The document summarizes various sedimentary environments including terrestrial, coastal/marginal marine, and marine settings. It describes key characteristics of fluvial, eolian desert, lacustrine, paludal, deltaic, beach/barrier island, estuarine, lagoonal, tidal flat, continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise, and abyssal plain environments. Sedimentary rocks form under unique physical, chemical, and biological conditions that are determined by factors like water depth, energy levels, sediment sources, and biological activity in each depositional environment.
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
A lacustrine environment is a type of aquatic environment that is characterized by a large body of standing water, such as a lake. Lacustrine environments are typically low-energy environments, meaning that the water is relatively calm and there is little wave action. This allows for the deposition of fine-grained sediments, such as silt and clay.
Lacustrine environments are home to a variety of plants and animals, including algae, fish, and amphibians. The types of plants and animals that live in a lacustrine environment will vary depending on the climate, the depth of the water, and the nutrient content of the water.
Lacustrine environments are important for a number of reasons. They provide a habitat for a variety of plants and animals. They also help to regulate the water cycle and to prevent flooding. Lacustrine environments can also be used for recreation, such as swimming, fishing, and boating.
Here are some of the characteristics of lacustrine environments:
Low-energy: Lacustrine environments are typically low-energy environments, meaning that the water is relatively calm and there is little wave action. This allows for the deposition of fine-grained sediments, such as silt and clay.
Variety of plants and animals: Lacustrine environments are home to a variety of plants and animals, including algae, fish, and amphibians. The types of plants and animals that live in a lacustrine environment will vary depending on the climate, the depth of the water, and the nutrient content of the water.
Important for water regulation: Lacustrine environments are important for a number of reasons. They provide a habitat for a variety of plants and animals. They also help to regulate the water cycle and to prevent flooding.
Used for recreation: Lacustrine environments can also be used for recreation, such as swimming, fishing, and boating.
Here are some examples of lacustrine environments:
Lakes: Lakes are the most common type of lacustrine environment. They are typically formed by glacial activity, volcanic activity, or tectonic activity.
Oxbow lakes: Oxbow lakes are formed when a river bends and then cuts off, leaving a crescent-shaped lake behind.
Crater lakes: Crater lakes are formed when a volcano erupts and collapses, leaving a depression that fills with water.
Lakes can be formed in a variety of ways, but the most common are:
Glacial activity: Glaciers are large masses of ice that slowly move across the land, carving out depressions as they go. When a glacier melts, the depression is filled with water, forming a lake.
Glacial activity lake formationOpens in a new window
www.pmfias.com
Glacial activity lake formation
Volcanic activity: When a volcano erupts, it can leave behind a crater that fills with water, forming a lake.
Volcanic activity lake formationOpens in a new window
www.nps.gov
Volcanic activity lake formation
Tectonic activity: Tectonic activity is the movement of the Earth's plates. When tectonic plates move, they can create cracks
This is a topic of Sequence stratigraphy in which I briefly describe about basin , formation of basin , Types , different basin of Pakistan and worldwide distribution of these basins.
A brief view about the Extraction of Petroleum products from subsurface by using different methods.
Muhammad Wajid Manzoor
Institute of Geology
Punjab University Lahore, Pakistan
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. Introduction
The sedimentary environment is the specific depositional setting of a
particular sedimentary rock and is unique in terms of physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics.
The physical features of a sedimentary environment include water depth
and the velocity and persistence of water.
Chemical characteristics of an environment include the salinity
(proportion of dissolved salts), acidity or basicity (pH), oxidation potential
(Eh), pressure, and temperature.
The biological characteristics are mainly the assemblage of fauna and
flora.
3. Classification
All environments of deposition belong to one of three settings:
Terrestrial/continental
Coastal (or marginal marine)
Marine.
Sub environments, each with their own characteristic environmental
factors and sedimentary deposits, make up a sedimentary environment.
4.
5. Terrestrial Environments
Facies deposited in continental environment are dominantly siliciclastic
sediments.
They characterized by general scarcity of fossils and complete absence
of marine fossils.
Non siliciclastic sediments also occur in continental environment but they
are sub ordinate to siliciclastic sediments.
Continental sedimentary rocks are less abundant overall than marine and
marginal marine rocks.
6. Fluvial Systems
Desert areas to humid glacial regions.
Two broad environmental settings:
Alluvial fans
River systems
7. Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are deposits with fan shaped approximating a segment of a
cone and exhibiting convex-up cross sectional profile.
Sediments are poorly sorted.
Abundant gravel(>2mm) size detritus.
Generally formed at the base of a mountain range.
They occur both in sparsely vegetated arid and semiarid regions where
sediment supply is infrequent and in more humid areas where rainfall is
intense.
