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Sonet project

The document provides an overview of Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET). It discusses the history and objectives of SONET, which was developed in the 1980s as a standard for fiber optic networks. SONET protocols allow for multiplexing of data streams at different rates and transport of services like ATM. SONET uses ring and linear network topologies that provide redundancy and automatic protection switching. It compares SONET to other technologies like ATM, frame relay, and SDH. Benefits of SONET include grooming, multi-point connectivity, and enhanced operation, maintenance and provisioning. The document also outlines SONET protocol layers, operations, and its role in wide area networks.

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Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET)
SONET Page 2 of 32 Table of Contents.....................................................................Page No.:- Introduction & Objectives of the SONET………………………………………………………………………...…4-5 SONET History & the Current Techniques……………………………………………………………………….5-6 SONET Protocols, Network Topologies& Configurations .................................... ................................... .................. ...... 7 - 10 Comparision of the SONET technology with other technologies........................................................................................................11 - 12 Benifits of the SONET...............................................................................................................13 - 14 Disadvantages of the SONET ........................................................................................................... ......... 15 Protocollayers in the SONET.................................................................................16 Operation, Maintenance & Administration ........................................................................................... ......... 16 - 17 Wide Area Network...................................................................................................................18 Overview of the WAN technology ........................................................................... .................................... 19 WAN devices...........................................................................................................19
SONET Page 3 of 32 Synchronization .. ...................................................................... ....... ........................ 20 SONET Equipments ............................................................................... ............................... 21 SONET Standards ........... ........................................................... ............. ................. 22 Next Generation of the SONET ................................... .................................................. ............................... 23 SONET Hierarchy .... ..................................................................... .......................... 24 Deployment of the SONET ........................................................................................ ............................ 24 SONET Signals . ................................................................................. ..................... 25 The Basic Unit of Transmission in the SONET ............................................................................................. .............. .... 26 - 29 Cost ................ ...................................................................................... .................... 30 Conclusion ......................................................................................... ................ ...... 0 3 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................. ...... 31 Refrences ............................................ .............. .................................... ................... 32 Turn it in Report…………………………………………………………………33
SONET Page 4 of 32 Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVES:- Introduction to SONET:- We know that in the modern world, an organization’s are increasingly looking forward for the result of the character knowledge that flows through their communication networks. These necessities require more effective management & identity of such knowledge flows. The tool for identifying social networks & its structures a communication is needed. Again, the flow of such knowledge in which social networks communicate is also to be analyzed. Thus, a research tool to analyses such communication in course sites that use social networks was motivated to be created. This tool was SONET. It gives the data, sound and video through the same service as an union of technology in combination. We know that social networks are like graphs. They use nodes to constitute parties & edges to constitute the communication links. In the same way, considering knowledge management, here the nodes constitute people whereas the associates constitute the transfer of knowledge from person to person. SONET falls under Physical Layer of OSI model defining the interface standards. This standard is the hierarchy is the of interface rates. It allows data streams to be multiplexed at the different rates. Its implementation has helped the communication carriers in the world to interlink their living fiber optic systems & the digital carriers. Optical Carrier levels from 51.8 Mbps to 2.48 Gbps can be established by the SONET. SDH is the international equivalent of SONET, which is standardized by the ITU. Also SONET network components can obtain signals from different forms of facilities like DS1, DS3, LAN,
SONET Page 5 of 32 MAN, WAN, ATM, Internet & a variety of network topologies. Moreover, it is known that even the SDH signals can be connected to SONET and vice versa. Objectives of SONET:- Some of the objectives of the SONET are given below:-  To visualize & recognize the type of communication that occurs in a network.  Recognize the knowledge hubs not contributing to the community.  For synchronous networking  To transport new services like the ATM.  For grooming  For the enhancement of OAM&P  To arrange multi-point  To introduce mid-span meet  For the standards-based survival rings HISTORY & CURRENT TECHNIQUES:- History:- It is known that the SONET was primitively developed for the populace telephone networking. Formerly in the 1980's, the break apart of the AT&T in United States generated various regional telephone companies. However, the organizations soon faced hardships in the networking with one another. Fiber optic cabling had so soon persisted for a far distance voice traffic transmission. The living networks was unnecessary costly to develop & hard to extend for a lengthy haul data & video traffic.
SONET Page 6 of 32 Thus, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) successfully intended SONET as the new standard for these applications. SONET was founded in the mid 1980s by the Exchange Carriers Standard Association (ECSA) to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is considered as the standard for the fiber optic networks which are used widely today all over the world. It allows multiple vendor products & technologies defining physical network interfaces. We know that the very first fiber optic network was creditworthy for equipment, procedures, line codes, maintenances etc. The need of standard that supports in matching equipment from different vendors is being opted by the users from different companies as well as countries like Korea, Brazil, Hong Kong, Canada, Japan etc. Like Ethernet, SONET provides an interface layer technology. This is because the SONET also behaves as a carrier of the multiple high level application protocol. Current Techniques:- SONET is presently a grouping of physical layer constraint Based on the signaling speed hierarchy Synchronous Transport Signals (STS), SONET is just a group of physical layer requirements. It also demonstrates the sub level of the STS-1 signals. STS-1 formats can also be subdivided into smaller segments called virtual tributaries. We know that these virtual tributaries are the synchronous signals which are used for the transporting the low speed transmission. Pointers are a concept that is used to compensate frequency & phase variations. These pointers allow the transporting of the synchronous payload envelops across the boundaries transparently. The payload envelops may be either STS or virtual tributaries. They are between the nodes along with the separate network clocks with same timings. It is known that to avoid data loss & delays, the pointers are used widely. This table down shows the contents of the list of virtual tributaries with their sizes.
SONET Page 7 of 32 SONET PROTOCOLS, NETWORK TOPOLOGIES & CONFIGURATIONS:- SONET Protocols:- We know different terms are used by the SONET to explain functions & features. Again, these terms exaggerates their differences & create confusions too. It is known that the protocols are highly multiplexed. The header is furnished in a complex way between the data. This helps the capsuled data to own its own frame rate. The data is locked in a different rate than frame rate so extra padding is allowed to the multiplexed data. Decision to allow extra padding in the most levels of multiplexing has made the protocol more complex. Here, compared to the frame rate of 125 microseconds, the data sending rate is delayed by 32 microseconds. SONET Topologies:- Ring is the major deployment architecture of the SONET. Survivability is the major benefit of the ring architecture. ASMs can be put in ring architecture. Rings are the most relevant
SONET Page 8 of 32 architectures in SONET implementation due to its redundancy. Multiplexers can send signals through the rings with no interruption even if the fiber is cut down. Network Architecture:- We know that the SONET has limited number of architectures which allows us for the protection & enough usage of the bandwidth. Regardless the transmission speeds, the SONET connection use two fiber optics. Some of the network architectures of the SONET are:-  Linear Automatic Protection Switching:- Linear Automatic Protection Switching (APS) is also known as one plus one (1+1) switching. In this switching four fibers are included. Among which two of the fibers are working fibers & tow are protection fibers each in both the directions. Here the switching is always based in the line status. The switching may be in unidirectional or bidirectional.
