This document discusses a study on determining safety zones for wireless cellular towers. It presents a model developed to calculate the safe distance from a cellular tower's radiation based on received power, transmitted power, and transmitter gain. Field measurements were taken of power density at various distances from two cellular towers in Tanzania using a selective radiation meter. Equations were derived to calculate power density as a function of distance from a single tower and from multiple towers. Plots showed power density decreasing with distance and comparisons to international safety limits. The study aims to help ensure safety for those living near cellular towers.
Magnetic resonance coupling for 5G WPT applicationsjournalBEEI
Inductive Wireless Power Transfer (IWPT) is the most popular and common technology for the resonance coupling power transfer. However, in 2007 it has experimentally demonstrated by a research group from Massachusets Institute of Technology (MIT) that WPT can be improved by using Magnetic Resonance Coupling Wireless Power Transfer (MRC WPT) in terms of the coupling distance and efficiency. Furthermore, by exploiting the unused, high-frequency mm-wave band which are ranging from 3~300 GHz frequency band, the next 5G generations of wireless networks will be able to support a higher number of devices with the increasing data rate, higher energy efficiency and also compatible with the previous technology. In this work, a square planar inductor with the dimension of 6.1 x 6.1 mm is designed, and the resonators have the same self-resonance frequency at 14 GHz. The coil resonators have been laid on Silicon and Oxide substrate to reduce the loss in the design. From the CST software simulation and the analytical model in MATLAB software, it has been shown that the MRC WPT design has improved the performance of IWPT design by 40% power transfer efficiency. MRC WPT design also has larger H-Field value which is 705.5 A/m, as compared to the IWPT design which has only 285.6 A/m when both Transmitter(Tx) and Reciever(RX) is at 0.3 mm coupling distance.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Microstrip patch antenna with metamaterial using superstrate technique for wi...journalBEEI
This work builds a metamaterial (MTM) superstrate loaded on a patch of microstrip antenna for wireless communications. The MTM superstrate is made up of four G-shaped resonators on FR-4 substrate with a relative permittivity of 4.4 and has a total area of (8×16) mm2, and is higher than the patch. The MTM superstrate increases antenna gain while also raising the input reflection coefficient. When it is 9 mm above the patch, the gain increased from 3.28 dB to 6.02 dB, and when it is 7 mm above the patch, the input reflection coefficient was enhanced from -31.217 dB to -45.8 dB. When the MTM superstrate loaded antenna was compared to the traditional unloaded antenna, it was discovered that metamaterials have a lot of potential for improving antenna performance.
Phi shape uwb antenna with band notch characteristicsKiran Ajetrao
In this paper a novel band notch antenna in UWB
frequency range is designed using split rings. Split rings are
overlapped with designed monopole to give phi shape. The slit
gap gives band-notch operation from 5.1GHz to 6.29GHz and
from 4.94GHz to 5.91GHz for SPSSR and SPSCR antennas
respectively. Simulated and measured results are in good
agreement.
A cpw fed antenna rectangular shaped box with semicircle slot for wlaneSAT Journals
Abstract An Ultra-wideband (UWB) microstrip antenna fed by a coplanar Waveguide (CPW) is proposed. The proposed antenna consists of a rectangular shape box embedded with semicircle slot in the patch. It occupies a total area of 39×36.275 mm2. It provides a wide impedance bandwidth of 7.39 GHz ranging from 2.66 GHz to 10.05 GHz. The parametric studies are performed to understand the characteristics of proposed antenna. The details of proposed ultra-wideband are described. The various antenna parameters like S-parameters, current distribution and radiation pattern are studied. The proposed antenna is also suitable for WLAN/WiMAX/ UWB applications. Keywords: Microstrip Antenna, WLAN, WI-MAX, UWB, CPW feed.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Magnetic resonance coupling for 5G WPT applicationsjournalBEEI
Inductive Wireless Power Transfer (IWPT) is the most popular and common technology for the resonance coupling power transfer. However, in 2007 it has experimentally demonstrated by a research group from Massachusets Institute of Technology (MIT) that WPT can be improved by using Magnetic Resonance Coupling Wireless Power Transfer (MRC WPT) in terms of the coupling distance and efficiency. Furthermore, by exploiting the unused, high-frequency mm-wave band which are ranging from 3~300 GHz frequency band, the next 5G generations of wireless networks will be able to support a higher number of devices with the increasing data rate, higher energy efficiency and also compatible with the previous technology. In this work, a square planar inductor with the dimension of 6.1 x 6.1 mm is designed, and the resonators have the same self-resonance frequency at 14 GHz. The coil resonators have been laid on Silicon and Oxide substrate to reduce the loss in the design. From the CST software simulation and the analytical model in MATLAB software, it has been shown that the MRC WPT design has improved the performance of IWPT design by 40% power transfer efficiency. MRC WPT design also has larger H-Field value which is 705.5 A/m, as compared to the IWPT design which has only 285.6 A/m when both Transmitter(Tx) and Reciever(RX) is at 0.3 mm coupling distance.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Microstrip patch antenna with metamaterial using superstrate technique for wi...journalBEEI
This work builds a metamaterial (MTM) superstrate loaded on a patch of microstrip antenna for wireless communications. The MTM superstrate is made up of four G-shaped resonators on FR-4 substrate with a relative permittivity of 4.4 and has a total area of (8×16) mm2, and is higher than the patch. The MTM superstrate increases antenna gain while also raising the input reflection coefficient. When it is 9 mm above the patch, the gain increased from 3.28 dB to 6.02 dB, and when it is 7 mm above the patch, the input reflection coefficient was enhanced from -31.217 dB to -45.8 dB. When the MTM superstrate loaded antenna was compared to the traditional unloaded antenna, it was discovered that metamaterials have a lot of potential for improving antenna performance.
Phi shape uwb antenna with band notch characteristicsKiran Ajetrao
In this paper a novel band notch antenna in UWB
frequency range is designed using split rings. Split rings are
overlapped with designed monopole to give phi shape. The slit
gap gives band-notch operation from 5.1GHz to 6.29GHz and
from 4.94GHz to 5.91GHz for SPSSR and SPSCR antennas
respectively. Simulated and measured results are in good
agreement.
