THE various rocks are classified as according to rock mass classification system as it is used for used for various engineering design and stability analysis of underground structures.
Introduction
Water resources of India at a glance
Hydrogeological cycle
Exploration of groundwater
Groundwater potential zone
Indicators
Sensors
Rules for selection of imagery
Conclusion
Reference
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
It includes the definition, properties, classification of groundwater with appropriate examples and figures in details. It also deals about the formation of groundwater. The properties of aquifers (all of 7) are described here in details with figures and mathematical terms.
Sediment Transport Suspended Load - Khalid Arafat .pptxKhalidArafat1
Sediment is fragmental material, primarily formed by the physical and chemical desintegration of rocks from the earth's crust. Such particles range in size from large boulders to colloidal size fragments and vary in shape from rounded to angular. They also vary in specific gravity and mineral composition, the predominant material being quartz. Once the sediment particles are detached, they may either be transported by gravity, wind or/and water.
The most common modes of sediment transport in rivers are bedload and suspended load. As bedload, sediment particles saltate, roll, and slide, but always staying close to the bed. As suspend load, sediment is carried by the fluid turbulence up in the water column. In the case of river, the volume concentration of solids in the water column tends to be rather dilute even during large floods .
THE various rocks are classified as according to rock mass classification system as it is used for used for various engineering design and stability analysis of underground structures.
Introduction
Water resources of India at a glance
Hydrogeological cycle
Exploration of groundwater
Groundwater potential zone
Indicators
Sensors
Rules for selection of imagery
Conclusion
Reference
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
It includes the definition, properties, classification of groundwater with appropriate examples and figures in details. It also deals about the formation of groundwater. The properties of aquifers (all of 7) are described here in details with figures and mathematical terms.
Sediment Transport Suspended Load - Khalid Arafat .pptxKhalidArafat1
Sediment is fragmental material, primarily formed by the physical and chemical desintegration of rocks from the earth's crust. Such particles range in size from large boulders to colloidal size fragments and vary in shape from rounded to angular. They also vary in specific gravity and mineral composition, the predominant material being quartz. Once the sediment particles are detached, they may either be transported by gravity, wind or/and water.
The most common modes of sediment transport in rivers are bedload and suspended load. As bedload, sediment particles saltate, roll, and slide, but always staying close to the bed. As suspend load, sediment is carried by the fluid turbulence up in the water column. In the case of river, the volume concentration of solids in the water column tends to be rather dilute even during large floods .
Sediment Source and Transport in River Channels: Implications for River Struc...theijes
Rivers are important resources that play the role of life sustenance in nature by providing environmental, cultural and economic benefits including municipal water use, irrigation, hydropower, navigation, fishing and recreation. Since they are the corridors connecting terrestrial environment to the ocean realm, they always transport and accumulate sediments. Knowledge and understanding of sediment characteristics, channel processes, process of sediment source and transport in river channels is vital in modeling and managing rivers in terms of how they both transport and impact engineering structures erected on rivers. Although, ongoing research is beginning to fill in some of these gaps through the use of laboratory experiments and mathematical models, this has not been matched by sufficient progress in measuring and quantifying the bifurcation process in natural river channels, very often because natural rivers are far harder to study and the technology required still remains unavailable. When the rate of sediment influx is high along river channels, reservoirs in dams are filled up with sediment which might need dredging to remove the sediments. Also turbine blades of power plants are considerably disturbed as a result of sediment particles deposited on the blades; flow in culverts and around bridge piers are exposed to erosion of the bed thereby exposing the foundation. Problems arising from sediment transport and deposition can be mitigated by selecting suitable cross sections for the measurement of sediment flow rate parameters and removal of the sediment which would lead to the reduction of negative impacts on the river structures.
CAMBRIDGE GEOGRAPHY AS - HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY: 1.3 RIVER CHANN...George Dumitrache
Subchapter 3 in the first chapter of Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology, suitable for AS students, consisting in the following: river processes, velocity, flows and Hjulstrom Curve.
This book can be used to teach basic statistics for the 1st year college students and can also be used for O level and A level students and for also engineering students.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
2. Sediment Transport
Not all channels are formed in sediment and not all rivers transport sediment. Some
have been carved into bedrock, usually in headwater reaches of streams located high
in the mountains. These streams have channel forms that often are dominated by the
nature of the rock (of varying hardness and resistance to mechanical breakdown and
of varying joint definition, spacing and pattern) in which the channel has been cut.