SONET Page 9 of 32  Unidirectional Path Switched Ring:- Two path degree transcripts of the protected traffics are transferred to either direction across the ring in Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (UPSR). Here a selector is placed at the egress node which uses the copy identifying the copy that contains the maximum quality. UPRSs always sit close to the network edge. They are called collector rings too. Total capacity of the UPSR is the same of the line rate of the OC-N ring. This is because the data transmitted across the ring is both directions are always the same.
SONET Page 10 of 32  Bidirectional Line Switched Ring:- Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (BLSR) can be divided into two parts. They are two fibers BLSR & four fibers BLSR. BLSRs do not send path level copies from ingress to the egress same as the UPSR. We know that an unsuccessful or sustenance action on one line cause protection fiber which connects the two nodes needed to be employed rather than looping across the ring. So, either multiple line failures or single node failures can be supported in four fiber ring. Total bandwidth which BLSR supports is unlimited to that of OC-N so it can move traffic between metropolitan regions too. BLSR serves as a collector ring. Thus BLSR are often deployed in collector rings, inter-office rings so it is seldom in nature.
SONET Page 11 of 32 COMPARISON WITH OTHER TECHNOLOGIES:-  Comparision with ATM:- We know that ATM falls under the data link layer whereas the SONET is a physical layer application of the OSI model. ATM uses layer one technology to transport services. The SONET is the major technology in physical layer. This technology is commonly used by the ATM. There may also be other examples of the physical layer containing WAN interfaces. The ATM follows the fixed cell length technology whereas the SONET uses a frame based technology. The ATM specified cells are added to the frames used by the SONET through which the ATM cells are transported.
SONET Page 12 of 32 Many companies including the government agents use ATMs. They can achieve a lot of leverage using the SONET transport tecnhology. This combination of ATM & the high speed SONET devices leads the customers to satisfy through the advantages of the SONET.  Comparision with FRAME RELAY:- As the SONET is a technology with rotating rings, it cures mechanically in the happening of failures. The rate of transfer in SONET begins with 155 Mbps & goes up to 9.95 Gbps. To achieve the high speed, the SONET channels are multiplexed. We know packets are used by the frame relays which are 64-1500 bytes in size. A flag is assigned to the start & end points. Frame relays can transfer voice traffic & even video traffics. It assists save the network bandwidth as well as to generate higher productivity of the network. SONET has a high speed as it consist optical fiber. However, frame relay can’t gain speed without the help of RBOC. Users of the frame relay are growing day by day. In the same way, the frame relay supports the SONET to grow the bandwidth of their network.  Comparision with SDH:- It is known that the SONET & SDH standards are both specified for the data transmission over fiber optics. SONET is an American standard presented by the ANSI likewise SDH is the international standard presented by the ITU. The main ingredient of SDH is the STM-1 likewise the STS-1 is the major ingredient of the SONET. However, both the SONET & the SDH contain the common OC-n that provides the midpoint meeting. OC-n signals are achieved by scrambling the STS-n & STM-n signals. The SONET & the SDH will be incompatible if the SPE mappings used are different. BENEFITS OF SONET:-
SONET Page 13 of 32 The SONET has become the well-known major technology in the market against the former telecommunication technologies. This is because of its flexibility in configuration. Some of the major merits of the SONET are provided as follows:-
SONET Page 14 of 32  Grooming:- Combination & separation process is exercised by the grooming in order to function in a high efficiency rate.  Arrangement of multi-point:- Point-to-point configurations can only be handled by the asynchronous systems. However, the SONET handles multi point configurations as well as the hubs. These hubs support in deducting the multiplex along with the de multiplex which supports in the traffic grooming.  Reduction of cables as well as DSX panel elimination:- We know that DSX panels are the equipment of the asynchronous system. DSX panels are intended to perform grooming in synchronous network electrically.  Enhancement of performance monioring:- The SONET can switch the traffic automatically as it can sense the problems with the help of the dual ring architecture.  Enhancement of OAM&P:- The network vendors are excessively referred to Operation, Administration, Maintenance & Provisioning (OAM&P) process. This is because of the availability of various network providers have various products in the transmission network. OAM&P networks can be merged by the
SONET Page 15 of 32 SONET. This will support the linking a connection to another that supports to save budget which connects individual networks.  Optical Interconnection:- We can summarize all the advantages of the SONET in the form of compatibility, flexibility, technology & economics. STS as well as the optical carrier (OC) needed for the transmission in a fiber optic cabling is included in the SONET. DISADVANTAGES OF SONET:- However, the SONET also has some limitations too. They are provided below:-  Multicast traffic:- Multicast traffic requires different circuits for the individual destination. Thus, a copy is created in the both destinations. The result in the multiple copies of packets will deduct the bandwidth in the network.  Fixed circuits:- In the SONET, the ring nodes are placed in the point-to-point circuit. The bandwidth may be wasted if they are not used by the SONET. Thus, this causes limitations while transferring data & it creates bursts.  Wastage of protection bandwidth:- We know that always 50 % of bandwidth is differentiated for security. However, the SONET does not follow this method. This causes the vendors difficulties to select the appropriate amount of bandwidth required for security. PROTOCOL LAYERS in the SONET STANDARD:-
SONET Page 16 of 32 The SONET relies on the four protocol layers entire works of multiplexing, organizing transmitting & routing frames each of that controls each aspect of the whole transmission. These four levels are given below. 1. Photonic Layer:- This layer converts signals between optical & electrical form. 2. Path Layer:- This layer is concerned with receiving the frames from source to destination & vice versa. 3. Section layer:- This layer generates the frames & looks after the monitoring errors in transmission. 4. Line Layer:- This layer handles the part of synchronizing, demultiplexing & multiplexing. OPERATION, MAINTENANCE & ADMINISTRATION:- The SONET also represents the management of the networks in support of the administrative functions, operations & maintenances. Overheads added in the SONET frame gives the control of network monitoring & managements. It is known that the 4% of the actual bandwidth is consumed by the overhead of network management. Some of the monitoring functions are given below:-
SONET Page 17 of 32  Failure of the system  Parity errors  Pointer loss  Frame loss  Signal loss  Synchronization loss Operation:- Electrical signals are converted to the optical levels by the SONET for transmission. We know that the SONET is not very long & a single piece optical fiber. The transmission can transform through routers, repeaters & switches along with the ways from the source to destination as well as by more than one intermediate multiplexer to boost the signals. Transmissions among themselves are composed up of 810 bytes frame which are sent out at the rate of 8000 Bps. Section: It is a single length fiber optic cable. Line: It is a segment of the any path which travels between the two multiplexers. Path: It is the complete route between the destination multiplexer & the source multiplexer. WIDE AREA NETWORK:-
SONET Page 18 of 32 WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network which covers the multiple distance areas which spreads over the whole world. The WAN joins the multiple smaller networks like LAN & MAN. Internet is the world’s well-nigh popular WAN. WAN technologies usually operate at the bottom three layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay, SONET, X.25, PPP & ATM are some of the technologies often found in WAN. SONET is considered as an international standard for high speed communication across fiber optic network which establishes Optical Carrier (OCs) levels from 51.8 Mbps to 10 Gbps & even higher.