A cpw fed antenna rectangular shaped box with semicircle slot for wlaneSAT Journals
Abstract An Ultra-wideband (UWB) microstrip antenna fed by a coplanar Waveguide (CPW) is proposed. The proposed antenna consists of a rectangular shape box embedded with semicircle slot in the patch. It occupies a total area of 39×36.275 mm2. It provides a wide impedance bandwidth of 7.39 GHz ranging from 2.66 GHz to 10.05 GHz. The parametric studies are performed to understand the characteristics of proposed antenna. The details of proposed ultra-wideband are described. The various antenna parameters like S-parameters, current distribution and radiation pattern are studied. The proposed antenna is also suitable for WLAN/WiMAX/ UWB applications. Keywords: Microstrip Antenna, WLAN, WI-MAX, UWB, CPW feed.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
A compact triband microstrip antenna utilizing hexagonal CSRR for wireless co...journalBEEI
In this paper, a compact triband printed antenna with hexagonal complementary split-ring resonators (CSRRs) for 4G applications is proposed. The proposed multiband antenna is comprised of a rectangular patch antenna on the top plane, while on the ground plane, hexagonal CSRRs are etched for size miniaturization (at the lower bands) and multiband generation. Another effect of the CSRR is the shifting of the initial resonance of the patch antenna from 5.17 GHz to the higher band of 6.18 GHz. The triband of 180 MHz 2.4~2.59, 150 MHz 2.79~2.94 and 420 MHz 6.04~6.46 GHz bands acquired can cover WLAN/Wi-Fi and WiMAX operating bands adequately. This can be achieved by choosing the optimal size and position of the CSRR on the ground plane carefully. The design occupies a total size of 45 x 45 mm2 using the low-cost FR-4 substrate. Good agreements are obtained between the measured results and the simulated, which are discussed and presented.
Design and Analysis of Optimum Performance Pacemaker Telemetry AntennaTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The demand for health technology is increasing especially in the telemetry applications. These
applications generally use implanted antennas to be utilized for data transfer from patients to other reader
devices. This procedure can make the health care more efficient since it provides fast diagnosis and
treatment to the patient. Therefore, in order to effectively implement an implanted antenna inside the
human body, thorough numerical analysis and simulations are required prior to the fabrication of antenna.
In this work, an implanted antenna has been proposed to be designed at 402.5MHz within the biomedical
frequency band of 402- 405MHz. By introducing a compact loop antenna for telemetry applications in a
Pacemaker, a number of advantages can be achieved for health care such as efficient data information
and quick diagnosis. Moreover, in this work an investigation of compact loop antenna with casing in
Pacemaker has been carried out by placing the antenna inside the phantom of human body model.
Specific Absorption Rate Assessment of Multiple Microstrip Patch Antenna ArrayTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Interaction between electromagnetic field (EMF) radiated from multiple antennas and human body
is crucial to be explored as multiple antennas are the essential implemented devices to achieve the
requirements of the future evolved fifth generation (5G) technology. Thus, this article presents a significant
study of the radiated EMF effect from a single, and multiple antennas towards human through the
assessment of specific absorption rate (SAR). The single antenna, 1 x 2, 1 x 3 and 1 x 4 arrays of
microstrip patch antennas are designed to cover mobile operating frequencies of 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 1.8, 2.1
and 2.6 GHz. Two types of human head phantoms are implemented in this study, which are specific
anthropomorphic mannequin (SAM) and Voxel head model that placed close to single antenna or antenna
array to investigate the penetration of EMF towards the human tissue. The single antenna or antenna array
is placed with fixed distance of 10 mm from the phantom, which excited by maximum allowable power of
19 dBm in CST Microwave Studio 2016. The effect of the radiated EMF that quantified by SAR parameter,
which depicts satisfying results against the established standard limits at averaged 1g and 10g mass of
tissues for all designated frequencies that utilized for single and multiple antennas.
A Triple Band Bow Tie Array Antenna Using Both-sided MIC Technology IJECEIAES
A single-fed linearly polarized 2x2 microstrip bow tie array antenna is proposed. The feed network has microstrip line and slot line where microstrip-slot branch circuit is connected in parallel. The feed network of the array is designed using both-sided M IC Technology to overcome the impedance matching problem of conventional feed networks. The 2x2 half bow tie array antenna is also truncated with spur lines for optimization of antenna performance. The array antenna unit can be realized in very simple and compact structure, as all the antenna elements and the feeding circuit is arranged on a Teflon glass fiber substrate without requiring any external network. The design frequency of the proposed antenna is 5 to 8 GHz (C- Band) and the obtained peak gain is 12.41 dBi. The resultant axial ratio indicates that linear polarization is achieved.
Assessment of Electromagnetic Absorption towards Human Head Using Specific Ab...journalBEEI
This paper presents a compact square slot patch antenna characterstics for wireless body area network (WBANs) applications.The assessment of the effects of electromagnetic energy (EM) on the human head is necessary because the sensitivity of human head to high radiation level. Although, structuring of low EM antennas is a major problem in the improvement of portable device and reducing the size of of the antenna is a major concern. However, performance of antenna reduces when antenna operates near human body which is lossy and complex in nature. The proposed antenna operates at 5.8GHz of the ISM Band for WBAN applications. The antenna has been designed and simulated with two different types of multilayer human head phantoms to characterize the antenna near the human head.The multilayer head phantom is constructed by five layers tissues head model using CST Microwave studio. Therefore, antenna with spherical phantom has the highest SAR value 0.206 W/Kg, while antenna with cubical phantom contributed the lowest SAR value of 0.166 for 10 g tissue at 5.8 GHz frequency exposed, whereas, the antenna with cubical phantom and spherical phantom have gain of 6.46 dBi and 6.2 dBi GHz respectively. It was observed that antenna performance significantly increased. The presented prototype has a potential to work for ISM applications.
In this paper a compact, flexible, Multiband antenna is designed. It is having flexible Substrate of photographic paper which makes the antenna conformal. The antenna with two U slots cut in radiating patch is offset fed by microstrip lines gives the multiple bands of WLAN/WIMAX Application and two parasitic Elements improves the bandwidth of a typical microstrip antenna. The Measured results shows that the antenna resonates between Frequency band 2.10-2.95 GHz, 3.35-3.54 GHz and 5.04-6.0Hz.which are used for application such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, ISM 2.4GHz,WLAN WiMAX, and WLAN 5.2GHz.
Design and optimize microstrip patch antenna array using the active element p...journalBEEI
Microstrip patch antennas are widely used in modern day communication devices due to their light weight, low cost and ease of fabrication. In this paper, we have designed and fabricated two Microstrip Patch Antennas (slotted-ring and truncated-slotted ring) and array at 2.4 GHz for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) applications using Computer Simulation Technology, CST. The antenna design consists of rectangular radiating patch on Rogers RT5880 substrate and is excited by using coaxial probe feeding technique. The truncated-slotted ring has been designed on top of the radiating patch to improve bandwidth. The simulation and measurement results of the both antennas are in close agreement with each other. Due to the good agreement of simulation and measurement results of truncated-slotted ring antenna in comparison with slotted-ring antenna, it has been selected for antenna array design. The simulated and measured S11 of truncated-slotted ring antenna shows -21dB and -15.6 dB at 2.4 GHz respectively. Then, the antenna has been formed into 1x4 array in order to observe its beamforming capability. The proposed antenna array is suitable for 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi standard which is proposed to be used for IoT.
A Broadband Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna for Wireless Communicationswww.nbtc.go.th
In this paper, a simple design of wideband
rectangular patch antenna is presented by using asymmetrical
feed and a reduction in ground plane with proper gap distance.
The frequency-dependent characteristic impedance included in
the proposed procedure is addressed to eliminate possible
errors in the high-frequency broadband applications. The
antenna proposed in this research provides 2.3GHz bandwidth
(frequency range: 0.9GHz - 3.2GHz) which can be utilized in
various broadband applications such as remote sensing,
biomedical and mobile radio. The proposed procedure in this
research is compatible with CAD applications and is valuable
contribution as it permits quick and easy design for RF
engineers.