Alluvial rivers; bed consists of sediment
(‘alluvium’ = river-associated sediment)
Downstream reaches
Bedrock rivers; part of the bed is bare
rock, where river cutting down
generally in upper reaches of rivers
6. Competence :
Competence refers to the largest size (diameter) of sediment particle or grain that the
flow is capable of moving; it is a hydraulic limitation. If a river is sluggish and
moving very slowly it simply may not have the power to mobilize and transport
sediment of a given size even though such sediment is available to transport. So a
river may be competent or incompetent with respect to a given grain size. If it is
incompetent it will not transport sediment of the given size. If it is competent it may
transport sediment of that size if such sediment is available
Capacity refers to the maximum amount of sediment of a given size that a stream can
transport in traction as bed load. Given a supply of sediment, capacity depends on
channel gradient and discharge. Capacity transport is the competence-limited sediment
transport (mass per unit time) predicted by all sediment-transport equations. Capacity
transport only occurs when sediment supply is abundant (non-limiting).
Capacity:
7. When a river eventually reaches the sea, its bed load
may consist mainly of sand and silt
The size of river sediment normally
decreases in size downstream, from
boulders in mountain streams to silt
and sand in major rivers because the
coarse bed load is gradually reduced
in size by abrasion.
Downstream Changes in Particle Size
Boulders > 256 mm
Cobbles 80 mm - 256 mm
Gravel 2 mm - 80 mm
Sand 0.05 mm - 2 mm
Silt 0.002 mm - 0.05 mm
Clay <0.002 mm
Sediment Size
8. Modes of Sediment Transport
The sediment load of a river is transported in various ways although these distinctions are to some
extent arbitrary and not always very practical in the sense that not all of the components can be
separated in practice:
1. Dissolved load
2. Suspended load
3. Wash load
4. Bed load
9. Bed-material load
Wash load
Suspended bed-material
load
Traction bed load
Suspended load
Bed load
Transport mechanisms depend on grain size at a particular flow rate
Observable difference
of transport state
Definition based on
measurement
technologies
Transport
mechanisms
10.
11. Dissolved load is material that has gone into solution and is part of the fluid moving
through the channel. The amount of material in solution depends on supply of a
solute and the saturation point for the fluid. For example, in limestone areas,
calcium carbonate may be at saturation level in river water and the dissolved load
may be close to the total sediment load of the river. In contrast, rivers draining
insoluble rocks, such as in granitic terrains, may be well below saturation levels for
most elements and dissolved load may be relatively small.
Total dissolved-material transport, Qs(d)(kg/s), depends on the dissolved load concentration
Co (kg/m3), and the stream discharge, Q (m3/s): Qs(d) = CoQ
The bulk of the dissolved content of most rivers consists of seven ionic species:
• Bicarbonate (HCO3
-)
• Calcium (Ca++)
• Sulfate (SO4
--)
• Chloride (Cl-)
• Sodium (Na+)
• Magnesium (Mg++)
• Potassium (K+)
• Dissolved silica as Si(OH)4
12. Suspended-sediment load is the clastic (particulate) material that moves through
the channel in the water column. These materials, mainly silt and sand, are kept in
suspension by the upward flux of turbulence generated at the bed of the channel.
The upward currents must equal or exceed the particle fall-velocity (Figure ) for
suspended-sediment load to be sustained.
13. Suspended-sediment concentration in rivers is measured with an instrument like
the DH48 suspended-sediment sampler shown in Figure. The sampler consists of
a cast housing with a nozzle at the front that allows water to enter and fill a
sample bottle. Air evacuated from the sample bottle is bled off through a small
valve on the side of the housing. The sampler can be lowered through the water
column on a cable. the sampler is lowered from the water-surface to the bed and
up to the surface again at a constant rate so that a depth-integrated suspended
sediment sample is collected.
The instrument must be lowered at a constant rate such that the sample bottle
will almost but not quite fill by the time it returns to the surface. The sample
bottle is then removed and capped and returned to the laboratory where the
fluid volume and sediment mass is determined for the calculation of
suspended-sediment concentration.
14. Although wash load is part of the suspended-sediment load it is useful here to make a
distinction. Unlike most suspended-sediment load, wash load does not rely on the
force of mechanical turbulence generated by flowing water to keep it in suspension.
It is so fine (in the clay range) that it is kept in suspension by thermal molecular
agitation (sometimes known as Brownian motion, named for the early 19th-century
botanist who described the random motion of microscopic pollen spores and dust).
Because these clays are always in suspension, wash load is that component of the
particulate or clastic load that is “washed” through the river system.
Unlike coarser suspended-sediment, wash load tends to be uniformly distributed
throughout the water column. That is, unlike the coarser load, it does not vary with
height above the bed.