SONET Page 19 of 32 OVERVIEW of WAN TECHNOLOGY:- Concept of WAN technology is majorly discoursed in the physical layer & the data link layer of OSI model. Various protocols are used there. Some of the services interleaved by WAN technology are frame relay, HDLC. WAN technology operates on the layer 1 & layer 2 of OSI model. Different authorities like the ISO & Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) describe the access standard of WAN technology. The functional as well as the electrical connection are defined by the protocols in the physical layer. Whereas encapsulation of data to unknown location is described by the protocols in the data link layer. We know that ATMs & Frame relays are taken for frame transfers. WAN DEVICES:- Some of the components of the WAN technology are given as follow:-  Routers  Modems  Core Routers  Access Servers  CSU/DSU  WAN switches
SONET Page 20 of 32 SYNCHRONIZATION:- It is good to know what the plesiochronous, synchronous & asynchronous is before understanding the concept & details of the SONET. Signal occurs at the same rate in synchronous. However, the phase difference between the signals lies in their limits. Propagation delays introduced in transmission networks creates the phase difference. Every clock is tracked towards Primary Reference Clock (PRC) in synchronous. When two signals comes at the same rate plesiochronous is created with variation. Thus, clocks also may be achieved when two networks are connected from two RPCs. The differences in the result are the plesiochronous difference. Differences in the result occur even if the clocks are accurate. Whereas in the asynchronous, signals does not come in the same rate. It is said to be asynchronous when the difference between the two clocks becomes more than the plesiochronous difference. Some of the synchronous sources available are as follows:-  Local external timing:- It is created by a satellite-derived clock or an atomic Cesium clock with a device in the same central office as the network element. Along with sync-status messages placed into the DS1 overhead supplied by the clock, the interface is often a DS1,  Holdover:- A network element reaches a holdover mode in the absence of high quality timing as a last resort until high quality timing is available. The network element uses own timing circuits as a reference in this mode.  Line-derived timing:-
SONET Page 21 of 32 Monitoring the S1 sync-status bytes to ensure quality, a network element can be configured to derive its timing from the line-level. SONET EQUIPMENTS:- The traditional sections of network components are no longer distinct with advancement in the SONET chipsets. However, as new equipment can be examined in light of the architectures it supports the network architectures which have relatively remained constant. So, in terms of the old sections, there is always a value in viewing newer plus traditional equipments.  Regenerators:- Only the section overhead is terminated by the traditional regenerators. Line or path is not affected by it. Long haul routes are extended by the generators converting optical signals already passed a long distance of electrical format. It also retransmits a regenerated high power signal. Regenerator has been replaced largely by optical amplifiers since late 1990s. Even the transponders of wavelength-division multiplexing systems have absorbed some of the functionality of regenerators.  Digital cross connect system:- DCSs or DXCs recently often supports various high speed signals. It also allows the cross connection of the DS-1, DS-3 plus the STS-3s & other connections from one input to other. Again various subtending rings are supported by the advanced DCSs simultaneously.  Add-drop multiplexer:- They are the most common network elements. Though the new generation systems often support various architecture, the traditional ADMs were developed to operate only in one architecture. Traditionally ADMs have a low speed side & a high speed side that contain electrical plus
SONET Page 22 of 32 optical interfaces. It is known that the low speed signals multiplexed by the network element are taken by the low seed side & vice versa. SONET STANDARS:- Telcordia GR-253-CORE, SONET Transport Systems: Common Generic Criteria Telcordia GR-499-CORE, Transport Systems Generic Requirements (TSGR): Common Requirements ANSI T1.105: SONET-Basic Description including Multiplex Structure, Rates and Formats ANSI T1.119/ATIS PP 0900119.01.2006: SONET-Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning (OAM&P) - Communications ITU-T recommendation G.707: Network Node Interface for the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) ITU-T recommendation G.783: Characteristics of synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) equipment functional blocks ITU-T recommendation G.803: Architecture of Transport Networks Based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
SONET Page 23 of 32 NEXT GENERATION of SONET:- The requirement to transport multiple PDH signals in the network drove to the creation of the SONET. Some of the transport multiple PDH signals are DS1, DS3, E1, E3 etc. Moreover, other chunks of multiplexed 64 kbps pulse code modulated voice traffic are also considered as the PDH signals. Next former application was the power to transport ATM traffic. In order to help a huge mass of the ATM bandwidth a concatenation has been developed, where small multiplex containers are oppositely multiplexed to create a huge container. This helps out the huge data oriented pipes. However, inflexibility is one of the major problem with traditional concatenation. This depends on the data & voice traffic mix which is required to be carried. The fixed size of concatenated containers creates a huge mass of unused bandwidth left over due to the fixed sizes of concatenated containers. For an instance, if a fitting of 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet connection inside a 155 Mbps STS-3c container will lead to considerable waste of the bandwidth. It is vital need for all the intermediate network components to support newly introduced concatenation sizes. The introduction of Virtual Concatenation has solved this problem. Arbitrary assembly of the low order multiplexing container, creating huge containers of arbitrary size up to 100 Mbps is done by the Virtual concatenation (VCAT). It can be done without the specifications for intermediate network elements that support this type of concatenation. Virtual concatenation leverages the X.86 or Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) protocols. In order to map payloads of arbitrary bandwidth to virtually-concatenated container, multiplexing containers based on the short term bandwidth requires the network. We know that the dynamically alter through dynamic virtual concatenation in the bandwidth is possible by the Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS). Ethernet over SONET is referred as the set of the next-generation SONET protocols which allows Ethernet transport. SONET HIERARCHY:-
SONET Page 24 of 32 DEPLOYMENT of SONET:- We know that the SONET equipment is deployed in various sectors by the service providers. Various companies, public-service corporation, governments as well as high level clients have adopted deploying the SONET. Nowadays SONET has become so popular among all categories of customers. This is because the SONET has a lot of advantages like scalability, reliability, high performance rates etc. SONET is being used in the customers’ self-governance or in a joint central office. Their main objective is to achieve WAN connectivity. SONET is being used for the transporting process of the ATM, Frame relay, DS-1, IP etc. to other services. This is done by the support of hub based & ring based configuration. The most popular SONET topology is ring based configuration. It helps in the network’s survivability. Implementation of dual ring configuration is required to achieve further more survivability.
