitopes on antigens.
3) Common techniques that rely on antigen-antibody reactions include precipitation, agglutination, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and radioimmunoassay.
أهمية تعليم البرمجة للأطفال في العصر الرقمي.pdfelmadrasah8
في العصر الرقمي الحالي، أصبحت البرمجة مهارة أساسية تتجاوز كونها مجرد أداة تقنية، بل تعد مفتاحًا لفهم العالم المتصل بالإنترنت والتفاعل معه. تعليم البرمجة للأطفال ليس مجرد تعلم لغة البرمجة، بل هو تطوير لمجموعة واسعة من المهارات الأساسية التي يمكن أن تساعدهم في المستقبل.
تعزيز التفكير المنطقي وحل المشكلات
البرمجة تتطلب التفكير المنطقي وحل المشكلات بطرق منهجية. عند تعلم البرمجة، يتعلم الأطفال كيفية تحليل المشكلات وتقسيمها إلى أجزاء أصغر يمكن إدارتها. هذه المهارات ليست مفيدة فقط في مجال التكنولوجيا، بل تمتد إلى مختلف جوانب الحياة الأكاديمية والمهنية.
تحفيز الإبداع والابتكار
من خلال البرمجة، يمكن للأطفال تحويل أفكارهم إلى واقع ملموس. سواء كان ذلك بإنشاء لعبة، أو تطوير تطبيق، أو تصميم موقع ويب، يتيح لهم البرمجة التعبير عن إبداعهم بشكل فريد. هذا يحفز الأطفال على التفكير خارج الصندوق وتطوير حلول مبتكرة للتحديات التي يواجهونها.
توفير فرص مستقبلية
مع تزايد الاعتماد على التكنولوجيا في جميع القطاعات، ستكون مهارات البرمجة من بين الأكثر طلبًا في سوق العمل المستقبلي. تعلم البرمجة من سن مبكرة يمنح الأطفال ميزة تنافسية كبيرة في سوق العمل ويزيد من فرصهم في الحصول على وظائف متميزة في المستقبل.
تنمية مهارات العمل الجماعي والتواصل
تعلم البرمجة غالبًا ما يتضمن العمل في فرق ومشاركة الأفكار والمشاريع مع الآخرين. هذا يساهم في تنمية مهارات العمل الجماعي والتواصل الفعّال لدى الأطفال. كما يساعدهم على تعلم كيفية التعاون والتفاعل مع الآخرين لتحقيق أهداف مشتركة.
فهم أفضل للتكنولوجيا
تعلم البرمجة يساعد الأطفال على فهم كيفية عمل التكنولوجيا من حولهم. بدلاً من أن يكونوا مجرد مستخدمين للتكنولوجيا، يصبحون قادرين على تحليلها وفهم الأساسيات التي تقوم عليها. هذا الفهم العميق يمنحهم القدرة على التفاعل مع التكنولوجيا بطرق أكثر فعالية وكفاءة.
تعليم البرمجة للأطفال في العصر الرقمي ليس رفاهية، بل ضرورة لتأهيلهم لمستقبل مشرق. من خلال تطوير مهارات التفكير المنطقي، الإبداع، والتواصل، يتم إعداد الأطفال ليكونوا مبتكرين وقادة في العالم الرقمي المتطور. البرمجة تفتح لهم أبوابًا واسعة من الفرص والتحديات التي يمكنهم تجاوزها بمهاراتهم ومعرفتهم المتقدمة.
تعلم البرمجة للأطفال- مفتاح المستقبل الرقمي.pdfelmadrasah8
مع تزايد الاعتماد على التكنولوجيا في حياتنا اليومية، أصبحت البرمجة مهارة حيوية للأطفال. تعلم البرمجة للأطفال ليس مجرد تعلم كتابة الشيفرات، بل هو وسيلة لتعزيز التفكير النقدي، وحل المشكلات، والإبداع. من خلال تعلم البرمجة، يكتسب الأطفال أدوات تمكنهم من فهم العالم الرقمي المحيط بهم والتحكم فيه.
