Solar energy originates from the thermonuclear fusion reactions of the sun. It represents the entire electromagnetic radiation that reaches Earth and has powered life for millions of years. Solar energy can be used to heat living spaces and water through solar collectors that absorb sunlight and storage systems. Photovoltaics directly convert sunlight into electricity using solar cells made of semiconducting materials like silicon that generate electron-hole pairs when struck by photons. The p-n junction in solar cells allows current to flow in one direction, producing electricity from sunlight.
Q: What is photovoltaics (solar electricity) or "PV"?
A: What do we mean by photovoltaics? The word itself helps to explain how photovoltaic (PV) or solar
electric technologies work. First used in about 1890, the word has two parts: photo, a stem derived from
the Greek phos, which means light, and volt, a measurement unit named for Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of electricity. So, photovoltaics could literally be translated as
light-electricity. And that's just what photovoltaic materials and devices do; they convert light energy to
electricity, as Edmond Becquerel and others discovered in the 18th Century.
Q: How can we get electricity from the sun?
A: When certain semiconducting materials, such as certain kinds of silicon, are exposed to sunlight, they
release small amounts of electricity. This process is known as the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric
effect refers to the emission, or ejection, of electrons from the surface of a metal in response to light. It
is the basic physical process in which a solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight to
electricity.
Sunlight is made up of photons, or particles of solar energy. Photons contain various amounts of energy,
corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they
may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. Only the absorbed photons generate
electricity. When this happens, the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the
PV cell (which is actually a semiconductor).
With its newfound energy, the electron escapes from its normal position in an atom of the
semiconductor material and becomes part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving its position,
the electron causes a hole to form. Special electrical properties of the PV cell—a built-in electric
field—provide the voltage needed to drive the current through an external load (such as a light bulb).
Q: What are the components of a photovoltaic (PV) system?
A: A PV system is made up of different components. These include PV modules (groups of PV cells),
which are commonly called PV panels; one or more batteries; a charge regulator or controller for a
stand-alone system; an inverter for a utility-grid-connected system and when alternating current (ac)
rather than direct current (dc) is required; wiring; and mounting hardware or a framework.
Q: How long do photovoltaic (PV) systems last?
A: A PV system that is designed, installed, and maintained well will operate for more than 20 years. The
basic PV module (interconnected, enclosed panel of PV cells) has no moving parts and can last more than
30 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by having it
installed and maintained properly. Experience has shown that most problems occur because of poor or
sloppy system installation.
Q: What is photovoltaics (solar electricity) or "PV"?
A: What do we mean by photovoltaics? The word itself helps to explain how photovoltaic (PV) or solar
electric technologies work. First used in about 1890, the word has two parts: photo, a stem derived from
the Greek phos, which means light, and volt, a measurement unit named for Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of electricity. So, photovoltaics could literally be translated as
light-electricity. And that's just what photovoltaic materials and devices do; they convert light energy to
electricity, as Edmond Becquerel and others discovered in the 18th Century.
Q: How can we get electricity from the sun?
A: When certain semiconducting materials, such as certain kinds of silicon, are exposed to sunlight, they
release small amounts of electricity. This process is known as the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric
effect refers to the emission, or ejection, of electrons from the surface of a metal in response to light. It
is the basic physical process in which a solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight to
electricity.
Sunlight is made up of photons, or particles of solar energy. Photons contain various amounts of energy,
corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they
may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. Only the absorbed photons generate
electricity. When this happens, the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the
PV cell (which is actually a semiconductor).
With its newfound energy, the electron escapes from its normal position in an atom of the
semiconductor material and becomes part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving its position,
the electron causes a hole to form. Special electrical properties of the PV cell—a built-in electric
field—provide the voltage needed to drive the current through an external load (such as a light bulb).
Q: What are the components of a photovoltaic (PV) system?
A: A PV system is made up of different components. These include PV modules (groups of PV cells),
which are commonly called PV panels; one or more batteries; a charge regulator or controller for a
stand-alone system; an inverter for a utility-grid-connected system and when alternating current (ac)
rather than direct current (dc) is required; wiring; and mounting hardware or a framework.
Q: How long do photovoltaic (PV) systems last?
A: A PV system that is designed, installed, and maintained well will operate for more than 20 years. The
basic PV module (interconnected, enclosed panel of PV cells) has no moving parts and can last more than
30 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by having it
installed and maintained properly. Experience has shown that most problems occur because of poor or
sloppy system installation.
Photovoltaics or solar cells technology opportunity and challengesHemant Kumar Singh
Photovoltaics or solar cells technology opportunity and challenges is a quick presentation to give an outlook of PV development and its potential use in different field.