Reference : International Journal of Modeling and Optimization, Vol. 4, No. 3, June 2014
http://www.ijmo.org/papers/373-A0002.pdf
Thanks for reading.
Noppadol Tiamnara
In the present paper a circular slot rectangular microstrip loaded antenna is proposed. The obtained bandwidth of rectangular microstrip antenna is improved up to 46.92%. The proposed antenna has frequency band in the frequency range 1.979 GHz to 3.192 GHz this frequency band is suitable for WLAN / WiMAX and other wireless communication applications. The microstrip antenna suffers from narrow bandwidth hence the present work provide an alternative solution to increase the bandwidth. The gain has been improved up to 4.68dBi and antenna efficiency is 97.63%. The proposed slot loaded Microstrip antenna is fed by 0.3 mm line feed. The proposed antenna is simulated by IE3D Zealand simulation software based on method of moments.
Hydrogen production from glycerol using microbial electrolysis celleSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
A compact triband microstrip antenna utilizing hexagonal CSRR for wireless co...journalBEEI
In this paper, a compact triband printed antenna with hexagonal complementary split-ring resonators (CSRRs) for 4G applications is proposed. The proposed multiband antenna is comprised of a rectangular patch antenna on the top plane, while on the ground plane, hexagonal CSRRs are etched for size miniaturization (at the lower bands) and multiband generation. Another effect of the CSRR is the shifting of the initial resonance of the patch antenna from 5.17 GHz to the higher band of 6.18 GHz. The triband of 180 MHz 2.4~2.59, 150 MHz 2.79~2.94 and 420 MHz 6.04~6.46 GHz bands acquired can cover WLAN/Wi-Fi and WiMAX operating bands adequately. This can be achieved by choosing the optimal size and position of the CSRR on the ground plane carefully. The design occupies a total size of 45 x 45 mm2 using the low-cost FR-4 substrate. Good agreements are obtained between the measured results and the simulated, which are discussed and presented.
Design and Analysis of Optimum Performance Pacemaker Telemetry AntennaTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The demand for health technology is increasing especially in the telemetry applications. These
applications generally use implanted antennas to be utilized for data transfer from patients to other reader
devices. This procedure can make the health care more efficient since it provides fast diagnosis and
treatment to the patient. Therefore, in order to effectively implement an implanted antenna inside the
human body, thorough numerical analysis and simulations are required prior to the fabrication of antenna.
In this work, an implanted antenna has been proposed to be designed at 402.5MHz within the biomedical
frequency band of 402- 405MHz. By introducing a compact loop antenna for telemetry applications in a
Pacemaker, a number of advantages can be achieved for health care such as efficient data information
and quick diagnosis. Moreover, in this work an investigation of compact loop antenna with casing in
Pacemaker has been carried out by placing the antenna inside the phantom of human body model.
Specific Absorption Rate Assessment of Multiple Microstrip Patch Antenna ArrayTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Interaction between electromagnetic field (EMF) radiated from multiple antennas and human body
is crucial to be explored as multiple antennas are the essential implemented devices to achieve the
requirements of the future evolved fifth generation (5G) technology. Thus, this article presents a significant
study of the radiated EMF effect from a single, and multiple antennas towards human through the
assessment of specific absorption rate (SAR). The single antenna, 1 x 2, 1 x 3 and 1 x 4 arrays of
microstrip patch antennas are designed to cover mobile operating frequencies of 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 1.8, 2.1
and 2.6 GHz. Two types of human head phantoms are implemented in this study, which are specific
anthropomorphic mannequin (SAM) and Voxel head model that placed close to single antenna or antenna
array to investigate the penetration of EMF towards the human tissue. The single antenna or antenna array
is placed with fixed distance of 10 mm from the phantom, which excited by maximum allowable power of
19 dBm in CST Microwave Studio 2016. The effect of the radiated EMF that quantified by SAR parameter,
which depicts satisfying results against the established standard limits at averaged 1g and 10g mass of
tissues for all designated frequencies that utilized for single and multiple antennas.
A Triple Band Bow Tie Array Antenna Using Both-sided MIC Technology IJECEIAES
A single-fed linearly polarized 2x2 microstrip bow tie array antenna is proposed. The feed network has microstrip line and slot line where microstrip-slot branch circuit is connected in parallel. The feed network of the array is designed using both-sided M IC Technology to overcome the impedance matching problem of conventional feed networks. The 2x2 half bow tie array antenna is also truncated with spur lines for optimization of antenna performance. The array antenna unit can be realized in very simple and compact structure, as all the antenna elements and the feeding circuit is arranged on a Teflon glass fiber substrate without requiring any external network. The design frequency of the proposed antenna is 5 to 8 GHz (C- Band) and the obtained peak gain is 12.41 dBi. The resultant axial ratio indicates that linear polarization is achieved.
Assessment of Electromagnetic Absorption towards Human Head Using Specific Ab...journalBEEI
This paper presents a compact square slot patch antenna characterstics for wireless body area network (WBANs) applications.The assessment of the effects of electromagnetic energy (EM) on the human head is necessary because the sensitivity of human head to high radiation level. Although, structuring of low EM antennas is a major problem in the improvement of portable device and reducing the size of of the antenna is a major concern. However, performance of antenna reduces when antenna operates near human body which is lossy and complex in nature. The proposed antenna operates at 5.8GHz of the ISM Band for WBAN applications. The antenna has been designed and simulated with two different types of multilayer human head phantoms to characterize the antenna near the human head.The multilayer head phantom is constructed by five layers tissues head model using CST Microwave studio. Therefore, antenna with spherical phantom has the highest SAR value 0.206 W/Kg, while antenna with cubical phantom contributed the lowest SAR value of 0.166 for 10 g tissue at 5.8 GHz frequency exposed, whereas, the antenna with cubical phantom and spherical phantom have gain of 6.46 dBi and 6.2 dBi GHz respectively. It was observed that antenna performance significantly increased. The presented prototype has a potential to work for ISM applications.
In this paper a compact, flexible, Multiband antenna is designed. It is having flexible Substrate of photographic paper which makes the antenna conformal. The antenna with two U slots cut in radiating patch is offset fed by microstrip lines gives the multiple bands of WLAN/WIMAX Application and two parasitic Elements improves the bandwidth of a typical microstrip antenna. The Measured results shows that the antenna resonates between Frequency band 2.10-2.95 GHz, 3.35-3.54 GHz and 5.04-6.0Hz.which are used for application such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, ISM 2.4GHz,WLAN WiMAX, and WLAN 5.2GHz.
