This document summarizes innate immunity and the process of phagocytosis. It describes how phagocytic cells like macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes recognize, engulf, and destroy foreign particles and microbes. A key mechanism is the respiratory burst during phagocytosis, where phagocytes increase oxygen consumption and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) to kill engulfed microbes. This is achieved through activation of the NADPH oxidase enzyme complex in the phagocyte cell membrane, which generates superoxide from oxygen and NADPH. Superoxide and other ROS/RNI are microbicidal or help generate microbicidal molecules like hypochlorous acid. Strict regulation
The complement system is a part of the immune system that helps or complements the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
consists of three pathways: 1. alternative
2. classical
3. lectin pathway
The complement system is a part of the immune system that helps or complements the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
consists of three pathways: 1. alternative
2. classical
3. lectin pathway
introduction of adaptive immunity. classification of adaptive immunity, factor affecting it and mechanism of adaptive immunity comparison between adaptive immunity and innate immunity. characteristic of adaptive immunity . cell mediated immune responses immunoglobulins
types of immunoglobulins. functions of immunoglobulins, hypersensitivity reactions
IMMUNE RESPONSE TO TUMORS-Humoral immunity
-Cellular Immunity- Failure of Host Defenses
- Evasion of Immune Responses by Tumors
- Cancer Immunosurveillance vs Immunoediting- Immunotherapy
Cytokine Receptors, Mohammad Mufarreh AliMMufarreh
A detailed description of the nature, types, and mechanisms of action of cytokine receptors.
Describes the different functions of cytokines and their role in the regulation of the immune response.
Cytokine receptor signalling and their regulation and the role of cytokines in disease is also covered briefly.
introduction of adaptive immunity. classification of adaptive immunity, factor affecting it and mechanism of adaptive immunity comparison between adaptive immunity and innate immunity. characteristic of adaptive immunity . cell mediated immune responses immunoglobulins
types of immunoglobulins. functions of immunoglobulins, hypersensitivity reactions
IMMUNE RESPONSE TO TUMORS-Humoral immunity
-Cellular Immunity- Failure of Host Defenses
- Evasion of Immune Responses by Tumors
- Cancer Immunosurveillance vs Immunoediting- Immunotherapy
Cytokine Receptors, Mohammad Mufarreh AliMMufarreh
A detailed description of the nature, types, and mechanisms of action of cytokine receptors.
Describes the different functions of cytokines and their role in the regulation of the immune response.
Cytokine receptor signalling and their regulation and the role of cytokines in disease is also covered briefly.
Nrf2 Transcription Factor- Nuclear Factor- Erythroid 2 related factor)PHARMA IQ EDUCATION
1. Nrf2- transcription factor
2. Reactive Oxygen Species
3. Free Radicals
4. Antioxidant Defence Mechanism
5. Function of Nrf2 receptor
6. Protein structural domain of Nrf2
7. Protein structural domain of Keap1
8. Physiological Role pf Nrf2
9.
THANK YOU
Richard Altman, occurrence of mitochondria and called them bioblast.
Greek word mitos stands for thread and chondros means granule (Carl Benda )
Mitochondria can be created only by the division of the pre-existing mitochondria
Mitochondria are membrane-bound eukaryotic organelles that produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in the process of oxidative phosphorylation and tricarboxylic acid cycle.
Involved in regulation of programmed cell death and response to increased oxidative stress produced as a result of high salt, cold and drought conditions
Mitochondrion of land plants is not only almost 100 times larger than the animal mitochondrion
Circular (linear in some fungi and protozoa)
Double stranded
Supercoiled
No histones
Multiple copies located in nucleoids
Contain DNA which codes for mitochondrial proteins, ribosomes, etc.
Divide by a process similar to binary fission when cell divides
In plants the mitochondrial genes may become separated onto different circular molecules by a process of intramolecular recombination
This recombination is mediated by repetitive sequences located in the mtDNA.