The World runs on Energy. Energy is One of the basic need without which nothing exists. In this paper the role Nantenna system in transforming thermal and solar energy into electricity. Nanoantenna’s Target the mid infrared rays where Photovoltaic cells become inefficient. Infrared radiation is one of the rich energy source. It is also generated by industry people. Solar cells become inefficient during night times or when there is no light but Nantenna even work at night times. The operating mechanism, production is illustrated. Differences, Applications, Advantages and limitations of Nantenna is discussed in the paper. By this cutting-edge technology Free and Clean Energy can be utilized to the maximum extent
introduction,advantage and disadvantage of solar energy,Generation of solar cell: 1st 2nd 3rd generation solar cell , I-V characteristics, working,application, efficiency data and advantage solar cell.
In this Presentation on solar cell is most effect for student of class 12
Contents:
Introduction to Solar Cells .
* The working principal of a solar cell .
* Types of solar cells.
* Working and construction.
* Benefit and disadvantages.
* application.
* Summary.
A complete presentation on solar cells.
It includes working of solar cells,solar cell Models, parameters,Applications,solar energy harvesting,Generation wise comparison of solar cells,Kitchen made solar cells.This presentation can be a wild card entry to the arena of solar cells.
Photovoltaics or solar cells technology opportunity and challengesHemant Kumar Singh
Photovoltaics or solar cells technology opportunity and challenges is a quick presentation to give an outlook of PV development and its potential use in different field.
The World runs on Energy. Energy is One of the basic need without which nothing exists. In this paper the role Nantenna system in transforming thermal and solar energy into electricity. Nanoantenna’s Target the mid infrared rays where Photovoltaic cells become inefficient. Infrared radiation is one of the rich energy source. It is also generated by industry people. Solar cells become inefficient during night times or when there is no light but Nantenna even work at night times. The operating mechanism, production is illustrated. Differences, Applications, Advantages and limitations of Nantenna is discussed in the paper. By this cutting-edge technology Free and Clean Energy can be utilized to the maximum extent
introduction,advantage and disadvantage of solar energy,Generation of solar cell: 1st 2nd 3rd generation solar cell , I-V characteristics, working,application, efficiency data and advantage solar cell.
In this Presentation on solar cell is most effect for student of class 12
Contents:
Introduction to Solar Cells .
* The working principal of a solar cell .
* Types of solar cells.
* Working and construction.
* Benefit and disadvantages.
* application.
* Summary.
A complete presentation on solar cells.
It includes working of solar cells,solar cell Models, parameters,Applications,solar energy harvesting,Generation wise comparison of solar cells,Kitchen made solar cells.This presentation can be a wild card entry to the arena of solar cells.
it describes about electron beam characteristics and applications and it outlines the following topics introduction, E-beam processing, E-beam equipment and applications.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
2. What is Solar Energy?What is Solar Energy?
Originates with theOriginates with the
thermonuclear fusionthermonuclear fusion
reactions occurring in thereactions occurring in the
sun.sun.
Represents the entireRepresents the entire
electromagnetic radiationelectromagnetic radiation
(visible light, infrared,(visible light, infrared,
ultraviolet, x-rays, and radioultraviolet, x-rays, and radio
waves).waves).
Radiant energy from the sunRadiant energy from the sun
has powered life on Earth forhas powered life on Earth for
many millions of years.many millions of years.
3. Advantages and DisadvantagesAdvantages and Disadvantages
AdvantagesAdvantages
All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of theAll chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the
thermonuclear reactions remain behind on the sun, while only purethermonuclear reactions remain behind on the sun, while only pure
radiant energy reaches the Earth.radiant energy reaches the Earth.
Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 daysEnergy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 days
of sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the totalof sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the total
of all the planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused!of all the planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused!
DisadvantagesDisadvantages
Sun does not shine consistently.Sun does not shine consistently.
Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate itSolar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate it
into an amount and form that we can use, such as heat and electricity.into an amount and form that we can use, such as heat and electricity.
Addressed by approaching the problem through:Addressed by approaching the problem through:
1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.
4. Solar Energy toSolar Energy to Heat Living SpacesHeat Living Spaces
Proper design of a building is for it to act as a solarProper design of a building is for it to act as a solar
collector and storage unit. This is achieved throughcollector and storage unit. This is achieved through
three elements: insulation, collection, and storage.three elements: insulation, collection, and storage.
5. Solar Energy to Heat WaterSolar Energy to Heat Water
A flat-plate collector is usedA flat-plate collector is used
to absorb the sun’s energy toto absorb the sun’s energy to
heat the water.heat the water.