SONET Page 25 of 32 SONET SIGNAL:- The SONET technology carries signals containing various capacities across the synchronous & flexible hierarchy that achieves the bytes provided multiplexing connive. It is also simplified with the byte provided to it. The first step in SONET multiplexing is to create the base signal which operates at the speed of 51.84 Mbps. It is also regarded as Synchronous Transport Signal, level 1 (STS-1). Generations of the family of STS-N signals takes place by the occurrence of various levels. Here is the table defining the OC as well as the synchronous signals. THE BASIC UNIT OF TRANSMISSION IN SONET:-
SONET Page 26 of 32 In SONET, STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1) is the basic unit of framing. It operates at 155.52 Mbps. We know that SONET refers to it as the STS-3c (Synchronous Transport Signal, concatenated 3).This depends on whether the signal is carried optically or electrically. However, its bit rate, frame size& function is same to the STM-1. Again, it is known that the SONET offer additional basic unit of transmission. The speed of operation is 51.84 Mbps which is the one third to STM-1, STS-3c & OC-3c carrier. This speed is determined to bandwidth specification for PCM encoded voice in telephone signals at the rate in which a STS-1 & OC-1 circuit carry bandwidth equal to the standard DS-3 channel. DS-3 channel carries 672.64 Kbps voice. STS-3c & OC-3c signals are composed of three multiplexed STS-1 signal. Even STM-0 is support the SONET equivalent to the STS-1 & OC-1. 1. Framing:- Packet oriented data transmission like Ethernet usually contain a packet frame of header & a payload. Here at first the header is transmitted then the payload. However, in SONET this is slightly modified. Instead of transmitting the payload first, the header is termed as the overhead is interleaved during the transmission with it. First part of the overhead is transmitted & next the part of payload. Again, the part of overhead then part of payload till the whole frame’s transmission is completed. The frame is of size 810 octets in the case of the STS-1 whereas the STM-1 & STS -3c frame is of 2430 octets. The frame is transmitted 3 octets overhead for STS-1 with payload of 87 octets. This process repeats for nine times till 810 octets is transmitted per 125 Mbps. 9 octets of overhead are transmitted following 261 octets of payload in STS-3c & STM-1 that functions thrice fast than STS-1. This process again repeats till nine time. By this time 2430 octets is transmitted per 125 Mbps. This is represented displaying frame graphically in SONET in 90 columns & 9 rows to the STS-1 & 270 columns & 9 rows to the STM-1 & STS-3c. Thus, overhead as contiguous block like payload in this representation. We use STS-1 & 270 columns interchangeably in practice. However, the OC designations refer to signals in optical form. Thus, it is inaccurate to say that OC-3 consists three layers. But we can say that it consist three STS-1s.
SONET Page 27 of 32 2. SDH frame:- The first 9 columns are the overhead & the pointers in STM-1 frame. For simplicity, frame here is shown rectangular with 270 columns & 9 rows. However, the bytes are not transmitted in this order by the protocol.
SONET Page 28 of 32 We know that STM-1 frame transmits in 125 Mbps. So, on a fiber optic circuit of 155.52 Mbps OC-3, there are about 8,000 frames. This frame contains pointers, overhead & Information Payload (IP). Administrative Unit Pointers (AUP) & Section Overhead (SO) is made up of the first 9 columns of the frame. The remaining 261 columns makes Information Payload. Within the information payload, Administration Units (AU) are identified by the pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes). Hence, after accounting for the overhead, OC-3 circuit carries 150.336 Mbps of payload. Administrative Units are carried within information payload, with their own frame structures consisting 261 columns & 9 rows recognized by pointers. There are more than one virtual containers (VC) within the Administrative Units too which consists of VC payload & path overhead. We know that path overhead is at the first column which is followed by the payload container. The pointer indicates the row four where the Administrative Units contain their phase alignment inside STM frame.
SONET Page 29 of 32 Now the section overhead is divided into two groups. They are Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) & Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH). Te information gained by the overhead from transmission system is then utilized for a broad range of the management function. This can be for service channels, detecting failures data communication monitoring transmission quality etc. Byte-by-byte & row-by-row is a serial fashion how the STM is transmitted in a continuous way. 3. Transport overhead:- For measuring & signaling transmission error rates the transport overhead is used. It is composed in the following way:-  Section overhead:- It is called Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) in SONET terminology. Here, there are 27 octets which consist of information related to frame structure that is needed along the end equipment.  Line overhead:- It is called Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH) in SONET terminology. Here, there are 45 octets which consist of information related to the Automatic Protection Switching messages like maintenance messages, alarms & error correction as they may be needed along networks.  AU Pointer:- It points towards location of first byte in the virtual container i.e. J1 byte in the payload. 4. Path virtual envelope:- Path data is the data transmitted from end to end. It is broken down into two parts:-  Payload overhead (POH):- Payload overhead employs 9 octets for end-to-end error measurement & signaling.
SONET Page 30 of 32  Payload:- STS-1 payload carries a complete PDH DS3 frames. Path overhead is added when the DS3 enters a SONET network. The SONET network element entering the SONET network is the path terminator or the generator. If the path or the line ended then the section is terminated too. It is known that the line or the path is terminated by the SONET regenerators. To form other degree of the SONET hierarchy, three STS-1 signals are multiplexed. This signal multiplexed by the interleaving bytes of 3 STS-1 frame forms STS-3 frames which consists 2,430 bytes that transmits in 125 Mbps. We know that Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) are the circuits which are used as the basis to long haul circuits & all modern submarine communication cable systems. COST:- However, the SONET technology is costly. It provides its services at about 20% higer than the other services in the market. Again, the prediction of the SONET technology’s world market is increasingly 17.4 % every year. This has proved that the SONET technology is going to rule the entire world in the near future. CONCLUSION:- We have now come to know that the SONET has specialized various standards needed to insure data communication & efficiency. This has supported a lot to the customers in the standard communication. Applications like teleconferencing, HDTV etc. has been created with the combination of the telephone & data communication. These need a high mass of bandwidth. It is known that it is only SONET that provides the large amount of bandwidth. SONET has a speed of 10 Gbps for the data communication & voice traffic. This is why all the vendors have realized the importance of the SONET technology.
SONET Page 31 of 32 Now we have been cleared that the SONET is the only technology which is most efficient to every users in the whole world. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:- I have worked hard to make this project a reliable & appreciable to everyone. I have gone through the various curriculums, deeply on SONET to make my project much worthy. During this course I have gone through many related websites links & done a deep research related to SONET. My special thanks goes to Lecturer Mr. Ayush Mani Subedi. He has played a vital role by assisting me in collecting & suggesting me to include all the fundamental features & functions regarding SONET. Moreover, I would like to express my best gratitude to my colleagues Hem Lal Thapa, Pemba Sherpa & Anjan Lal Shrestha who assisted me technically & morally throughout my project.
SONET Page 32 of 32 REFRENCES:-  Webpage Links:- - http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=207844462582907&set=a.207118549322 165.57001.100000720657990&type=3&theater - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking - http://www.multiplexes.xn--generatorskrtumd5-ryb.lubin.pl/p- Synchronous_optical_networking - http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb727043.aspx - http://www.networkdictionary.com/networking/WideAreaNetwork.php? - http://www.medbib.com/SONET - http://compnetworking.miningco.com/library/weekly/aa092800a.htm - http://people.cs.uct.ac.za/~gsaul/abhoopchand/files/bn_report.pdf - http://www.electrosofts.com/sonet/ - http://www.baker.karoo.net/work/sdh.pdf - http://www.bcdforum.org/public/library/glossary.html - http://www.daverhoades.com/computerease/?cat=6

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Sonet project

  • 1.