8.
9. Alluvial fans are classified into two types:
Debris flow dominated fans
Stream flow dominated fans
Debris flow dominated fans:
Poorly sorted
Lacking sedimentary structures
Impermeable and nonporous
Stream flow dominated fans:
Well sorted
Sedimentary structures
10. River systems
Channel Form:
The channel form of rivers can be described in term of deviation of channel
from a straight path, the number of channels, the degree of channel sub
division by large bedforms(bars), braiding.
Types:
Meandering(single channel)
Braided(multiple-channel)
Anastomising
11.
12. Factors influencing the sinuosity:
Magnitude and variability of stream discharge
Channel slope
Grain size of sediment
Bed roughness
The amount and kind of sediment load
Stability of channel banks
13. Eolian Desert Systems
Deserts are areas in which potential rates of evaporation greatly exceeds
rate of precipitation.
They cover about 20-25 % of land surface.
They have low rainfall approximately 25 mm/year.
Deserts lies 10-30 degrees north and south of equator.
They also lies in rain shadows of large mountain ranges.
Large areas of desert environment may indeed be carpeted by eolian
sand(>125 km2=sand seas or ergs).
14. Transport and Depositional Process
Vegetation is very sparse due to low rainfall.
When rain comes, due to lack of vegetation it creates flash floods.
Rain water move towards center of basin to create playas or inland
sabkhas.
These playas and sabkhas become sites of carbonate and evaporate
minerals.
Although, wind is the major agent of sediment transportation and
deposition.
15. Transport and Depositional Process
Transported in 3 ways:
o Traction
o Saltation
o Suspension
Traction and saltation is done by coarser sediment.
Suspension is done by finer size particles.
3 types of wind deposits:
Loess
Sand deposit
Lag gravel
16. Wind deposits
Loess:
Accumulates far from source.
Don’t have layers because particles are so fine.
Sand deposit:
Commonly well sorted.
Lag deposits:
Consisting of gravel size particles that are too longer to be transported by
wind and that form a deflation pavement.
17.
18. Lacustrine environments
Lakes cover about 1-2 percent of earth’s surface.
Lake chemistry is sensitive to climatic conditions, making lake sediments
useful indicators of past climate.
Lake sediments’ chemistry and mineralogy of wet and dry climates.
Lake sediments can have economically important oil shales, coal, uranium
and evaporate minerals.
2 types of lakes:
Open lake
Closed lake
19. How lakes are formed?
By faulting and Rifting
Glacial processes like ice scouring
Volcanic activity
Deflation by wind scour
Fluvial activity
20. Varves
Varves are thin alternating light and dark colored sediment layers.
Thicker, light colored coarse grained laminae shows summer conditions.
Thinner, finer grained , organic rich laminae form in winter months.
21.
22. Paludal Environment
HIGH amount of biological activity, so rocks of high organic content
Mixed muds & coal/peat/lignite, with some fluvial sediments cutting
through organic-rich shale and sandstone or coal deposits with thin
stringers of siltstone and shale.
Often associated with other environments (deltaic, fluvial, coastlines, etc.)
Low energy
Plant fossils are common in all stages of preservation.
27. Deltas
Deltas - form where rivers enter a standing body of water, slow down,
and deposit more sediment than can be removed by waves and currents.
Although deltas also from in lakes, the largest deltas occur in the oceans.
Many deltaic deposits resemble lake or shallow marine deposits at their
distal margins and fluvial deposits at their proximal margins.
Deltas consist of a subaerial delta plain or delta-top (gradational
upstream to a floodplain, and a subaqueous delta front (delta-
slope and prodelta
28.
29. The delta slope is commonly 1-2° and consists of finer (usually silty) facies;
the most distal prodelta is dominated by even finer sediment.
Fluvial dominated deltas:
Jet: discharge of river
Relationship between sediment laden inflowing water and receiving basin
influences shape of delta and sediment distribution.
Types:
Homopycnal deltas
Hypopycnal deltas
Hyperpycnal deltas
30. Homopycnal deltas:
Equal density
Thorough mixing
Abrupt deposition
Common at the mouths of coarse grained rivers
31.
32. Hyperpycnal flow:
River has high density than basin water
Flows beneath the basin water
Deposits on more gentle slopes of delta front
34. Hypopycnal flow :
River outflow is less dense
Flow outward on the top of the basin
As horizontally oriented plane
Fine sediments would be in suspension
Generate a large active delta front area
Most common type of delta flows.
38. Beach and barrier island systems
Mainland beaches are narrow accumulations of sand aligned parallel to
the shoreline and attached to the land.