Design and optimize microstrip patch antenna array using the active element p...journalBEEI
Microstrip patch antennas are widely used in modern day communication devices due to their light weight, low cost and ease of fabrication. In this paper, we have designed and fabricated two Microstrip Patch Antennas (slotted-ring and truncated-slotted ring) and array at 2.4 GHz for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) applications using Computer Simulation Technology, CST. The antenna design consists of rectangular radiating patch on Rogers RT5880 substrate and is excited by using coaxial probe feeding technique. The truncated-slotted ring has been designed on top of the radiating patch to improve bandwidth. The simulation and measurement results of the both antennas are in close agreement with each other. Due to the good agreement of simulation and measurement results of truncated-slotted ring antenna in comparison with slotted-ring antenna, it has been selected for antenna array design. The simulated and measured S11 of truncated-slotted ring antenna shows -21dB and -15.6 dB at 2.4 GHz respectively. Then, the antenna has been formed into 1x4 array in order to observe its beamforming capability. The proposed antenna array is suitable for 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi standard which is proposed to be used for IoT.
A Broadband Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna for Wireless Communicationswww.nbtc.go.th
In this paper, a simple design of wideband
rectangular patch antenna is presented by using asymmetrical
feed and a reduction in ground plane with proper gap distance.
The frequency-dependent characteristic impedance included in
the proposed procedure is addressed to eliminate possible
errors in the high-frequency broadband applications. The
antenna proposed in this research provides 2.3GHz bandwidth
(frequency range: 0.9GHz - 3.2GHz) which can be utilized in
various broadband applications such as remote sensing,
biomedical and mobile radio. The proposed procedure in this
research is compatible with CAD applications and is valuable
contribution as it permits quick and easy design for RF
engineers.
Reference : International Journal of Modeling and Optimization, Vol. 4, No. 3, June 2014
http://www.ijmo.org/papers/373-A0002.pdf
Thanks for reading.
Noppadol Tiamnara
In the present paper a circular slot rectangular microstrip loaded antenna is proposed. The obtained bandwidth of rectangular microstrip antenna is improved up to 46.92%. The proposed antenna has frequency band in the frequency range 1.979 GHz to 3.192 GHz this frequency band is suitable for WLAN / WiMAX and other wireless communication applications. The microstrip antenna suffers from narrow bandwidth hence the present work provide an alternative solution to increase the bandwidth. The gain has been improved up to 4.68dBi and antenna efficiency is 97.63%. The proposed slot loaded Microstrip antenna is fed by 0.3 mm line feed. The proposed antenna is simulated by IE3D Zealand simulation software based on method of moments.
Hydrogen production from glycerol using microbial electrolysis celleSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Transient voltage distribution in transformer winding (experimental investiga...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Development of csp using convex lenses for domestic water heatingeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Conceptual design of laser assisted fixture for bending operationeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Estimating cellphone signal intensity & identifying radiation hotspot are...eSAT Journals
Abstract The increased uses of mobile phones have raised public interest in possible health issues associated with exposure to electromagnetic energy. For the speedy transmission and avoiding the construction of more towers, the single tower can be shared by multiple network operators. The simultaneous exposure to multiple frequency fields, the sum of all the radiation must be taken into consideration so the radiation intensity level exceeds by several times than the prescribed guideline. Hence, the public is being exposed to continuous, low intensity radiations from these towers. Present Survey has been designed to identify signal strength among the people dwelling near the base station. Signal Strength predicted by integration of NDVI methodology is taken into account for factors like trees, trunks, leaves, branches, their density and their heights relative to the antenna heights and also it has been calculated by both theoretical and practical. In this regard the present study, practical field investigations of existing towers have been done by using SCEPTOR (Mobile GIS/GPS receiver). These GPS data fed to GIS for creating a new layer along with DEM file and satellite image for creating virtual model.3D city model has been performed for the study area. Finally the radiation hotspot area has been identified by using viewshed analysis. Keywords: RF Coverage, Signal Strength, GIS, Remote Sensing, GPS, and Antenna
Discovering the spatial locations of the radio frequency radiations effects a...IJECEIAES
Nowadays, smart devices have become a major part of human life, and this need has led to an increase in the demand for these devices, prompting major telecommunications companies to compete with each other to acquire the bulk of this market. This competition led to a significant increase in the number of mobile towers, to expand the coverage area. Each communication tower has transmitters and receivers to connect subscribers within the mobile network and other networks. The receivers and transmitters of each mobile tower operate on radio frequency waves. These waves can cause harm to humans if the body tissues absorb the radiation resulting from these waves. Headache, discomfort, and some other diseases are among the effects resulting from the spatial proximity to the mobile towers. In this paper, a model based on geographic information systems (GIS) software is proposed for the purpose of discovering the area of exposure to radio frequency radiation. This model can assists mitigate the opportunities of exposure to these radiations, thus reducing its danger. Real data of the levels of electromagnetic pollution resulting from mobile towers were analyzed during this study and compared with international safety standards.
A compact dual-band semi-flexible antenna at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz for wearabl...journalBEEI
In this work, a compact dual-band semi-flexible antenna operating at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz for the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band is presented. The antenna is fabricated on a semi-flexible substrate material, Rogers Duroid RO3003™ with a low-profile feature with dimensions of 30×38 mm2 which makes it a good solution for wearable applications. Bending investigation is also performed over a vacuum cylinder and the diameters are varied at 50 mm, 80 mm and 100 mm, that represents the average human arm’s diameter. The bending investigation shows that reflection coefficients for all diameters are almost similar which imply that the antenna will operate at the dual-band resonant frequencies, even in bending condition. The simulated specific absorption rate (SAR) in CST MWS® software shows that the antenna obeys the FCC and ICNIRP guidelines for 1 mW of input power. The SAR limits at 2.45 GHz for 1 g of human tissue is simulated at 0.271 W/kg (FCC standard: 1.6 W/kg) while for 10 g is at 0.0551 W/kg (ICNIRP standard: 2 W/kg. On the other hand, the SAR limits at 5.8 GHz are computed at 0.202 W/kg for 1 g and 0.0532 W/kg for 10 g.
Measurement of Electromagnetic Waves Radiated from Base Transceiver Stations...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Adaptive 3D ray tracing approach for indoor radio signal prediction at 3.5 GHzIJECEIAES
This paper explained an adaptive ray tracing technique in modelling indoor radio wave propagation. As compared with conventional ray tracing approach, the presented ray tracing approach offers an optimized method to trace the travelling radio signal by introducing flexibility and adaptive features in ray launching algorithm in modelling the radio wave for indoor scenarios. The simulation result was compared with measurements data for verification. By analyzing the results, the proposed adaptive technique showed a better improvement in simulation time, power level and coverage in modelling the radio wave propagation for indoor scenario and may benefit in the development of signal propagation simulators for future technologies.
Channel Overlapping Between IMT-Advanced Users and Fixed Satellite ServiceEECJOURNAL
The Novel technique to modulate the nulls in the radiation pattern of IMT-Advanced base station (BS) towards the fixed satellite service is (FSS) affirmed in this paper. Designing a new algorithm to extract the nulls in the forbidding area and other base on MUSIC algorithm to estimate the direction of mobile user and control the handover technique is our major concern. A scenario of two mobile users (MS) moving around one FSS had been exclusively studied and simulated. Calculating the shortest separation distance after identifying the critical point and compare the result with the recent recommendation had shown how magnificent coexistence and spectrum sharing we can get.
