Sampling
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Sampling is the process of selecting a representative portion of a population to study. There are two main types of sampling - probability sampling, where all elements have an equal chance of being chosen, and non-probability sampling, where samples are selected through judgment. Reasons for sampling include practical constraints, not destroying items being studied, and fewer errors in handling data by studying samples instead of whole populations.
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Census collects data from the entire population, while sampling collects data from only a subset of the population. Sampling provides results more quickly and at lower cost but with less accuracy than a census. Probability sampling methods like simple random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling allow determining the probability of selecting samples, while non-probability methods do not. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages related to accuracy, costs, and ability to generalize to the total population. Errors can occur from how samples are selected and from other issues in data collection and processing.
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Sampling is used to learn about a population by studying a subset of it. It allows researchers to gather information in a time and cost-effective manner. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling, where every item has an equal chance of being selected, and non-probability sampling, which has no basis for estimating selection probabilities. Some common sampling designs include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and quota sampling. Good sample design ensures representativeness, adequacy, independence, and homogeneity while accounting for resources and study goals.
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This document discusses non-sampling error in surveys. It notes that non-sampling error occurs for reasons other than the sampling technique and can happen at every stage of a survey. There are two main types of non-sampling error: non-observation error, which includes non-coverage and non-response; and measurement error, which is when a respondent's answer differs from the true value. The document outlines various causes of non-sampling error and methods to reduce errors, such as improved training and monitoring of interviewers.
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- Tabulation errors take place during analysis through mistakes in coding, analysis or presentation of results.
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This document discusses sampling techniques used in market research. It distinguishes between a census, which surveys all elements in a population, and a sample, which surveys only a subset of a population. The key steps in sampling are identifying the target population, determining the sampling frame, selecting a sampling technique, and determining sample size. Probability sampling techniques like simple random sampling and systematic sampling are preferred as they allow for statistical generalization to the overall population. Non-probability techniques rely more on researcher judgment.
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Research is defined as a systematic, empirical investigation guided by theory to understand natural phenomena. It involves identifying a problem, reviewing existing literature, developing hypotheses and variables, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. There are important components to research including the research design, methodology, instrumentation, sampling, data analysis, and conclusions. Sampling involves selecting a subset of a population to study. Probability sampling aims to give all population members an equal chance of selection, while non-probability sampling does not. Common probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling.
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This document provides an overview of the key differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative research aims to test hypotheses and make predictions by studying specific variables through structured data collection from large randomly selected groups, which is then analyzed statistically. Qualitative research seeks to understand social phenomena through descriptive data like words and images collected from smaller non-random groups via open-ended questions, interviews and observations, with the goal of gaining insights rather than making generalized predictions.
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This document provides an introduction to qualitative research methods in information sciences and technologies. It discusses the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, noting that while traditionally seen as incompatible, they are actually complementary. Qualitative methods are increasingly used in fields like information systems and human-computer interaction due to the complex social and human factors involved. The document outlines some key aspects of quantitative and qualitative research approaches.
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The document discusses the cell cycle, which involves growth, functioning, and division of cells. It has two main types of cell division - mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two identical cells and is involved in growth and repair. Meiosis produces gametes through two divisions and involves genetic mixing through crossing over. Precise control mechanisms regulate the cell cycle, and errors can lead to genetic conditions.
Presentation 18 - Plant Hormones (Notes)
Plant hormones are chemical messengers that regulate plant growth and development. They cause substantial changes even in small concentrations. The main hormones are auxins, which promote elongation and proper development. Auxins are produced by plant shoot tips and cause phototropism by stimulating uneven growth - cells on the shaded side grow more, causing the shoot to bend towards light. Experiments by Darwin and Went showed that differences in auxin concentration between shoot sides cause this phototropic response.
Research Design
This document discusses key aspects of research design including replication, randomization, and blocking. It explains that replication involves repeating experiments to test if units respond the same way to treatments, allowing significance to be tested. Randomization ensures unbiased estimates by randomly assigning experimental units to treatments. Blocking balances groups and controls for extraneous variables through homogeneous blocking. The document provides an example experimental design layout.