  • 2.
    SONET Page 2 of32 Table of Contents.....................................................................Page No.:- Introduction & Objectives of the SONET………………………………………………………………………...…4-5 SONET History & the Current Techniques……………………………………………………………………….5-6 SONET Protocols, Network Topologies& Configurations .................................... ................................... .................. ...... 7 - 10 Comparision of the SONET technology with other technologies........................................................................................................11 - 12 Benifits of the SONET...............................................................................................................13 - 14 Disadvantages of the SONET ........................................................................................................... ......... 15 Protocollayers in the SONET.................................................................................16 Operation, Maintenance & Administration ........................................................................................... ......... 16 - 17 Wide Area Network...................................................................................................................18 Overview of the WAN technology ........................................................................... .................................... 19 WAN devices...........................................................................................................19
  • 3.
    SONET Page 3 of32 Synchronization .. ...................................................................... ....... ........................ 20 SONET Equipments ............................................................................... ............................... 21 SONET Standards ........... ........................................................... ............. ................. 22 Next Generation of the SONET ................................... .................................................. ............................... 23 SONET Hierarchy .... ..................................................................... .......................... 24 Deployment of the SONET ........................................................................................ ............................ 24 SONET Signals . ................................................................................. ..................... 25 The Basic Unit of Transmission in the SONET ............................................................................................. .............. .... 26 - 29 Cost ................ ...................................................................................... .................... 30 Conclusion ......................................................................................... ................ ...... 0 3 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................. ...... 31 Refrences ............................................ .............. .................................... ................... 32 Turn it in Report…………………………………………………………………33
  • 4.
    SONET Page 4 of32 Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVES:- Introduction to SONET:- We know that in the modern world, an organization’s are increasingly looking forward for the result of the character knowledge that flows through their communication networks. These necessities require more effective management & identity of such knowledge flows. The tool for identifying social networks & its structures a communication is needed. Again, the flow of such knowledge in which social networks communicate is also to be analyzed. Thus, a research tool to analyses such communication in course sites that use social networks was motivated to be created. This tool was SONET. It gives the data, sound and video through the same service as an union of technology in combination. We know that social networks are like graphs. They use nodes to constitute parties & edges to constitute the communication links. In the same way, considering knowledge management, here the nodes constitute people whereas the associates constitute the transfer of knowledge from person to person. SONET falls under Physical Layer of OSI model defining the interface standards. This standard is the hierarchy is the of interface rates. It allows data streams to be multiplexed at the different rates. Its implementation has helped the communication carriers in the world to interlink their living fiber optic systems & the digital carriers. Optical Carrier levels from 51.8 Mbps to 2.48 Gbps can be established by the SONET. SDH is the international equivalent of SONET, which is standardized by the ITU. Also SONET network components can obtain signals from different forms of facilities like DS1, DS3, LAN,
  • 5.
    SONET Page 5 of32 MAN, WAN, ATM, Internet & a variety of network topologies. Moreover, it is known that even the SDH signals can be connected to SONET and vice versa. Objectives of SONET:- Some of the objectives of the SONET are given below:-  To visualize & recognize the type of communication that occurs in a network.  Recognize the knowledge hubs not contributing to the community.  For synchronous networking  To transport new services like the ATM.  For grooming  For the enhancement of OAM&P  To arrange multi-point  To introduce mid-span meet  For the standards-based survival rings HISTORY & CURRENT TECHNIQUES:- History:- It is known that the SONET was primitively developed for the populace telephone networking. Formerly in the 1980's, the break apart of the AT&T in United States generated various regional telephone companies. However, the organizations soon faced hardships in the networking with one another. Fiber optic cabling had so soon persisted for a far distance voice traffic transmission. The living networks was unnecessary costly to develop & hard to extend for a lengthy haul data & video traffic.
  • 6.
    SONET Page 6 of32 Thus, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) successfully intended SONET as the new standard for these applications. SONET was founded in the mid 1980s by the Exchange Carriers Standard Association (ECSA) to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is considered as the standard for the fiber optic networks which are used widely today all over the world. It allows multiple vendor products & technologies defining physical network interfaces. We know that the very first fiber optic network was creditworthy for equipment, procedures, line codes, maintenances etc. The need of standard that supports in matching equipment from different vendors is being opted by the users from different companies as well as countries like Korea, Brazil, Hong Kong, Canada, Japan etc. Like Ethernet, SONET provides an interface layer technology. This is because the SONET also behaves as a carrier of the multiple high level application protocol. Current Techniques:- SONET is presently a grouping of physical layer constraint Based on the signaling speed hierarchy Synchronous Transport Signals (STS), SONET is just a group of physical layer requirements. It also demonstrates the sub level of the STS-1 signals. STS-1 formats can also be subdivided into smaller segments called virtual tributaries. We know that these virtual tributaries are the synchronous signals which are used for the transporting the low speed transmission. Pointers are a concept that is used to compensate frequency & phase variations. These pointers allow the transporting of the synchronous payload envelops across the boundaries transparently. The payload envelops may be either STS or virtual tributaries. They are between the nodes along with the separate network clocks with same timings. It is known that to avoid data loss & delays, the pointers are used widely. This table down shows the contents of the list of virtual tributaries with their sizes.
  • 7.
    SONET Page 7 of32 SONET PROTOCOLS, NETWORK TOPOLOGIES & CONFIGURATIONS:- SONET Protocols:- We know different terms are used by the SONET to explain functions & features. Again, these terms exaggerates their differences & create confusions too. It is known that the protocols are highly multiplexed. The header is furnished in a complex way between the data. This helps the capsuled data to own its own frame rate. The data is locked in a different rate than frame rate so extra padding is allowed to the multiplexed data. Decision to allow extra padding in the most levels of multiplexing has made the protocol more complex. Here, compared to the frame rate of 125 microseconds, the data sending rate is delayed by 32 microseconds. SONET Topologies:- Ring is the major deployment architecture of the SONET. Survivability is the major benefit of the ring architecture. ASMs can be put in ring architecture. Rings are the most relevant
  • 8.
    SONET Page 8 of32 architectures in SONET implementation due to its redundancy. Multiplexers can send signals through the rings with no interruption even if the fiber is cut down. Network Architecture:- We know that the SONET has limited number of architectures which allows us for the protection & enough usage of the bandwidth. Regardless the transmission speeds, the SONET connection use two fiber optics. Some of the network architectures of the SONET are:-  Linear Automatic Protection Switching:- Linear Automatic Protection Switching (APS) is also known as one plus one (1+1) switching. In this switching four fibers are included. Among which two of the fibers are working fibers & tow are protection fibers each in both the directions. Here the switching is always based in the line status. The switching may be in unidirectional or bidirectional.
  • 9.
    SONET Page 9 of32  Unidirectional Path Switched Ring:- Two path degree transcripts of the protected traffics are transferred to either direction across the ring in Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (UPSR). Here a selector is placed at the egress node which uses the copy identifying the copy that contains the maximum quality. UPRSs always sit close to the network edge. They are called collector rings too. Total capacity of the UPSR is the same of the line rate of the OC-N ring. This is because the data transmitted across the ring is both directions are always the same.