Unconsidered but influencing interference in unmanned aerial vehicle cabling ...IJECEIAES
The increasing complexity of electrical and electronic systems in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has raised concerns regarding unwanted electromagnetic interference (EMI) due to limited compartment space. Recent studies have highlighted the UAV cabling as the primary pathway for interference. This paper presents a novel approach to investigating the effects of interference power, polarization angle, and distance from the interference source on EMI in UAV cable systems. Measurements and simulations were performed to analyze the influence of these factors on the radiation received by the cable. A linear dipole antenna, operating at a frequency of 905 MHz, served as the radiation source, while a single wire cable pair terminated with a 50-ohm resistor was employed as the victim. The findings reveal that the power transmitted by the source, the distance between the cable and the source, and the polarization angle have a significant impact on the electromagnetic interference received by the cable. Notably, a perpendicular orientation of the cable to the interference source (antenna) in the far-field yielded a reduction of up to 15 dBm in EMI. The results underscore the necessity for more sophisticated models and comprehensive measurements to fully comprehend the diverse factors affecting polarization losses in practical scenarios.
Analysis of near field distribution variation using awas electromagnetic code...csandit
Rapid Fluctuations and variations of signal strengt
h at higher frequency range in Near Field
zone, is a common difficulty to achieve higher data
rate. As signal varies continuously, it starts
decaying by the interference of the atmospheric obs
tructions and the electric field intensity
gradually decreases with the distance. This effect
is observed by AWAS Electromagnetic Code
which predicts the rapid variations in electric fie
ld intensity irrespective of environment,
whereas statistical models do not capture the funda
mental physics and variations as per
Environment. An Adequate and optimum values of thes
e external parameters is essential for
controlled and efficient transmission.
Analysis of near field distribution variation using awas electromagnetic code...csandit
Rapid Fluctuations and variations of signal strength at higher frequency range in Near Field
zone, is a common difficulty to achieve higher data rate. As signal varies continuously, it starts
decaying by the interference of the atmospheric obstructions and the electric field intensity
gradually decreases with the distance. This effect is observed by AWAS Electromagnetic Code
which predicts the rapid variations in electric field intensity irrespective of environment,
whereas statistical models do not capture the fundamental physics and variations as per
Environment. An Adequate and optimum values of these external parameters is essential for
controlled and efficient transmission.
Telecommunication frequency band spectrum occupancy in kampala ugandaeSAT Journals
Abstract The Effective utilization of the radiofrequency electromagnetic spectrum is paramount for wireless communication systems especially in telecommunication. This paper presents measurements and analysis of spectrum occupancy in the telecommunication frequency bands performed in Kampala, Uganda in March 2015. The telecommunication bands considered in this study are GSM900, GSM1800, UMTS2100 and LTE2600. Occupancy measurements have been carried out in an outdoor setting using the Aaronia Hyperlog 70600 antenna and the Spectran HF-6065 V4.The analysis shows that the licensed telecommunication spectrum bands are not fully utilized. Highest spectrum occupancy of 52.4% was observed in the GSM900 Downlink telecommunication band while the lowest occupancy of approximately 0% was observed in the LTE2600 band. Key words: spectrum occupancy, wireless telecommunication, Duty cycle, Threshold
Nowadays, there has been an increase and dependent items that affect the quality of the signals
such as the properties of substances in the buildings, objects and humans’ movements, electronic equipment. In
this study, the effects of electromagnetic interference on the functional usage of mobile communications are
examined. The indoor and outdoor attenuation characteristics of 2G, 3G and 4G frequency bands are
investigated. Field strength measurements are conducted in university campusopenarea, along a corridorfield
in a fivestoreyuniversitybuilding, in different floors, and rooms, where normal incidence on plane boundary is of
main concern. This study investigates multilayer model for building structures. The evaluation of measured
values together with the simulated results is compared with literature outcomes. In addition, dependency with
the frequency, power of the waves and existence of trees on the transmission path are also discussed.
Adaptive Monitoring and Localization of Faulty Node in a Wireless Sensor Netw...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract
This work seeks to solve the problem that is being experienced in most existing remote monitoring systems by coming up with an enhanced monitoring system called Wireless Sensor Network. A Personal Area Network was evolved to increase the coverage area by spatially distributing Sensor nodes to capture and transmit physical parameters like temperature and Carbon monoxide in an indoor local cooking environment. Faulty node detection and localization was also realized, this was achieved by coming up with an algorithm that logically considers the receive signal strength value of -100 dbm as threshold, Result of data transmitted were viewed via a C-Sharp interface for Adaptive monitoring. The result from the Visual Basic plot shows that the Sensor nodes were able to capture temperature range of between 250C to 510C while the result of the CO emission shows an interval of 0.01g/m3 to 30.0 g/m3. A comparison between data transmitted at source and data received at the destination (sink) was carried out, a ranking test was used to validate the data received, a 0.9325 correlation value was obtained which shows a high level of integrity of 93.25% .
Prediction of path loss in a wireless system is important to determine its quality of service. Fluctuations
and variations of signal strength at higher frequency range in Near Field zone, is a common difficulty to
achieve higher data rate. Continuous variation in signal causes decay of strength by the interference of the
atmospheric obstructions and hence electric field intensity gradually decreases with the distance. In this
paper the behaviour of field strength is explored through AWAS Electromagnetic Code which predicts the
rapid variations in electric field intensity irrespective of environment as compare to statistical models
which do not capture the variations as per Environment. An adequate and optimum values of these
parameters is essential for efficient transmission. The results show that the numerical analysis predicts
much lower field strengths which could significantly affect the channel quality. . This investigation is
essential to reduce the rapid fluctuations in field strength of the WiMAX.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniquesambekarshweta25
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniques
Authors:
-Devkinandan Jagtap
-Shweta Ambekar
-Harshit Singh
-Nakul Sharma (Assistant Professor)
Institution:
VIIT Pune, India
Abstract:
This paper proposes a system to differentiate between human-generated and AI-generated texts using stylometric analysis. The system analyzes text files and classifies writing styles by employing various clustering algorithms, such as k-means, k-means++, hierarchical, and DBSCAN. The effectiveness of these algorithms is measured using silhouette scores. The system successfully identifies distinct writing styles within documents, demonstrating its potential for plagiarism detection.
Introduction:
Stylometry, the study of linguistic and structural features in texts, is used for tasks like plagiarism detection, genre separation, and author verification. This paper leverages stylometric analysis to identify different writing styles and improve plagiarism detection methods.
Methodology:
The system includes data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction, dimensional reduction, machine learning models for clustering, and performance comparison using silhouette scores. Feature extraction focuses on lexical features, vocabulary richness, and readability scores. The study uses a small dataset of texts from various authors and employs algorithms like k-means, k-means++, hierarchical clustering, and DBSCAN for clustering.
Results:
Experiments show that the system effectively identifies writing styles, with silhouette scores indicating reasonable to strong clustering when k=2. As the number of clusters increases, the silhouette scores decrease, indicating a drop in accuracy. K-means and k-means++ perform similarly, while hierarchical clustering is less optimized.