The water circulatesThe water circulates
throughout the closed systemthroughout the closed system
due to convection currents.due to convection currents.
Tanks of hot water are usedTanks of hot water are used
as storage.as storage.
7. Solar Cells BackgroundSolar Cells Background
1839 - French physicist A. E. Becquerel first recognized the photovoltaic1839 - French physicist A. E. Becquerel first recognized the photovoltaic
effect.effect.
1883 - first solar cell built, by Charles Fritts, coated semiconductor1883 - first solar cell built, by Charles Fritts, coated semiconductor
selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions.selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions.
1954 - Bell Laboratories, experimenting with semiconductors, accidentally1954 - Bell Laboratories, experimenting with semiconductors, accidentally
found that silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light.found that silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light.
Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson, invented the firstDaryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson, invented the first
practical device for converting sunlight into useful electrical power.practical device for converting sunlight into useful electrical power.
Resulted in the production of the first practical solar cells with a sunlightResulted in the production of the first practical solar cells with a sunlight
energy conversion efficiency of around 6%.energy conversion efficiency of around 6%.
1958 - First spacecraft to use solar panels was US satellite Vanguard 11958 - First spacecraft to use solar panels was US satellite Vanguard 1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
8. Driven by Space Applications inDriven by Space Applications in
Early DaysEarly Days
9. The heart of a photovoltaic system is a solid-state device called aThe heart of a photovoltaic system is a solid-state device called a
solar cell.solar cell.
How does it workHow does it work
10. Energy Band Formation in SolidEnergy Band Formation in Solid
Each isolated atom has discrete energy level, with two electrons of
opposite spin occupying a state.
When atoms are brought into close contact, these energy levels split.
If there are a large number of atoms, the discrete energy levels form a
“continuous” band.
11. Energy Band Diagram of a Conductor,Energy Band Diagram of a Conductor,
Semiconductor, and InsulatorSemiconductor, and Insulator
a conductor a semiconductor an insulator
Semiconductor is interest because their conductivity can be readily modulated
(by impurity doping or electrical potential), offering a pathway to control electronic
circuits.
12. SiliconSilicon
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
-
Si Si Si
Si
SiSi
Si
Si
Si
Shared electrons
Silicon is group IV element – with 4 electrons in their valence shell.
When silicon atoms are brought together, each atom forms covalent
bond with 4 silicon atoms in a tetrahedron geometry.
13. Intrinsic SemiconductorIntrinsic Semiconductor
At 0 ºK, each electron is in its lowest energy state
so each covalent bond position is filled. If a small
electric field is applied to the material, no electrons
will move because they are bound to their individual
atoms.
=> At 0 ºK, silicon is an insulator.
As temperature increases, the valence electrons
gain thermal energy. If a valence electron gains
enough energy (Eg), it may break its covalent bond
and move away from its original position. This
electron is free to move within the crystal.
Conductor Eg <0.1eV, many electrons can be
thermally excited at room temperature.
Semiconductor Eg ~1eV, a few electrons can be
excited (e.g. 1/billion)
Insulator, Eg >3-5eV, essentially no electron can
be thermally excited at room temperature.
14. Extrinsic Semiconductor, n-type DopingExtrinsic Semiconductor, n-type Doping
Electron
-
Si Si Si
Si
SiSi
Si
Si
As
Extra
Valence band, Ev
Eg = 1.1 eV
Conducting band, Ec
Ed ~ 0.05 eV
Doping silicon lattice with group V elements can creates extra
electrons in the conduction band — negative charge carriers (n-type), As-
donor.
Doping concentration #/cm3
(1016
/cm3
~ 1/million).
15. Valence band, Ev
Eg = 1.1 eV
Conducting band, Ec
Ea ~ 0.05 eV
Electron
-
Si Si Si
Si
SiSi
Si
Si
B
Hole
Doping silicon with group III elements can creates empty holes in the
conduction band — positive charge carriers (p-type), B-(acceptor).
Extrinsic Semiconductor, p-type dopingExtrinsic Semiconductor, p-type doping
16. V
I
R O F
p n
p n
V>0 V<0
Reverse bias Forward bias
p-n Junction (p-n diode)p-n Junction (p-n diode)
A p-n junction is a junction formed by combining p-type and n-type
semiconductors together in very close contact.
In p-n junction, the current is only allowed to flow along one
direction from p-type to n-type materials.
i
p n
V<0 V>0
depletion layer
- +
17. Solar Cells
Light-emitting Diodes
Diode Lasers
Photodetectors
Transistors
p-n Junction (p-n diode)p-n Junction (p-n diode)
A p-n junction is the basic device component for many
functional electronic devices listed above.