15. Bed Load (Traction Load)
Bed load is the clastic (particulate) material that moves through the channel fully
supported by the channel bed itself. These materials, mainly sand and gravel, are
kept in motion (rolling and sliding) by the shear stress acting at the boundary. Unlike
the suspended load, the bed-load component is almost always capacity limited (that
is, a function of hydraulics rather than supply). A distinction is often made between
the bed-material load and the bed load.
• Bed-material load is that part of the sediment load found in appreciable
quantities in the bed (generally > 0.062 mm in diameter) and is collected in a
bed-load sampler. That is, the bed material is the source of this load component
and it includes particles that slide and roll along the bed (in bed-load transport)
but also those near the bed transported in saltation or suspension.
Bedload Sampler- US BL-84
16. Mechanics of saltation – which involves kinetic energy
transfer between bouncing particles
• The suspended sediment load is transported by the river’s current, aided by buoyancy
• The bed load is the coarse grained fraction that is transported via rolling, sliding, and saltation (shown at right) along the channel bed
The bed load generally constitutes between 5 and 20 percent of the total load of a stream
Particles move discontinuously by rolling or sliding at a
slower velocity than the stream water
17.
18. • Sieve diameter – the finest mesh that a
particle can pass through;
• Sedimentation diameter – diameter of a
sphere with the same settling velocity;
• Nominal diameter – diameter of a
sphere with the same volume.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25. Empirical formulae developed for bed load, suspended load and total sediment
transport rate using laboratory and field data.
They are based on hydraulic and sediment conditions – Water depth, velocity, slope
and average sand diameter etc.
There can be significant differences between predicted and measured sediment
transport rates, WHY?
Development of Sediment Transport Formulae
These differences are due to change in:
- Water temperature,
- Effect of fine sediment,
- Bed roughness,
- Armouring, and
- Inherent difficulties in measuring total sediment discharge.
Use of most appropriate formula based on the availability of conditions,
experience and knowledge of the engineer.
Armoring occurs when the bed surface of gravel-bed rivers is coarsened relative to the sub-surface.
Flow develops shear stresses less than required to move large particles, but large enough to move fines.
Flow entrains fine particles, winnowing them from bed surface
Coarse layer forms, sheltering fine grains
Coarse layer increases resistance to entrainment
26.
27.
28.
29. 1. Bedload Formula – Meyer-Peter & Müller (1948)
2
/
3
*
c
S
*
b )
F
F
(
8
q
Critical Shields
Parameter = 0.047
)
1
(
s
gD
o
1
s
gD
D
qsb
Where D is average sand diameter
2
/
3
)
047
.
0
(
8
1
s
sb F
s
gD
D
q
Valid for D > 3.0mm
Sediment Flow Rate m3/s/m
The Shields diagram empirically shows how the dimensionless critical shear stress required
for the initiation of motion is a function of a particular form of the particle Reynolds number,
Rep or Reynolds number related to the particle.
30. 2. Total Sediment Transport Load – Ackers & White’s Formula (1973)
Dimensionless Grain Diameter
3
/
1
2
1
)
(
s
gr
g
D
D
Mobility Number
n
m
s
n
gr
D
D
V
gD
u
F
1
*
10
log
32
1
)
(
Flow velocity
Hydraulic
mean depth
n
m
m
gr
gr
s
u
V
D
qD
A
F
C
q
*
1
Sediment Flow Rate m3/s/m
Flow discharge
31. 3. Total Sediment Transport Load – Engelund/Hansen’s (1967) Formula
2
/
5
/
1
.
0
f
2
/ 2
V
gSy
f
Friction factor
2
/
1
3
gD
q s
s
t
D
s )
(
Shields Parameter
3
50
/
2
/
5
)
1
(
1
.
0
D
s
g
f
q s
t
Sediment transport load N/s/m
32. Van Rijn’s Formula:
Where “Ca is the suspended sediment concentration,
“ X1”and “X2” are the parameters, D50 is the sediment particle diameter, ρS is the
density of sediments (2650 kg/m3), ρW is the density of water(1000kg/m3),υ is the
kinematic viscosity of water (10-6 m2/s) and g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81
N/m2), τ is the shear stress and τc is the critical bed shear stress determined by the
following equation (2)
𝐶𝑎 = 𝑋1
𝐷50
𝑋2
[
𝜏−𝜏𝑐
𝜏𝑐
]1.5
{𝐷50[
(𝜌𝑠−𝜌𝑤 )𝑔
𝜌𝑤 𝜐2 ]
1
3
}0.3
− − − (1)
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑦𝐼𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2
33. Where ρw is the density of water, “y” is the depth of flow “g” is the
gravitational acceleration and “If” is the frictional slope If is calculated as
follows (equation (3))
Where “M” is the Stickler’s coefficient “I” is the longitudinal slope of the
canal and “U” is the velocity which is calculated by equation (4)
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑈2
𝑀2𝑦4/3
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑈 = 𝑀𝑟ℎ
2
3
𝐼
1
2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)
• “rh” is the hydraulic depth which is assumed to be equal to the depth of flow because
the width of the cross-section of the canal is very large. Critical shear stress is
calculated by equation (5)
• Where τc is the critical shear stress, “C” is the Shield’s parameter determined by
Shield’s curve in which Reynolds number is along abscissa and “C” is in ordinate.