An exchange between two of the repetitive sequences can partition the master DNA circle into two smaller circles
Says about most important free radicals and main physiologic roles of free radicals(on transduction and transcriptional gene factors), about stress oxidative , effects of stress oxidative on some common cochlear anthologies and its related processes
. INTRODUCTION
Insecticides are chemicals specifically designed to kill or control insect populations. They are widely used in agriculture, public health, and other industries to protect crops, livestock, and human health from insect-related damage and diseases. Once applied, insecticides undergo various metabolic processes in insects, which can affect their effectiveness and potential environmental impact.
The metabolism of insecticides in insects involves several key mechanisms:
1. Absorption: Insecticides can enter an insect's body through various routes, such as ingestion, contact with the exoskeleton, or inhalation. The mode of entry depends on the formulation and application method of the insecticide.
2. Phase I metabolism: In this initial phase, insecticides are often transformed by enzymes into more polar compounds through processes such as oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis. These metabolic reactions aim to make the insecticides more water-soluble and facilitate their elimination from the body.
3. Phase II metabolism: Once insecticides undergo phase I metabolism, they may be further conjugated with endogenous compounds such as sugars, amino acids, or glutathione. Conjugation reactions increase the water solubility of the insecticides even more, making them easier to excrete from the insect's body.
4. Detoxification mechanisms: Insects have developed various enzymatic systems to break down insecticides and render them less toxic. For example, insects possess enzymes like cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, esterases, and glutathione-S-transferases, which are involved in the detoxification of many insecticides. These enzymes can modify the chemical structure of insecticides, making them less harmful to the insect.
5. Excretion: Once metabolized, insecticides and their metabolites are eliminated from the insect's body. This process generally occurs through excretory organs such as Malpighian tubules, which function similarly to the kidneys in vertebrates. Insecticides and their metabolites can be excreted in the faeces, urine, or through other excretory pathways.
Microsomal oxidation refers to a type of metabolic reaction that occurs in the microsomes, which are subcellular organelles found in cells. Microsomes contain various enzymes, including cytochrome P450 enzymes, responsible for catalyzing oxidative reactions in the body.
A. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a family of enzymes involved in the metabolism of a wide range of endogenous and exogenous compounds, including pesticides, toxins, and foreign substances. These enzymes play a crucial role in the oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis of various molecules, making them more water-soluble and easier to eliminate from the body.
B. Microsomal oxidation mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes involves the addition of an oxygen atom to a substrate molecule, resulting in the oxidation of the substrate.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
6. Phagocytosis is an Innate defense mechanism is
ingestion of extracellular particles
It is conducted by specialized cells such as
Blood Monocytes
Neutrophils and
Tissue Macrophages
7. Recognition
Adherence
Ingestion using Pseudopodia
Phagosome
Phagolysosome
Destruction of Microbes
10. Activation of Macrophages synthesizes
Lysozyme
Defensins
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and
Other hydrolytic enzymes
11. Activated phagocytes produce a number of Reactive
Oxygen Intermediates & Reactive Nitrogen
Intermediate
When exposed to certain stimuli, phagocytes
(Neutrophils, Eosinophils & Macrophages)
Oxygen uptake increase greatly, some times more
than 50 fold; undergoes a series of changes
“Respiratory Burst”
12. “Respiratory Burst” occurs during:
Activation of macrophages during phagocytosis
Abrupt rise in Oxygen consumption
Increase Glucose consumption (HMP pathway)
Large amount of ROI
Activation of NADPH oxidase/Phagocyte oxidase
13.