  • 10.
    SONET Page 10 of32  Bidirectional Line Switched Ring:- Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (BLSR) can be divided into two parts. They are two fibers BLSR & four fibers BLSR. BLSRs do not send path level copies from ingress to the egress same as the UPSR. We know that an unsuccessful or sustenance action on one line cause protection fiber which connects the two nodes needed to be employed rather than looping across the ring. So, either multiple line failures or single node failures can be supported in four fiber ring. Total bandwidth which BLSR supports is unlimited to that of OC-N so it can move traffic between metropolitan regions too. BLSR serves as a collector ring. Thus BLSR are often deployed in collector rings, inter-office rings so it is seldom in nature.
  • 11.
    SONET Page 11 of32 COMPARISON WITH OTHER TECHNOLOGIES:-  Comparision with ATM:- We know that ATM falls under the data link layer whereas the SONET is a physical layer application of the OSI model. ATM uses layer one technology to transport services. The SONET is the major technology in physical layer. This technology is commonly used by the ATM. There may also be other examples of the physical layer containing WAN interfaces. The ATM follows the fixed cell length technology whereas the SONET uses a frame based technology. The ATM specified cells are added to the frames used by the SONET through which the ATM cells are transported.
  • 12.
    SONET Page 12 of32 Many companies including the government agents use ATMs. They can achieve a lot of leverage using the SONET transport tecnhology. This combination of ATM & the high speed SONET devices leads the customers to satisfy through the advantages of the SONET.  Comparision with FRAME RELAY:- As the SONET is a technology with rotating rings, it cures mechanically in the happening of failures. The rate of transfer in SONET begins with 155 Mbps & goes up to 9.95 Gbps. To achieve the high speed, the SONET channels are multiplexed. We know packets are used by the frame relays which are 64-1500 bytes in size. A flag is assigned to the start & end points. Frame relays can transfer voice traffic & even video traffics. It assists save the network bandwidth as well as to generate higher productivity of the network. SONET has a high speed as it consist optical fiber. However, frame relay can’t gain speed without the help of RBOC. Users of the frame relay are growing day by day. In the same way, the frame relay supports the SONET to grow the bandwidth of their network.  Comparision with SDH:- It is known that the SONET & SDH standards are both specified for the data transmission over fiber optics. SONET is an American standard presented by the ANSI likewise SDH is the international standard presented by the ITU. The main ingredient of SDH is the STM-1 likewise the STS-1 is the major ingredient of the SONET. However, both the SONET & the SDH contain the common OC-n that provides the midpoint meeting. OC-n signals are achieved by scrambling the STS-n & STM-n signals. The SONET & the SDH will be incompatible if the SPE mappings used are different. BENEFITS OF SONET:-
  • 13.
    SONET Page 13 of32 The SONET has become the well-known major technology in the market against the former telecommunication technologies. This is because of its flexibility in configuration. Some of the major merits of the SONET are provided as follows:-
  • 14.
    SONET Page 14 of32  Grooming:- Combination & separation process is exercised by the grooming in order to function in a high efficiency rate.  Arrangement of multi-point:- Point-to-point configurations can only be handled by the asynchronous systems. However, the SONET handles multi point configurations as well as the hubs. These hubs support in deducting the multiplex along with the de multiplex which supports in the traffic grooming.  Reduction of cables as well as DSX panel elimination:- We know that DSX panels are the equipment of the asynchronous system. DSX panels are intended to perform grooming in synchronous network electrically.  Enhancement of performance monioring:- The SONET can switch the traffic automatically as it can sense the problems with the help of the dual ring architecture.  Enhancement of OAM&P:- The network vendors are excessively referred to Operation, Administration, Maintenance & Provisioning (OAM&P) process. This is because of the availability of various network providers have various products in the transmission network. OAM&P networks can be merged by the
  • 15.
    SONET Page 15 of32 SONET. This will support the linking a connection to another that supports to save budget which connects individual networks.  Optical Interconnection:- We can summarize all the advantages of the SONET in the form of compatibility, flexibility, technology & economics. STS as well as the optical carrier (OC) needed for the transmission in a fiber optic cabling is included in the SONET. DISADVANTAGES OF SONET:- However, the SONET also has some limitations too. They are provided below:-  Multicast traffic:- Multicast traffic requires different circuits for the individual destination. Thus, a copy is created in the both destinations. The result in the multiple copies of packets will deduct the bandwidth in the network.  Fixed circuits:- In the SONET, the ring nodes are placed in the point-to-point circuit. The bandwidth may be wasted if they are not used by the SONET. Thus, this causes limitations while transferring data & it creates bursts.  Wastage of protection bandwidth:- We know that always 50 % of bandwidth is differentiated for security. However, the SONET does not follow this method. This causes the vendors difficulties to select the appropriate amount of bandwidth required for security. PROTOCOL LAYERS in the SONET STANDARD:-
  • 16.
    SONET Page 16 of32 The SONET relies on the four protocol layers entire works of multiplexing, organizing transmitting & routing frames each of that controls each aspect of the whole transmission. These four levels are given below. 1. Photonic Layer:- This layer converts signals between optical & electrical form. 2. Path Layer:- This layer is concerned with receiving the frames from source to destination & vice versa. 3. Section layer:- This layer generates the frames & looks after the monitoring errors in transmission. 4. Line Layer:- This layer handles the part of synchronizing, demultiplexing & multiplexing. OPERATION, MAINTENANCE & ADMINISTRATION:- The SONET also represents the management of the networks in support of the administrative functions, operations & maintenances. Overheads added in the SONET frame gives the control of network monitoring & managements. It is known that the 4% of the actual bandwidth is consumed by the overhead of network management. Some of the monitoring functions are given below:-
  • 17.
    SONET Page 17 of32  Failure of the system  Parity errors  Pointer loss  Frame loss  Signal loss  Synchronization loss Operation:- Electrical signals are converted to the optical levels by the SONET for transmission. We know that the SONET is not very long & a single piece optical fiber. The transmission can transform through routers, repeaters & switches along with the ways from the source to destination as well as by more than one intermediate multiplexer to boost the signals. Transmissions among themselves are composed up of 810 bytes frame which are sent out at the rate of 8000 Bps. Section: It is a single length fiber optic cable. Line: It is a segment of the any path which travels between the two multiplexers. Path: It is the complete route between the destination multiplexer & the source multiplexer. WIDE AREA NETWORK:-
  • 18.
    SONET Page 18 of32 WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network which covers the multiple distance areas which spreads over the whole world. The WAN joins the multiple smaller networks like LAN & MAN. Internet is the world’s well-nigh popular WAN. WAN technologies usually operate at the bottom three layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay, SONET, X.25, PPP & ATM are some of the technologies often found in WAN. SONET is considered as an international standard for high speed communication across fiber optic network which establishes Optical Carrier (OCs) levels from 51.8 Mbps to 10 Gbps & even higher.