فوائد تعلم البرمجة للأطفال
تعزيز التفكير النقدي وحل المشكلات:
تعلم البرمجة يعلم الأطفال كيفية تقسيم المشاكل الكبيرة إلى أجزاء صغيرة يمكن التحكم فيها. يتعلمون كيفية التفكير بطرق منطقية ومنظمة، مما يساعدهم على إيجاد حلول فعالة للمشكلات.
تشجيع الإبداع:
من خلال البرمجة، يمكن للأطفال خلق أشياء جديدة مثل الألعاب، التطبيقات، والمواقع الإلكترونية. هذا يعزز إبداعهم ويشجعهم على التفكير خارج الصندوق لتطوير أفكار مبتكرة.
مهارات العمل الجماعي:
غالبًا ما تتطلب مشاريع البرمجة العمل الجماعي، مما يعلم الأطفال كيفية التعاون مع الآخرين، وتبادل الأفكار، والعمل بروح الفريق لتحقيق أهداف مشتركة.
إعدادهم للمستقبل:
في عالم يتجه نحو الرقمية بشكل متزايد، ستكون مهارات البرمجة من بين المهارات الأكثر طلبًا في المستقبل. تعلم البرمجة من سن مبكرة يمنح الأطفال ميزة تنافسية في سوق العمل المستقبلي.
طرق تعلم البرمجة للأطفال
البرامج والتطبيقات التعليمية:
هناك العديد من التطبيقات والبرامج المصممة خصيصًا لتعليم الأطفال البرمجة بطريقة ممتعة وتفاعلية. مثل "سكراتش" (Scratch) و"كوداكاديمي" (Codecademy) التي تستخدم واجهات بصرية بسيطة تسهل فهم المفاهيم الأساسية.
الدورات التعليمية عبر الإنترنت:
تقدم العديد من المنصات مثل "كود.أورغ" (Code.org) و"تيتوريالز بوينت" (TutorialsPoint) دورات مجانية ومدفوعة تعلم الأطفال البرمجة بأسلوب سهل ومشوق.
الروبوتات التعليمية:
استخدام الروبوتات مثل "ليغو ميندستورمز" (LEGO Mindstorms) و"سفيرو" (Sphero) يقدم للأطفال تجربة عملية وممتعة لتعلم البرمجة عن طريق برمجة الروبوتات لأداء مهام معينة.
الكتب والمجلات التعليمية:
هناك العديد من الكتب والمجلات المصممة لتعليم الأطفال البرمجة. تقدم هذه المصادر شرحًا مبسطًا ورسومًا توضيحية تجعل المفاهيم البرمجية سهلة الفهم للأطفال.
نصائح لأولياء الأمور
تشجيع الفضول:
دعوا أطفالكم يستكشفون البرمجة بأنفسهم. شجعوهم على طرح الأسئلة وتجربة حلول مختلفة.
توفير الموارد المناسبة:
ابحثوا عن الموارد التي تناسب أعمار أطفالكم ومستوياتهم. تأكدوا من أنها تفاعلية وممتعة لتحافظ على اهتمامهم.
المشاركة في التعلم:
كونوا جزءًا من تجربة تعلم أطفالكم. جربوا برمجة بعض المشاريع البسيطة معهم، وناقشوا ما يتعلمونه.
تعلم البرمجة للأطفال يفتح لهم آفاقًا جديدة ويزودهم بمهارات قيمة تساعدهم في حياتهم المستقبلية. إنه استثمار في قدراتهم ويمهد الطريق لهم ليكونوا جزءًا من الثورة الرقمية المستمرة. من خلال تقديم الدعم والموارد المناسبة، يمكن لأولياء الأمور والمعلمين تحفيز الأطفال على اكتشاف عالم البرمجة والإبداع فيه.