Conclusion and Future Work:
The system works well for distinguishing writing styles with two clusters but becomes less accurate as the number of clusters increases. Future research could focus on adding more parameters and optimizing the methodology to improve accuracy with higher cluster values. This system can enhance existing plagiarism detection tools, especially in academic settings.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Water billing management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project entitled “Water Billing Management System” aims is to generate Water bill with all the charges and penalty. Manual system that is employed is extremely laborious and quite inadequate. It only makes the process more difficult and hard.
The aim of our project is to develop a system that is meant to partially computerize the work performed in the Water Board like generating monthly Water bill, record of consuming unit of water, store record of the customer and previous unpaid record.
We used HTML/PHP as front end and MYSQL as back end for developing our project. HTML is primarily a visual design environment. We can create a android application by designing the form and that make up the user interface. Adding android application code to the form and the objects such as buttons and text boxes on them and adding any required support code in additional modular.
MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software. It is a stable ,reliable and the powerful solution with the advanced features and advantages which are as follows: Data Security.MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
1. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 194
SAFETY ZONE DETERMINATION FOR WIRELESS CELLULAR
TOWER - A CASE STUDY FROM TANZANIA
Christina P.Nyakyi1
, Salehe I. Mrutu2
, Anael Sam3
, Justinian Anatory4
1
MSc. Student, 2
PhD. Student, 3
Senior Lecturer, The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology,
Arusha, Tanzania.nyakyic @nm-aist.ac.tz, mrutui @nm-aist.ac.tz, anael.sam@nm-aist.ac.tz
4
Associate Professor, The University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania, anatory @ engineer.com
Abstract
Safety zone determination for wireless cellular towers has attracted attention from many researchers in the last decade. This is caused
by the rapid growth of the wireless cellular industry which has led to the installation of towers even in the residential areas. There are
many reports and ongoing researches regarding the biological and thermal effects of wireless cellular electromagnetic fields
exposures to people. Cancer, hyperthermia, neural and behaviour effects of people exposed to these electromagnetic fields have been
reported.
This motivates the research to determine safety zones from wireless cellular towers to assure safety to those living in the vicinity of
these towers. A model for safety zone determination is developed. The model takes the received power at the object, power transmitted
by the transmitter and gain of the transmitter as inputs to determine the safe distance from the radiation of a wireless cellular
transmitter. The power density received by the object and its geographical location from the radiation source are measured using the
selective radiation meter. Transmitted power and the gain of the transmitter together with the height of the tower were obtained from
the respective wireless cellular network operator. Based on the geographical location of the object, the distance from the radiation
source was calculated using the haversine formula. These inputs are then used to determine the safety zone based on the standards
and guidelines developed by WHO and ICNIRP.
Keywords - Safety zone; Power density; wireless cellular tower; Exposure limits.
----------------------------------------------------------------------***------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of the wireless cellular industry coupled with the
proliferation of cellular mobile applications has led to more
installation of wireless cellular transmission towers/base
station antennas even in residential areas, schools, markets,
hospitals, and other densely populated areas. This raises the
public concern regarding the safety of population exposed to
such networks with aggregated radiations[1].
Interaction of GSM electromagnetic fields and humans should
include all particularities of human body which has very
unusual electromagnetic properties values such as electric
permittivity and electric conductivity[1].
These properties are not well known and depend on activity of
person
This material is an active material at cell scale
Most cases, the problem is actually a coupled problem
that is the thermal effect is one of the major effects and it
is affected by the blood circulation
The geometry is complex and generally environment of
the human body has to be taken into account
Almost all guidelines and recommended limits on human
exposure to GSM electromagnetic fields are given in terms of
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) defined by (1).
m
E
SAR
2
(1)
Where - Conductivity of body tissue,
E - Root mean square of intensity of electrical field at
considered point
m-mass density of tissue at that point
SAR, the time rate of RF energy absorbed per unit mass, is
very difficult and complex to be measured in biological
tissues; standards permit the use of reference levels of power
flux density [W/m2] in free space. IEEE standard established
the limits for electric and magnetic fields, so called maximum
permissible exposure(MPE) and similarly ICNIRP standard
defines reference limits for free-space incident fields as
detailed in table 1 with safety limits exposure for public in
2. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 195
some of the services. Getting together these limits SAR
compliance should be ensured. So as a replacement for
complex SAR measurements, for compliance assessments the
above mentioned standards the simpler field measurements as
power flux density are used[2].
In this paper we have presented results of measurements of
field strength items of power flux density in the vicinity of
base station antennas
Table 1: ICNIRP Safety Limits for public exposure
Service
Frequency
ICNIRP
Safety limit
E-field [V/m]
ICNIRP Safety
Limit Power
Density (W/m2)
GSM 900 41.9 4.66
GSM 1800 58.4 9.05
WCDMA 61 9.87
2. RELATED WORK
The study done by Singh (2012), the exclusion zone
(compliance distance) from GSM, CDMA, 3G/UMTS, and
WiMAX antennas have been found at 7.30, 6.076, 7.436, and
6.861 m, respectively are deduced. However, in this study
values of EIRP which is transmitted and its gain as well as at
what height of antenna should be installed is not defined [3].
The study titled Estimation of peak power density of
electromagnetic radiation in near and far fields for 2G and 3G
base station in Albania done by Cela et.al (2012), this study
discussed on the safety distance from cellular base stations
operating at 900MHz, 1800MHz and 2100MHz has been done
by using a simplified theoretical way considering ideal
conditions for wave propagation. The study also hasn’t actual
readings from the field as well as identify physical dimension
for the surface even the time taken for capture the entire
readings [4].
The study done by Kaur et.al, 2012 on the effect of
permittivity and conductivity of tissue on SAR of
electromagnetic radiations shows, how the Voltage Standing
Wave Ratio (VSWR) and return loss from 900MHz
communication frequency on simulated antenna for analyzing
its effect in terms of variation in specific absorption rate
(SAR) of EMF radiation in human tissue at different
permittivity and conductivity has different effects accordingly.
this study does not indicate whether the permittivity and
conductivity are affected by distance variation from the source
[5].
The study done by Kamo et al.(2011) shows; the relationship
between theoretical values with exposure limits for both public
and occupational from cellular base stations, FM, UHF and
WiMAX antennas as well as suggest the possible safety
distance from those antennas. The study based on estimated
readings and not actual readings from the field [6].
Electromagnetic radiation from mobile phone base station at
Gaza was the study aimed to highlight relevant international
work and develop the computer tool which can simplify
estimating and measuring EMF level in the city. The tool
developed had to store the BTS parameters and coordinates in
a database, and then it generates tables and maps that illustrate
EMF level estimated theoretically. It doesn’t define whether
the level was on safety zone or unsafe distance rather than
generate the maps and tables.[7].
The level of power density varies with the increase of gain as
well as the power of transmitter was shown on the study done
by Al-Bazzaz, 2008. In this study theoretical assessment of
electric field strength and power density performed on
locations tens of meters away from mobile phone base station
antennas was presented. This study also doesn’t show the
safety zone [8].