14. “NADPH Oxidase:
It is also called as Respiratory burst
oxidase/Phagocyte oxidase
Present in membrane associated of phagocytic cells
Catalyzes one-electron reduction of oxygen to O2202 + NADPH
202- + 2H+
202- + NADP+ + H+
H202- + 02
Glucose is metabolized through HMP to generate
NADPH
15. “NADPH Oxidase:
Originally it is discovered by Babior in 1973
It is having five major components in its structure
2 Membrane components
3 Cytosolic components
Guanine nucleotide binding proteins
16. Membrane Components:
It is having 2 subuints:
(p22PHOX & gp91PHOX)
Distributed in membrane of secretory vesicles &
specific granules, associated with a heterodimeric
flavohemoprotein
FlavoCytochromeb558 (1 FAD & 2 Hemes)
Rac2 in resting cell is located in cytoplasm in a dimeric
complex with Rho-GDI & Rac1 located in membrane
PHagocyte
Oxidase
17. Cytosolic Components:
It is having 3 subuints:
p40PHOX, p47PHOX & p67PHOX
Guanine nucleotide binding proteins: Rac2 & Rac1
Rac2 in resting cell is located in cytoplasm in a dimeric
complex with Rho-GDI
Rac1 located in membrane
Guanine nucleotide Dissociation
Inhibitor
PHagocyte
Oxidase
18. Sequences
of Events:
External Stimuli:
LPS in Bacteria
Phosphorylation of p47PHOX
p47PHOX:p67PHOX:p40PHOX migrates to
membrane
Association with Cytochromeb558 to assemble
active Oxidase
21. Properties & Functions of Oxidase components:
Cytochromeb558:
It is a heterodimer containing one of each kind of subunit
& contains 1 FAD & 2 Heme groups
In enzyme bound FAD having Isoalloxazine act as
electron carrier/donar
Cytosolic components:
p40PHOX is responsible for transporting cytosolic
components from cytosol to membrane during Oxidase
activation
22. Function of p67PHOX has been mystery
p67PHOX facilitates e- transfer from flavin of
cytochromeb558 in absence of P40phox
In the presence of p40PHOX, p67PHOX transfer ebeyond the flavin centre to heme in cytochrome & then
transfers to oxygen
p67PHOX in oxidase shows it is having catalytically
essential binding site for NADPH
23. Small Guanine nucleotide binding proteins:
Rac2, Rap1A are low m.w of G-proteins
Rac2 is a member of Rho family where as Rap1A
Ras family, it regulates cell proliferation
Rac2 having effector region (residues 26-45) &
insert region (residue 125-145) is bind to p67PHOX
but not p47PHOX
24. Superoxide (O2¯• ) –
No direct effects on targets
Penetrates important sites
Subsequently converted to other ROI
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) –
Dismutation of superoxide radical
2H + + 2O2¯•
SOD
H2O2 + O2
(SuperOxide Dismutase)
Reacts with thiols
Bacteriocidal only at higher concentrations
Secondary oxidants from H2O2 responsible for killing
25. Hydroxyl Radicals (OH•) – Fenton Reaction
Fe 2+ +H2O2
Fe 3+ + OH¯ + OH•
OH• as a major component of neutrophil bacteriocidal
arsenal is controversial
Limited radius of action
Secondary radicals from bicarbonate and chloride,
which may have biological activity
Singlet Oxygen (O21) –
Electronically excited state of oxygen
Thought to be produced from reaction of H2O2 with
HOCl
26. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) mediated Halogenation
Present in cytoplasmic granules at very high
concentrations
Most H2O2 consumed by MPO
Heme Peroxidase, uses H2O2 to oxidize variety of
compounds
Unique property – oxidizes Cl ¯to HOCl
MPO
H2O2 + HCl
HOCl¯ + H2O
27. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
Most bacteriocidal oxidant known to be produced
Bacterial targets – Fe-S proteins, membrane
transport proteins, ATP generating system
Chloramines
Generated indirectly through reactions of HOCl with
amines
Highly bacteriocidal
H+ + OCl¯ + R-NH2
RNHCl + OH¯
28. Activated macrophages express high levels of Nitric oxide
synthase (NOS)
NOS catalyzes:
L-arginine + O2 + NADPH
NO + L-citrulline +NADP+
NO has potent antimicrobial activity
Can combine with O2¯• to yield more potent antimicrobial
substances (Peroxynitrites)
NO + 2O2¯•
ONOO¯
29. Microbial killing mainly ROI dependent in phagocytic cells
RNI may play role in cells with deficiencies of NADPH
oxidase/MPO pathways
NO can react with ROI to give more potent cytotoxic
species
May facilitate migration of phagocytic cells from blood
vessels to surrounding tissues by causing vasodilation
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36. O2- generated by oxidase, serves as a starting material
for production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Production has to be tightly regulated to make sure they
are only generated when & where required