Barrier islands are similar to the mainland beaches but are separated
from the mainland beaches by lagoons, eustary or a marsh.
Holocene beaches are more extensively studied because of their
recreational use, their accessibility, their economic potential(gold,
platinum, various minerals) and as erosion buffer between sea and the
land.
39.
40. Eustarine Systems
Eustary in a general sense are considered to be the lower portion of a
river open to the sea.
The seaward portion of a drowned valley system which receive sediment
from both fluvial and marine sources which contains facies influenced by
tide, wave and fluvial processes.
The estuary is considered to extent from the limit of tidal facies at it’s
head to the seaward side of coastal facies at it’s mouth.
41.
42. Lagoonal Systems
A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of
water by barrier islands or reefs.
Lagoons run parallel to the coast which is opposite to eustary which is
perpendicular to the coast.
Water may be fresh or saline.
May be connected to river or not.
Types:
Atoll lagoons
Coastal lagoons
43.
44.
45. Lagoons Types
Atoll lagoons:
A ring-shaped coral reef that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.
Coral reefs grow upward while the islands subside.
Depth may be >20m.
Coastal lagoons:
Form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off-
shore, and the sea-level is rising relative to the land along the shore.
Coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts
Due to the gentle slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow.
Coastal lagoons are usually connected to the open ocean by inlets between
barrier islands.
Salinity varies.
46.
47.
48. Tidal flats
Tidal Flats: low-energy mud flats between low and high tide.
They occur along open coasts of low relief and relatively low wave energy
or behind barriers on high energy coasts.
They occur within eustaries, bays and backshores of barrier island complexes
and deltas as well as along open coasts.
The tidal flat divided into 3 zones :
Supratidal Zone, the zone is influenced by extreme tides. This zone will
evaporation and produce crystal salt. This zone also called Sabkha.
Intertidal Zone, located on between high and low tide level. This zone occurs the
bedload and suspension load transportation.
Subtidal Zone, is under the water when low tide level. Tide influence in this
environment is very important especially at tidal channels, where bedload
transport and deposition are dominant.
51. Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is an underwater landmass which extends from
a continent, resulting in an area of relatively shallow water known as
a shelf sea.
The width of the continental shelf varies considerably.
The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km (50 mi).
The depth of the shelf also varies, but is generally limited to water
shallower than 150 m .
The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope[7] (called the shelf
break).
52. Continental Shelf
Sediments:
The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments.
little of the sediment is from current rivers; some 60-70% of the sediment
on the world's shelves is relict sediment.
Continental shelves are usually covered with a layer of sand, silts, and silty
muds.
Their surfaces exhibit some relief, featuring small hills and ridges that
alternate with shallow depressions and valley like troughs.
53.
54. Continental Slope
Extends from shelf break and lower boundary is typically located at water
depths ranging from 1500 to 4000 m depth.
They are comparatively narrow(10-100)km wide and dip seaward more
steeply than shelf.
The transition from continental crust to oceanic crust usually occurs
below the continental slope.
Mud dominates the continental slope. However, sand may also be found.
The continental slopes are temporary sites for deposition of sediments.
55. Continental Slope
The sediments get collected for a period of time until and unless the
structure becomes unstable.
When the edge becomes unstable it sloughs off and forms
the continental slope.
Sunlight does not penetrate these regions easily. Water pressures are
relatively high. The actual amount of sunlight that enters these water
bodies is mainly absorbed at the surface.
About one-half of all continental slopes descend into deep-sea
trenches or shallower depressions, and most of the remainder terminate
in fans of marine sediment or in continental rises.
56. Continental Slope
Beyond the shelf-slope break, the continental crust thins quickly, and
the rise lies partly on the continental crust and partly on the oceanic crust
of the deep sea.
58. Continental rise, a major depositional regime in oceans made up of thick
sequences of continental material that accumulate between
the continental slope and the abyssal plain.
Continental rises form as a result of three sedimentary processes:
mass wasting
the deposition from contour currents
and the vertical settling of clastic and biogenic particles.
59.
60. 3 types of deposits are there:
Turbidites
Contourites
Biogenic particles
61. Abyssal Plain
Abyssal plain, flat seafloor area at an abyssal depth (3,000 to 6,000 m)
larger plains are hundreds of kilometres wide and thousands of kilometres
long.
The plains are largest and most common in the Atlantic Ocean, less
common in the Indian Ocean.
Horizontal silty, sandy, and even gravelly beds that are fractions of a
centimetre to several metres thick comprise 2 to 90 percent of abyssal-
plain sediment.
The coarse layers are interbedded with homogeneous deposits of fine-
grained clay and the microscopic remains of organisms that inhabit the
waters overlying the abyssal plains.