Reynolds number is calculated by equation (6)
𝜏𝑐 = 𝐶𝑔 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 𝐷50 − − − − − − − − − − − (5)
34. Where u* is the shear velocity, “d” is the particle’s diameter and “υ” is the viscosity
of water. Velocity “U” for logarithmic profile is calculated by equation (7)
Where “u*” is the shear velocity, “k” is constant=0.4, “y” is the flow depth and “ks”
is the bed roughness height calculated by equation (8)
𝑅 =
𝑢∗𝑑
𝜐
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (6)
𝑈
𝑢∗
=
1
𝑘
ln
30𝑦
𝑘𝑠
− − − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
𝑘𝑠 = (26 ∗ 𝑛)6
− − − − − − − − − − − − − −(8)
• “u*” in equation 7 is calculated by equation (9) Hunter Rouse concentration
“Cy” is calculated as
𝑢∗ =
𝜏
𝜌𝑤
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (9)
• Where “y” is the water depth, “h” is the depth of each layer from the bottom and the
suspension parameter “z” is calculated by equation (11)
𝐶𝑦
𝐶𝑎
= (
𝑦 − ℎ
ℎ
𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑎
)𝑧
− − − − − − − − − − − − − (10) 𝑧 =
𝑤
𝑘𝑢∗
… … . (11)
36. The values of Manning’s “n” used in optimization were 0.0143, 0.017, 0.02 and
0.025 where the optimized value of “n” becomes 0.02 having minimum error in
sediment concentration, bed levels and the water levels. So the optimized bed
roughness is 0.0197, calculated from equation 8. Different parameters in Van Rijn’s
equation were optimized by using MATLAB. The values of empirical parameter
“X1” were 0.015, 0.3 and 1.5 while for “X2” 5%, 10% 15% and 20% of depth of
flow were used for optimization process as explained by Olsen (2011)
The optimized value of “X1” was obtained as 0.015 and “X2” was 15% of depth of flow.
Optimization was done for each month (from May 2011 to October 2011).
37.
38. Suppose the average concentration at some level z is C. In a simplistic model an upward turbulent velocity u′ for
half the time carries material of concentration (C – l dC/dz), where l is a mixing length – an order of size for
turbulent eddies. The corresponding downward velocity for the other half of the time carries material at
concentration (C + l dC/dz). The average upward flux of sediment (volume flux × concentration) through a
horizontal area A is
The quantity u′l written as a diffusivity K.
39. At the same time there is a net downward flux of material ws AC due to settling. When the
concentration profile has reached equilibrium the upward diffusive flux and downward
settling flux are equal in magnitude; i.e.
This is referred to a gradient diffusion (because it is proportional to a gradient!) or Fick’s law of
diffusion.The minus sign indicates, as expected, that there is a net flux from high concentration to low.
40.
41. Integrating between a reference
height zref and general z gives,
after some algebra
is called the Rouse number after
H. Rouse (1937).
42. To be of much predictive use it is necessary to specify Cref at some depth zref, typically at a
height representative of the bed load. There are many such formulae but one of the simplest
is that of Van Rijn (see, e.g., Chanson’s book):
50. In rivers and bad governments, the
lightest things swim at the top.
(Benjamin Franklin)
Thanks
51. Basic Mechanism of Bed Load
Sediment Transport
drag force exerted by fluid
flow on individual grains
retarding force exerted by the
bed on grains at the interface
particle moves when resultant
passes through (or above)
point of support
Grains: usually we mean incoherent sands, gravels,
and silt, but also sometimes we include cohesive
soils (clays) that form larger particles (aggregates)
Fd
h
force of drag will vary with time
V
Fg
point of support
52.
53. Sinuosity and
development of
point bars
Point bars develop on the
inside turns of bends in the
channel, due to increased
friction
The more sinuous the
channel, the more point
bar deposits can be
expected