Types of Variables
The document discusses different types of variables in experiments including independent, dependent, and extraneous variables. It also describes different scales of measurement for variables like nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. The document then provides an example experiment where varying concentrations of bromelain extract from pineapple were used to treat acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells over 24 hours and cytotoxic effects were measured using trypan blue staining.
Presentation 03 - Plant Tissues
This document describes the four main types of plant tissues: meristematic, dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Meristematic tissue contains cells that divide rapidly to facilitate growth. Dermal tissue forms the plant's outer covering. Ground tissue provides support, carries out photosynthesis, and stores food and water. Vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and food throughout the plant and strengthens its structure. Each tissue type performs distinct but interconnected functions that allow plants to grow, obtain nutrients, and transport materials throughout their bodies.
Presentation 04 - Animal Tissues
There are four main types of tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue forms protective barriers and lines body surfaces. Connective tissue provides structure and support. Muscle tissue allows for movement. Nervous tissue controls and coordinates the body through electrical signaling. Each tissue has distinct cell shapes, arrangements, locations in the body, and functions.
STR02 - Choosing A Research Topic
The document provides guidance on choosing a research topic, including defining research, examples of past student projects, important considerations when selecting a topic such as novelty and feasibility, potential fields of study, and the next steps which are to narrow the topic into a specific question and write an initial research brief. It aims to help students select an appropriate research topic and begin planning their research project.
Presentation 02 - The Origin Of Multicellularity And The Volvocine Series
The document discusses the evolution of multicellular organisms from single-celled ancestors. As single cells increase in size, their surface area to volume ratio decreases, limiting nutrient exchange. Multicellularity solves this issue by allowing division of labor between specialized cells and improved transport within the organism. The evolution of multicellularity is seen in the Volvocine algae series, from unicellular Chlamydomonas to colonial Volvox, with increasing cell number, shape complexity, specialization, and reproductive strategies over generations. Multicellularity provides advantages like increased size and specialization but also new challenges of interdependence and complexity.
Presentation01 - Hierarchy Of Biological Organization
The document contains 20 biology terms organized into 5 categories: 1) tissues, organs, organisms and ecosystems; 2) cells, populations and communities; 3) levels of organization; 4) branches of biology; and 5) cellular and biochemical components. The terms are defined at different levels of biological organization, from cells and organelles to populations, communities and ecosystems.
STR01 - Introduction To Research
The film shows a doctor conducting research to find a cure for cancer from plants in the Amazon rainforest. His methods of carefully studying plant properties and testing extracts on cells fits the definition of research. However, the research lacks objectivity and risks bias as the doctor continues alone for subjective personal reasons rather than publishing findings. Good practices shown include systematic study, but improvements could have been made through collaboration and peer review.
Presentation 19 - Chemical Signals In Animals
Hormones are chemical signals produced by glands that are transported to target organs to induce responses. They bind to receptors in cell membranes or nuclei to exert effects. Hormone levels and receptor function are controlled by feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. The endocrine system regulates processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction through the action of hormones, while the nervous system provides more rapid responses. Diseases can occur if hormone levels become abnormal or receptors are damaged.
Presentation 18 - Plant Hormones
Plant hormones are chemical messengers that are transported within plants and trigger substantial changes even at minute concentrations. They coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli. For example, tropisms like phototropism occur when plant organs curve towards or away from a stimulus like light due to the differential growth of cells on opposite sides caused by the distribution of the plant hormone auxin, as shown through experiments by Darwin and Went.
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Presentation 02 - The Origin Of Multicellularity And The Volvocine Series
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Sampling
- 1. Sampling
- 2. Population – totality of all possible values of a particular characteristic for specified group of objects
- 3. Sample – part of a population selected according to a rule or planSampling – process of choosing a representative portion of population
- 4. Reasons for sampling Practicality – time, money, personnel constraints Destruction of item/s to be studied Samples can be more thoroughly studied than whole populations Fewer errors are encountered in handling data
- 5. Types of sampling Probability samples Samples selected by chance All elements have an equal chance of being chosen Non-probability samples Samples selected by judgment