  • 19.
    SONET Page 19 of32 OVERVIEW of WAN TECHNOLOGY:- Concept of WAN technology is majorly discoursed in the physical layer & the data link layer of OSI model. Various protocols are used there. Some of the services interleaved by WAN technology are frame relay, HDLC. WAN technology operates on the layer 1 & layer 2 of OSI model. Different authorities like the ISO & Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) describe the access standard of WAN technology. The functional as well as the electrical connection are defined by the protocols in the physical layer. Whereas encapsulation of data to unknown location is described by the protocols in the data link layer. We know that ATMs & Frame relays are taken for frame transfers. WAN DEVICES:- Some of the components of the WAN technology are given as follow:-  Routers  Modems  Core Routers  Access Servers  CSU/DSU  WAN switches
  • 20.
    SONET Page 20 of32 SYNCHRONIZATION:- It is good to know what the plesiochronous, synchronous & asynchronous is before understanding the concept & details of the SONET. Signal occurs at the same rate in synchronous. However, the phase difference between the signals lies in their limits. Propagation delays introduced in transmission networks creates the phase difference. Every clock is tracked towards Primary Reference Clock (PRC) in synchronous. When two signals comes at the same rate plesiochronous is created with variation. Thus, clocks also may be achieved when two networks are connected from two RPCs. The differences in the result are the plesiochronous difference. Differences in the result occur even if the clocks are accurate. Whereas in the asynchronous, signals does not come in the same rate. It is said to be asynchronous when the difference between the two clocks becomes more than the plesiochronous difference. Some of the synchronous sources available are as follows:-  Local external timing:- It is created by a satellite-derived clock or an atomic Cesium clock with a device in the same central office as the network element. Along with sync-status messages placed into the DS1 overhead supplied by the clock, the interface is often a DS1,  Holdover:- A network element reaches a holdover mode in the absence of high quality timing as a last resort until high quality timing is available. The network element uses own timing circuits as a reference in this mode.  Line-derived timing:-
  • 21.
    SONET Page 21 of32 Monitoring the S1 sync-status bytes to ensure quality, a network element can be configured to derive its timing from the line-level. SONET EQUIPMENTS:- The traditional sections of network components are no longer distinct with advancement in the SONET chipsets. However, as new equipment can be examined in light of the architectures it supports the network architectures which have relatively remained constant. So, in terms of the old sections, there is always a value in viewing newer plus traditional equipments.  Regenerators:- Only the section overhead is terminated by the traditional regenerators. Line or path is not affected by it. Long haul routes are extended by the generators converting optical signals already passed a long distance of electrical format. It also retransmits a regenerated high power signal. Regenerator has been replaced largely by optical amplifiers since late 1990s. Even the transponders of wavelength-division multiplexing systems have absorbed some of the functionality of regenerators.  Digital cross connect system:- DCSs or DXCs recently often supports various high speed signals. It also allows the cross connection of the DS-1, DS-3 plus the STS-3s & other connections from one input to other. Again various subtending rings are supported by the advanced DCSs simultaneously.  Add-drop multiplexer:- They are the most common network elements. Though the new generation systems often support various architecture, the traditional ADMs were developed to operate only in one architecture. Traditionally ADMs have a low speed side & a high speed side that contain electrical plus
  • 22.
    SONET Page 22 of32 optical interfaces. It is known that the low speed signals multiplexed by the network element are taken by the low seed side & vice versa. SONET STANDARS:- Telcordia GR-253-CORE, SONET Transport Systems: Common Generic Criteria Telcordia GR-499-CORE, Transport Systems Generic Requirements (TSGR): Common Requirements ANSI T1.105: SONET-Basic Description including Multiplex Structure, Rates and Formats ANSI T1.119/ATIS PP 0900119.01.2006: SONET-Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning (OAM&P) - Communications ITU-T recommendation G.707: Network Node Interface for the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) ITU-T recommendation G.783: Characteristics of synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) equipment functional blocks ITU-T recommendation G.803: Architecture of Transport Networks Based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
  • 23.
    SONET Page 23 of32 NEXT GENERATION of SONET:- The requirement to transport multiple PDH signals in the network drove to the creation of the SONET. Some of the transport multiple PDH signals are DS1, DS3, E1, E3 etc. Moreover, other chunks of multiplexed 64 kbps pulse code modulated voice traffic are also considered as the PDH signals. Next former application was the power to transport ATM traffic. In order to help a huge mass of the ATM bandwidth a concatenation has been developed, where small multiplex containers are oppositely multiplexed to create a huge container. This helps out the huge data oriented pipes. However, inflexibility is one of the major problem with traditional concatenation. This depends on the data & voice traffic mix which is required to be carried. The fixed size of concatenated containers creates a huge mass of unused bandwidth left over due to the fixed sizes of concatenated containers. For an instance, if a fitting of 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet connection inside a 155 Mbps STS-3c container will lead to considerable waste of the bandwidth. It is vital need for all the intermediate network components to support newly introduced concatenation sizes. The introduction of Virtual Concatenation has solved this problem. Arbitrary assembly of the low order multiplexing container, creating huge containers of arbitrary size up to 100 Mbps is done by the Virtual concatenation (VCAT). It can be done without the specifications for intermediate network elements that support this type of concatenation. Virtual concatenation leverages the X.86 or Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) protocols. In order to map payloads of arbitrary bandwidth to virtually-concatenated container, multiplexing containers based on the short term bandwidth requires the network. We know that the dynamically alter through dynamic virtual concatenation in the bandwidth is possible by the Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS). Ethernet over SONET is referred as the set of the next-generation SONET protocols which allows Ethernet transport. SONET HIERARCHY:-
  • 24.
    SONET Page 24 of32 DEPLOYMENT of SONET:- We know that the SONET equipment is deployed in various sectors by the service providers. Various companies, public-service corporation, governments as well as high level clients have adopted deploying the SONET. Nowadays SONET has become so popular among all categories of customers. This is because the SONET has a lot of advantages like scalability, reliability, high performance rates etc. SONET is being used in the customers’ self-governance or in a joint central office. Their main objective is to achieve WAN connectivity. SONET is being used for the transporting process of the ATM, Frame relay, DS-1, IP etc. to other services. This is done by the support of hub based & ring based configuration. The most popular SONET topology is ring based configuration. It helps in the network’s survivability. Implementation of dual ring configuration is required to achieve further more survivability.
  • 25.
    SONET Page 25 of32 SONET SIGNAL:- The SONET technology carries signals containing various capacities across the synchronous & flexible hierarchy that achieves the bytes provided multiplexing connive. It is also simplified with the byte provided to it. The first step in SONET multiplexing is to create the base signal which operates at the speed of 51.84 Mbps. It is also regarded as Synchronous Transport Signal, level 1 (STS-1). Generations of the family of STS-N signals takes place by the occurrence of various levels. Here is the table defining the OC as well as the synchronous signals. THE BASIC UNIT OF TRANSMISSION IN SONET:-
  • 26.