18. How Solar Cells WorkHow Solar Cells Work
Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials
to create electron hole pairs.
Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to
flow through the material to produce electricity.
p n
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
hv > Eg
19. The Impact of Band Gap on EfficiencyThe Impact of Band Gap on Efficiency
Efficiency,Efficiency, ηη = (V= (VococIIscscFF)/PFF)/Pinin VVococ ∝∝ EEgg, I, Iscsc ∝∝ # of absorbed photons# of absorbed photons
Decrease EDecrease Egg, absorb more of the spectrum, absorb more of the spectrum
But not without sacrificing output voltageBut not without sacrificing output voltage
hv > Eg
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
CurrentDensity(mA/cm2
)
1.00.80.60.40.20.0
Voltage (volts)
Jsc
Voc
FF
Dark
Light
Jmp
Vmp
Fill Factor, FF = (VmpImp)/VocIsc
Efficiency, η = (VocIscFF)/Pin
20. Cost vs. Efficiency TradeoffCost vs. Efficiency Tradeoff
Efficiency ∝ τ1/2
Long d
High τ
High Cost
d
Long d
Low τ
Lower Cost
d
τ decreases as grain size (and cost) decreases
Large Grain
Single
Crystals
Small Grain
and/or
Polycrystalline
Solids
21. Cost/Efficiency of Photovoltaic TechnologyCost/Efficiency of Photovoltaic Technology
Costs are modules per peak W; $0.35-$1.5/kW-hr
22. 89.6% of 2007 Production89.6% of 2007 Production
45.2% Single Crystal Si45.2% Single Crystal Si
42.2% Multi-crystal SI42.2% Multi-crystal SI
Limit efficiency 31%Limit efficiency 31%
Single crystal silicon - 16-19%Single crystal silicon - 16-19%
efficiencyefficiency
Multi-crystal silicon - 14-15%Multi-crystal silicon - 14-15%
efficiencyefficiency
Best efficiency by SunPower Inc 22%Best efficiency by SunPower Inc 22%
Silicon Cell Average Efficiency
First GenerationFirst Generation
–– Single Junction Silicon CellsSingle Junction Silicon Cells
23. CdTe 4.7% & CIGS 0.5% of 2007 ProductionCdTe 4.7% & CIGS 0.5% of 2007 Production
New materials and processes to improve efficiencyNew materials and processes to improve efficiency
and reduce cost.and reduce cost.
Thin film cells use about 1% of the expensiveThin film cells use about 1% of the expensive
semiconductors compared to First Generation cells.semiconductors compared to First Generation cells.
CdTe – 8 – 11% efficiency (18% demonstrated)CdTe – 8 – 11% efficiency (18% demonstrated)
CIGS – 7-11% efficiency (20% demonstrated)CIGS – 7-11% efficiency (20% demonstrated)
Second GenerationSecond Generation
–– Thin Film CellsThin Film Cells
24. Enhance poor electrical performance while maintaining very lowEnhance poor electrical performance while maintaining very low
production costs.production costs.
Current research is targetingCurrent research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60%conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while retainingwhile retaining
low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.
Multi-junction cells – 30% efficiency (40-43% demonstrated)Multi-junction cells – 30% efficiency (40-43% demonstrated)
Third GenerationThird Generation
–– Multi-junction CellsMulti-junction Cells
28. Renewable Energy ConsumptionRenewable Energy Consumption
in the US Energy Supply, 2007in the US Energy Supply, 2007
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/highlight1.html
29. Top 10 PV Cell ProducersTop 10 PV Cell Producers
Top 10 produce 53% of world
total
Q-Cells, SolarWorld - Germany
Sharp, Kyocera, Sharp, Sanyo –
Japan
Suntech, Yingli, JA Solar –
China
Motech - Taiwan
30. (in the U.S. in 2002)
1-4
¢
2.3-5.0 ¢ 6-8
¢
5-7
¢
Production Cost of ElectricityProduction Cost of Electricity
0
5
10
15
20
25
C o al G a s O il W ind Nucle ar S o la r
C o s t
6-7
¢
25-50 ¢
Cost,¢/kW-hr
32. Organic Photovoltaics Convert Sunlight intoOrganic Photovoltaics Convert Sunlight into
Electrical Power.Electrical Power.
n
Trans-polyacetylene (t-PA)
S
n
Polythiophene (PT)
N
H
n
Polypyrrole (PPY)
Absorption of light is inherently on the nanoscale
Conventional materials such as Si and GaAs do a good job but are too expensive and can not be manufactured like printing the newspaper
Nanomaterials offer the ability to get good light absorption in flexible formats
Interpenetrating networks on the nanoscale offer the opportunity to get high performance charge collection from low cost materials