3. METHODOLOGY
In this study we have done a field work on measuring power
density at discrete levels by using Selective Radiation Hazard
Meter (SRM) – Narda 3006 which has the ability to allocate
the geographical location where the object located in terms of
latitude and longitude as well as to quantify the value of power
density. By having these two locations for source and object
then the discrete distance was obtained by using the
‘haversine’ formula. This formula is more applicable in
calculating the great-circle distance between the two points.
The haversine formula is given by equation (2), (3) and (4).
2
2
2.1
2
2;
SinCosCosSinaGivenby
, (2)
aaac 1,tan
2.2
, (3)
cRd . , (4)
Where; φ is latitude, λ is longitude, R is Earth’s radius (mean
radius = 6,371km). All angles are in radians
3.1 Measurement of Power Density from Cellular
Towers
Undertaking the measurements by SRM, the operating
procedure is followed. The equipment was installed with
software which has the ability of downloading the data as well
as to identify the geographical location in terms of latitude and
longitude with the help of building GPS. On setting the
frequency span GSM 900MHz was on the range of 890MHz to
3. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 196
960MHz, where GSM 1800MHz was on the span of 1790MHz
up to 1880MHz the Resolution Bandwidth (RBW) was 17.5
and 450 respectively according to the manufacturer guidelines.
The standard was observed for the Europe as per setting on the
equipment.
On measuring technique the very high lobe should be detected
so that the maximum power density can be obtained as shown
on the figure 1.The detection of main lobe is done by visual
and sweeping the measuring tool to detect the appropriate
direction of the very high lobe.[9]
Figure 1: Radiation Pattern of Cell Tower Antennas
Table 2 and 3 shows the measurements obtained for GSM900
and GSM1800 antenna at the field area
Table 2: Mbauda Cellular tower, Tanzania – Actual data readings on 05/29/2013 at 10hrs
Latitude[S] Longitude[E]
Power Density [µW/m²]
Distance[m]
900MHz 1800MHz
3°22'50.5'' 36°39'34.0'' 974.30 054.01 00.00
3°22'50.8'' 36°39'34.0'' 936.52 281.43 09.27
3°22'51.3'' 36°39'34.0'' 445 .00 267.25 24.71
3°22'51.6'' 36°39'34.0'' 004.06 049.59 33.98
3°22'52.1'' 36°39'34.0'' 012.01 053.35 49.42
Table 3: Mrombo Cellular tower, Tanzania – Actual data readings on 05/29/2013 at 14hrs
Latitude [S] Longitude [E]
Power Density [µW/m²]
Distance [m]
900MHz 1800MHz
3°25'09.2'' 36°39'25.0'' 41.30 259.90 00.00
3°25'09.5'' 36°39'24.8'' 64.00 148.60 09.27
3°25'09.7'' 36°39'24.6'' 35.80 198.20 15.44
3°25'10.0'' 36°39'24.4'' 59.30 146.50 24.71
3°25'10.2'' 36°39'24.1'' 46.01 118.90 30.89
The values in table 2 and 3 are very small compared to the
limit exposure provided by the ICNIRP as shown on table 1
above. The measured value readings vary with respect to
distance and time, which lead to stochastic readings.
3.2 Derivation of Model Equations
In this study we derive the power density received at
destination in free space path loss for one and two antenna and
generalize with n-antenna and consider the case when the
height of object h0 is defined. We study the effect when the
distance of object increases and the height changes.
CASE 1: Single Tower
Consider the case of single tower in a free space, a case
common in rural/remote area.
Figure 2: Single tower with an object.
4. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 197
The power density at point on the ground at a distance, x
metres from the tower is given by the equation:
R
GtPt
Pd 24
(5)
Where; Pd means power density from cellular tower in
W/m2.
pt and Gt are power and gain from transmitters in dBm and
dB respectively and R the distance from transmission tower to
object at ground level in metre. When the height of the tower h
in metre and the distance of the point x in metre from the
tower are known, then we have;
hxR 222 (6)
Thus, we have;
hx
GtPt
Pd 224
(7)
Figure 4.3 shows the power density of Pt = 16dBm and
20dBm with a gain Gt = 17dB. These values were used
because many service providers of cellular network use Pt in a
range of 16dBm to 20dBm
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
x 10
-4
Distance from base to object in metres (m)
PowerDensityinW/m2
Pt = 16dBm
Pt = 20dBm
Figure 2: Power density versus distance of a point for Pt =
16dBm, 20dBm and a gain Gt = 17dB
The graph shows that power density decrease with the increase
in distance of a point from the tower, and at some point the
power density attains a constant minimum value.
If the equation (5) is modified to consider the height, h0, of an
object (like a house or human), then power density at the top
of the house is given by:
r
GtPt
Pd 24
(8)
But
)(
222 hohxr
(9)
Then equation (8) become;
hohx
GtPt
Pd
224
(10)
Figure 4. Shows the variation of power density at the top of an
object of 3 metres height for antenna with Pt = 16dBm,
20dBm, and 25dBm. Field data for GSM900 and GSM1800
has been plotted together to enable comparison with
theoretical values. The graph shows that power densities from
the field were less than the theoretical power densities
produced by an antenna of Pt = 25dBm.
0 50 100 150
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
x 10
-3
Distance from base to object in metres (m)
PowerDensityinW/m2
Pt = 16dBm
Pt = 20dBm
Pt = 25dBm
GSM900
GSM1800
Figure 3: Power Density with fixed height of object ho=3m in
various Pt
To compute the total power density absorbed by an object of
height h0, we use the idea of calculus, and show that the total
power density is given by
Total Power Density =
x
hh
x
hGtPt
ho
Pd
0
arctanarctan
40
(11)
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Remember that this formula is applicable only when h0 is
defined otherwise the total power for h0 = 0 is computed from
equation (5).
Figure 5. Shows the total power density at the top of various
object heights from 3m to 10m. It can be seen that total power
density increases with the height of an object
.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Height of object in metres (m)
TotalAccumulatedPowerDensityinW/m2
Pt = 16dBm
Pt = 20dBm
Figure 4: Total Power Density for object with height from
h0=3m to 10m
CASE 2: Two Towers
Consider two towers that generate and transmit power at P1
and P2. Let the respective height of towers be h1 and h2 and
x1 and x2 be the horizontal distance of the object from the two
towers respectively. The power density at a particular point on
the ground will be the sum of the power densities from the two
antennas.
Figure 5: Power Density to an object from two towersFrom
Pythagoras theorem, we have
xhR 2
1
2
1
2
1
(12)
xhR 2
2
2
2
2
2
(13)
The power density for each antenna from the two towers is
given by
R
GP
Pd 2
1
11
1,
4
(14)
R
GP
Pd 2
2
22
2,
4
(15)
By substituting equation (12) and (13) into equation (14) and
(15) then it becomes
xh
GP
Pd 2
1
2
14
11
1,
(16)
xh
GP
Pd 2
2
2
24
22
2,
(17)
The average power density at a point from the two antennas is
given by
xh
GP
xh
GP
PdPdPd 2
2
2
2
22
2
1
2
1
11
4
1
2,1,
(18)
Figure 7. Shows that power density depends on the distance of
an object from the antenna. That is, power density decreases as
the density increases
.