    SONET Page 26 of32 In SONET, STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1) is the basic unit of framing. It operates at 155.52 Mbps. We know that SONET refers to it as the STS-3c (Synchronous Transport Signal, concatenated 3).This depends on whether the signal is carried optically or electrically. However, its bit rate, frame size& function is same to the STM-1. Again, it is known that the SONET offer additional basic unit of transmission. The speed of operation is 51.84 Mbps which is the one third to STM-1, STS-3c & OC-3c carrier. This speed is determined to bandwidth specification for PCM encoded voice in telephone signals at the rate in which a STS-1 & OC-1 circuit carry bandwidth equal to the standard DS-3 channel. DS-3 channel carries 672.64 Kbps voice. STS-3c & OC-3c signals are composed of three multiplexed STS-1 signal. Even STM-0 is support the SONET equivalent to the STS-1 & OC-1. 1. Framing:- Packet oriented data transmission like Ethernet usually contain a packet frame of header & a payload. Here at first the header is transmitted then the payload. However, in SONET this is slightly modified. Instead of transmitting the payload first, the header is termed as the overhead is interleaved during the transmission with it. First part of the overhead is transmitted & next the part of payload. Again, the part of overhead then part of payload till the whole frame’s transmission is completed. The frame is of size 810 octets in the case of the STS-1 whereas the STM-1 & STS -3c frame is of 2430 octets. The frame is transmitted 3 octets overhead for STS-1 with payload of 87 octets. This process repeats for nine times till 810 octets is transmitted per 125 Mbps. 9 octets of overhead are transmitted following 261 octets of payload in STS-3c & STM-1 that functions thrice fast than STS-1. This process again repeats till nine time. By this time 2430 octets is transmitted per 125 Mbps. This is represented displaying frame graphically in SONET in 90 columns & 9 rows to the STS-1 & 270 columns & 9 rows to the STM-1 & STS-3c. Thus, overhead as contiguous block like payload in this representation. We use STS-1 & 270 columns interchangeably in practice. However, the OC designations refer to signals in optical form. Thus, it is inaccurate to say that OC-3 consists three layers. But we can say that it consist three STS-1s.
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    SONET Page 27 of32 2. SDH frame:- The first 9 columns are the overhead & the pointers in STM-1 frame. For simplicity, frame here is shown rectangular with 270 columns & 9 rows. However, the bytes are not transmitted in this order by the protocol.
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    SONET Page 28 of32 We know that STM-1 frame transmits in 125 Mbps. So, on a fiber optic circuit of 155.52 Mbps OC-3, there are about 8,000 frames. This frame contains pointers, overhead & Information Payload (IP). Administrative Unit Pointers (AUP) & Section Overhead (SO) is made up of the first 9 columns of the frame. The remaining 261 columns makes Information Payload. Within the information payload, Administration Units (AU) are identified by the pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes). Hence, after accounting for the overhead, OC-3 circuit carries 150.336 Mbps of payload. Administrative Units are carried within information payload, with their own frame structures consisting 261 columns & 9 rows recognized by pointers. There are more than one virtual containers (VC) within the Administrative Units too which consists of VC payload & path overhead. We know that path overhead is at the first column which is followed by the payload container. The pointer indicates the row four where the Administrative Units contain their phase alignment inside STM frame.
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    SONET Page 29 of32 Now the section overhead is divided into two groups. They are Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) & Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH). Te information gained by the overhead from transmission system is then utilized for a broad range of the management function. This can be for service channels, detecting failures data communication monitoring transmission quality etc. Byte-by-byte & row-by-row is a serial fashion how the STM is transmitted in a continuous way. 3. Transport overhead:- For measuring & signaling transmission error rates the transport overhead is used. It is composed in the following way:-  Section overhead:- It is called Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) in SONET terminology. Here, there are 27 octets which consist of information related to frame structure that is needed along the end equipment.  Line overhead:- It is called Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH) in SONET terminology. Here, there are 45 octets which consist of information related to the Automatic Protection Switching messages like maintenance messages, alarms & error correction as they may be needed along networks.  AU Pointer:- It points towards location of first byte in the virtual container i.e. J1 byte in the payload. 4. Path virtual envelope:- Path data is the data transmitted from end to end. It is broken down into two parts:-  Payload overhead (POH):- Payload overhead employs 9 octets for end-to-end error measurement & signaling.
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    SONET Page 30 of32  Payload:- STS-1 payload carries a complete PDH DS3 frames. Path overhead is added when the DS3 enters a SONET network. The SONET network element entering the SONET network is the path terminator or the generator. If the path or the line ended then the section is terminated too. It is known that the line or the path is terminated by the SONET regenerators. To form other degree of the SONET hierarchy, three STS-1 signals are multiplexed. This signal multiplexed by the interleaving bytes of 3 STS-1 frame forms STS-3 frames which consists 2,430 bytes that transmits in 125 Mbps. We know that Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) are the circuits which are used as the basis to long haul circuits & all modern submarine communication cable systems. COST:- However, the SONET technology is costly. It provides its services at about 20% higer than the other services in the market. Again, the prediction of the SONET technology’s world market is increasingly 17.4 % every year. This has proved that the SONET technology is going to rule the entire world in the near future. CONCLUSION:- We have now come to know that the SONET has specialized various standards needed to insure data communication & efficiency. This has supported a lot to the customers in the standard communication. Applications like teleconferencing, HDTV etc. has been created with the combination of the telephone & data communication. These need a high mass of bandwidth. It is known that it is only SONET that provides the large amount of bandwidth. SONET has a speed of 10 Gbps for the data communication & voice traffic. This is why all the vendors have realized the importance of the SONET technology.
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    SONET Page 31 of32 Now we have been cleared that the SONET is the only technology which is most efficient to every users in the whole world. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:- I have worked hard to make this project a reliable & appreciable to everyone. I have gone through the various curriculums, deeply on SONET to make my project much worthy. During this course I have gone through many related websites links & done a deep research related to SONET. My special thanks goes to Lecturer Mr. Ayush Mani Subedi. He has played a vital role by assisting me in collecting & suggesting me to include all the fundamental features & functions regarding SONET. Moreover, I would like to express my best gratitude to my colleagues Hem Lal Thapa, Pemba Sherpa & Anjan Lal Shrestha who assisted me technically & morally throughout my project.
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    SONET Page 32 of32 REFRENCES:-  Webpage Links:- - http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=207844462582907&set=a.207118549322 165.57001.100000720657990&type=3&theater - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking - http://www.multiplexes.xn--generatorskrtumd5-ryb.lubin.pl/p- Synchronous_optical_networking - http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb727043.aspx - http://www.networkdictionary.com/networking/WideAreaNetwork.php? - http://www.medbib.com/SONET - http://compnetworking.miningco.com/library/weekly/aa092800a.htm - http://people.cs.uct.ac.za/~gsaul/abhoopchand/files/bn_report.pdf - http://www.electrosofts.com/sonet/ - http://www.baker.karoo.net/work/sdh.pdf - http://www.bcdforum.org/public/library/glossary.html - http://www.daverhoades.com/computerease/?cat=6