Figure 6: Graph of Power Density at a object from two
antennaWhen the height of object is considered then the
expression (18) is derived as shown on equation (19) and its
relation is illustrated in the graph figure 8.
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xhh
GP
xhh
GP
PdPdPd
2
202
2
22
2
101
2
11
4
1
2,1,
(19)
Figure 8 shows the variation of power density at the top of an
object of height 3m situated at a distance x1 and x2 from the
two antennas of height h1 and h2 respectively.
Figure 7: Power Density from two towers for an object at a
height ho=3m
CASE 3: For n towers
n
i Ri
GiPi
P id
1
24
,
(20)
For
hixiRi
222
(21)
Then,
n
i hixi
GiPi
P id
1
224
,
(22)
If height of object h0 is considered
Therefore;
n
i hhixi
GiPi
P id
1 0
224
,
(23)
n
i hhixi
GiPi
P id
1
0
224
1
,
(24)
Note: The equation (24) is a general expression which can be
used to determine the power density at any point for an object
with height 0 to h0 provided that power transmitted and the
gains of antenna as well as the distance from the transmitter
are known.
3.3 Computation and Validation of safety zone
There are a number of national and international regulations
standards and recommendations dealing with electromagnetic
exposure in the radio frequency range. The limits are generally
very similar and usually based on recommendation from the
World Health Organization (WHO) and the International
Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)
guidelines. It is shows that the limits have been set with a wide
margin in order to protect people from any known negative
health effects of both short and long term exposure to
electromagnetic field. Basic restrictions on exposure are
provided for both occupational exposure and public exposure.
The standard posed by ICNIRP guidance for public exposure
limits is 9.2W/m2
for GSM 1800MHz and 4.7 W/m2
for GSM
900MHz. However, these limits can be tolerable if the person
is exposed for few seconds and not for permanent exposure
[10].
Consider a case of a human lying on the bed of 2m2
the hip or
height made by the body taken to be negligible. Then, the
power absorbed is given by exposure limits times the surface
area.
For GSM 1800 power density;
WW mmPd
4.182.92
22
For GSM 900 power density;
WW mmPd
4.97.42
22
If time is considered then power absorbed
For 30min. exposure in GSM 1800;
JouleWPd
120,33sec)6030(4.18
For 30min. exposure in GSM 900;
JouleWPd
920,16sec)6030(4.9
If the exposure provided is compared with the exposure from
the microwave cooker of 500W then;
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For GSM 1800 the exposure will be =
sec670500sec.33120 WW
While the exposure for GSM 900 will be =
sec84.33500sec.16920 WW
This exposure time is high for a person who is exposed for the
long time. We need to look for the minimum distance for
tolerable exposure. To do this we apply the standard given by
EMF-Exposure-Guidelines-For-Sleeping-Areas[11]which
recommend the maximum exposure of 10 μW/m² to be of less
concern as shown on the table below.
Table 4: Exposure guidelines for sleeping area
Power density in
microwatt
No Concern Slight Concern Severe Concern Extreme
Concern
per square meter μW/m² < 0.1 0.1-10 10 - 1000 > 1000
per square cm μW/cm² < 0.000,01 0.000,01 - 0.001 0.001 - 0.1 > 0.1
Figure 9; shows the minimum distance where an object can
live with less concern of exposure. The distance is obtained by
the point at which the graph for power densities meets the line
Pd = 10 μW/m² shown by black line above zero power density.
This distance is the safety distance to live. The safety zone
depends on the power transmitted by the antenna [11].
Thus for the power transmitted;
dBmPt 16 is 120m
And for power transmitted;
dBmPt 20 is 190m as shown
on the figure 9.
Therefore more the power of transmitter the far the safety zone
occur.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
x 10
-4
Distance from base to object in metres (m)
PowerDensityinW/m2
Pt = 16dBm
Pt = 20dBm
Min
Figure 8: Graph of Power densities versus distance with
safety zone defined.
4. FINDINGS, RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Findings Regard the Measurements
To gain understanding of the power densities at different point
from the antenna, measurement of power density were made at
discrete distances from the transmission towers. Due to
geographical limitations, geographical locations were taken
and later converted to distances as it has been explained in
Section 3 subsection A. The results show that the power
densities depend on the distance from the antenna. That is, the
longer the distance the smaller the power density and that the
power density is maximum at the tower. The results also show
that the power density at a point from an antenna depended on
the application. That it, the power density from a GSM900
application was different from the GSM1800 application.
Numerical analysis reveals that the power received by the
object varies directly proportional with the power transmitted
by the source and inversely proportional with its square
distance from the source. The greater the power transmitted,
the longer the distance to the safety zone, and hence it
becomes severe to live near the source.
4.2 Findings Regard the Safety Zone
To develop a model for cellular tower radiations several
parameters were considered including the power transmitted
by an antenna, the gain of an antenna, the allowable exposure
for both GSM900 and GSM1800 and the surface area
occupied by an object. The results show that the safety zone
will much depend on the power transmitted by the antenna
given the same antenna gain. From our study the safety zone
for transmitted power of 16dBm was 120m and for 20dBm
was 190m for a gain of antenna of 17dB,
To validate the model measurement taken from the field were
plotted together with the theoretical values. The data for
GSM900 were below the graph corresponding to Pt = 25dBm
and those from GSM1800 were below the graph
corresponding to Pt = 20dBm.
Furthermore, the results show that all the measurements taken
within 50m from the antenna in the field were above the
minimum exposure of 10 μW/m² for sleeping areas.
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The results obtained in this study for safety zone are far
greater than those obtained by Kamo et al (2012) which were
between 12.9 to 46.3 meters from antenna for GSM900,
1800.respectively, the difference is due to exposure limits used
where Kamo used 9W/m2
and 4.5W/m2
exposure limits from
ICNIRP guidelines recommendation [6].
4.3 Results and Conclusions
The results regarding the safety zone shows that the safety
zone depend on the power transmitted by the antenna for the
same antenna gain. The safety zone for transmitted power of
16dBm was 120m and for 20dBm was 190m for a gain of
antenna of 17dB with the fixed height of antenna 30m above
the ground. All field measurements taken within 50m from the
antenna in the field were above the minimum exposure of
10 μW/m² for sleeping areas.
The measurements of power densities at the field and the
model has been presented to give an estimate of the safety
zone for people living in close vicinity to wireless cellular
towers. Different analyses have been carried out before
estimating the safety zone. Results have shown that safety
zone depends on the power transmitted by the antenna.
However, for a power of 16dBm taken to be the smallest, the
safety zone was 120m from the tower. This call for a concern
for people living in the close vicinity and respective
authorities should ensure that people reside far from the tower
by 120m or more depending on the power transmitted to avoid
severe health effect.
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